160:(radius < 3 Earth radii) from Neptunes (radius > 3 Earth radii). This is thought to arise because, during formation when gas is accreting, the atmospheres of planets of that size reach the pressures required to force the hydrogen into the magma ocean, stalling radius growth. Then, once the magma ocean saturates, radius growth can continue. However, planets that have enough gas to reach saturation are much rarer, because they require much more gas.
2585:
2609:
2561:
2597:
24:
2573:
1345:
139:
larger than approximately 1.6 Earth-radius (and more massive than approximately 6 Earth-masses) contain significant amounts of volatiles or H–He gas, likely acquired during formation. Such planets appear to have a diversity of compositions that is not well-explained by a single mass–radius relation as that found for denser, rocky planets.
381:
Fabrycky, Daniel C.; Lissauer, Jack J.; Ragozzine, Darin; Rowe, Jason F.; Steffen, Jason H.; Agol, Eric; Barclay, Thomas; Batalha, Natalie; Borucki, William; Ciardi, David R.; Ford, Eric B.; Gautier, Thomas N.; Geary, John C.; Holman, Matthew J.; Jenkins, Jon M.; Li, Jie; Morehead, Robert C.; Morris,
138:
instead. An estimated dividing line between a rocky planet and a gaseous planet is around 1.6–2.0 Earth radii. Planets with larger radii and measured masses are mostly low-density and require an extended atmosphere to simultaneously explain their masses and radii, and observations show that planets
335:
De Mooij, E. J. W.; Brogi, M.; De Kok, R. J.; Koppenhoefer, J.; Nefs, S. V.; Snellen, I. A. G.; Greiner, J.; Hanse, J.; Heinsbroek, R. C.; Lee, C. H.; Van Der Werf, P. P. (2012). "Optical to near-infrared transit observations of super-Earth GJ 1214b: Water-world or mini-Neptune?".
498:
Fulton, Benjamin J.; Petigura, Erik A.; Howard, Andrew W.; Isaacson, Howard; Marcy, Geoffrey W.; Cargile, Phillip A.; Hebb, Leslie; Weiss, Lauren M.; Johnson, John Asher; Morton, Timothy D.; Sinukoff, Evan; Crossfield, Ian J. M.; Hirsch, Lea A. (2017).
2338:
2333:
1174:
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2323:
188:
that indicates either a substantial water content or possibly a thick gas envelope. However, more recent evidence suggests that it may be more dense than previously thought, and could be an
850:
Swift, D. C.; Eggert, J. H.; Hicks, D. G.; Hamel, S.; Caspersen, K.; Schwegler, E.; Collins, G. W.; Nettelmann, N.; Ackland, G. J. (2012). "Mass-Radius
Relationships for Exoplanets".
2318:
1181:
Barnes, Rory; Jackson, Brian; Raymond, Sean N.; West, Andrew A.; Greenberg, Richard (January 13, 2009). "The HD 40307 Planetary System: Super-Earths or Mini-Neptunes?".
2480:
2345:
797:
Feng Tian; Toon, Owen B.; Pavlov, Alexander A.; De Sterck, H. (March 10, 2005). "Transonic hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen from extrasolar planetary atmospheres".
443:
D'Angelo, G.; Bodenheimer, P. (2013). "Three-Dimensional
Radiation-Hydrodynamics Calculations of the Envelopes of Young Planets Embedded in Protoplanetary Disks".
142:
The lower limit for mass can vary widely for different planets depending on their compositions; the dividing mass can vary from as low as one to as high as 20
153:
than larger planets and planets farther out. A low-mass gas planet can still have a radius resembling that of a gas giant if it has the right temperature.
2372:
134:
Theoretical studies of such planets are loosely based on knowledge about Uranus and
Neptune. Without a thick atmosphere, they would be classified as an
2157:
2152:
2313:
1776:
1144:
430:
2080:
1234:
2051:
1634:
897:"A Spectroscopic Analysis of the California-Kepler Survey Sample. I. Stellar Parameters, Planetary Radii, and a Slope in the Radius Gap"
2367:
1911:
1319:
2087:
2350:
2187:
1916:
156:
Neptune-like planets are considerably rarer than sub-Neptunes, despite being only slightly bigger. This "radius cliff" separates
2034:
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2167:
1071:
Jontof-Hutter, D; Rowe, J; et al. (18 June 2015). "Mass of the Mars-sized
Exoplanet Kepler-138b from Transit Timing".
1901:
2213:
2147:
1261:
1580:
689:
Marcy, Geoffrey W.; Weiss, Lauren M.; Petigura, Erik A.; Isaacson, Howard; Howard, Andrew W.; Buchhave, Lars A. (2014).
2505:
2355:
2162:
2039:
644:
Weiss, Lauren M.; Marcy, Geoffrey W. (2014). "The Mass-Radius
Relation for 65 Exoplanets Smaller Than 4 Earth Radii".
2538:
2172:
1132:
Earth-mass exoplanet is no Earth twin – Gaseous planet challenges assumption that Earth-mass planets should be rocky
2233:
2223:
1711:
1006:
2308:
2259:
2182:
2021:
1324:
956:
Batygin, Konstantin; Stevenson, David J. (2013). "Mass-Radius
Relationships for Very Low Mass Gaseous Planets".
550:
Dressing, Courtney D.; et al. (2015). "THE MASS OF Kepler-93b AND THE COMPOSITION OF TERRESTRIAL PLANETS".
2264:
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2046:
1706:
382:
Robert L.; Shporer, Avi; Smith, Jeffrey C.; Still, Martin; Van Cleve, Jeffrey (2014). "ARCHITECTURE OF
2533:
2283:
1951:
1736:
1620:
445:
819:
2293:
2238:
2099:
1991:
1886:
1646:
1289:
149:. Smaller gas planets and planets closer to their star will lose atmospheric mass more quickly via
2006:
2515:
2218:
2142:
1716:
1254:
78:
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2228:
2109:
1721:
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814:
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1966:
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359:
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287:
8:
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1826:
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1540:
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1334:
691:"Occurrence and core-envelope structure of 1–4× Earth-size planets around Sun-like stars"
150:
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395:
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305:
277:
101:
581:
501:"The California-Kepler Survey. III. A Gap in the Radius Distribution of Small Planets"
417:
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1504:
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1448:
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1118:
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987:
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783:
730:
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484:
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309:
300:
265:
1220:
386:'S MULTI-TRANSITING SYSTEMS. II. NEW INVESTIGATIONS WITH TWICE AS MANY CANDIDATES".
2565:
2500:
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2011:
2001:
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1811:
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1021:
931:
896:
895:
Martinez, Cintia F.; Cunha, Katia; Ghezzi, Luan; Smith, Verne V. (2019-04-10).
535:
500:
2623:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1656:
1595:
1550:
1489:
1484:
1459:
1394:
1384:
1374:
236:
216:
58:
atmosphere, probably with deep layers of ice, rock or liquid oceans (made of
748:
Marcy, Geoffrey W.; et al. (2014). "MASSES, RADII, AND ORBITS OF SMALL
725:
690:
2577:
2132:
2117:
1996:
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1565:
1555:
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734:
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135:
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1430:
1415:
1410:
1404:
1020:
Kite, Edwin S.; Bruce Fegley Jr.; Schaefer, Laura; Ford, Eric B. (2019).
323:
Three regimes of extrasolar planets inferred from host star metallicities
241:
231:
226:
211:
206:
169:
157:
93:
82:
17:
1177:, Victoria Jaggard, National Geographic News, Published February 2, 2011
1102:
941:
2029:
1796:
1570:
1494:
1420:
1399:
1022:"Superabundance of Exoplanet Sub-Neptunes Explained by Fugacity Crisis"
221:
173:
74:
70:
1479:
1474:
1440:
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1314:
123:
119:
97:
77:
that has accumulated a thick envelope of hydrogen, helium, and other
1869:
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913:
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517:
282:
51:
1195:
970:
864:
766:
707:
658:
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459:
400:
350:
168:
The smallest known extrasolar planet that might be a gas dwarf is
1881:
549:
63:
47:
1019:
2192:
1520:
1344:
1279:
334:
55:
1239:
380:
59:
796:
497:
442:
266:"In Situ and Ex Situ Formation Models of Kepler 11 Planets"
263:
23:
2572:
688:
259:
257:
81:, having, as a result, a total radius between 1.7 and 3.9
2481:
1180:
1175:
Six New
Planets: Mini-Neptunes Found Around Sunlike Star
894:
752:
PLANETS: THE TRANSITION FROM GASEOUS TO ROCKY PLANETS".
176:
but has a 60% larger volume and therefore has a density
747:
436:
254:
2549:
849:
27:
Artist's conception of a mini-Neptune or "gas dwarf"
431:
When Does an
Exoplanet's Surface Become Earth-Like?
1145:"Scientists may have found the first water worlds"
2158:Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems
2153:Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems
1070:
31:Planet smaller than Neptune with a gas atmosphere
2621:
1777:List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
955:
1007:"Why are there so many sub-Neptune exoplanets?"
695:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
96:-based classification regime for short-period
50:but resembling Neptune in that it has a thick
1255:
1064:
888:
433:, blogs.scientificamerican.com, 20 June 2012
66:, a mixture of both, or heavier volatiles).
754:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
1262:
1248:
643:
1320:Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters
1194:
1084:
1055:
1037:
969:
940:
930:
912:
863:
818:
765:
724:
706:
657:
612:
599:1.6 EARTH-RADIUS PLANETS ARE NOT ROCKY".
563:
534:
516:
458:
399:
349:
299:
281:
2188:List of potentially habitable exoplanets
1001:
999:
997:
907:(1). American Astronomical Society: 29.
22:
2622:
1142:
594:
264:D'Angelo, G.; Bodenheimer, P. (2016).
2496:Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets
1243:
994:
92:). The term is used in a three-tier,
2178:Habitability of yellow dwarf systems
2168:Habitability of neutron star systems
2521:Sudarsky's gas giant classification
2148:Habitability of binary star systems
13:
2506:Nexus for Exoplanet System Science
2163:Habitability of natural satellites
1168:
111:and planets greater than 3.9
14:
2646:
2173:Habitability of red dwarf systems
1228:
1143:Timmer, John (15 December 2022).
1026:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
100:, which also includes the rocky,
2607:
2595:
2583:
2571:
2559:
2270:Stars with proto-planetary discs
2234:NASA Star and Exoplanet Database
2224:Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia
1712:Extraterrestrial sample curation
1343:
46:) is a planet less massive than
2183:Habitable zone for complex life
1621:Ultra-short period planet (USP)
1325:Methods of detecting exoplanets
1136:
1125:
1013:
949:
843:
790:
741:
682:
637:
2364:Discovered exoplanets by year
1269:
1235:Super-Earths or Mini-Neptunes?
588:
543:
491:
424:
374:
328:
316:
1:
2491:Extrasolar planets in fiction
2138:Extraterrestrial liquid water
247:
129:
2511:Planets in globular clusters
2128:Circumstellar habitable zone
1213:10.1088/0004-637X/695/2/1006
338:Astronomy & Astrophysics
7:
2471:Exoplanet naming convention
1581:Planet/Brown dwarf boundary
595:Rogers, Leslie A. (2015). "
582:10.1088/0004-637X/800/2/135
418:10.1088/0004-637X/790/2/146
368:10.1051/0004-6361/201117205
195:
163:
10:
2651:
1707:Extraterrestrial materials
1341:
988:10.1088/2041-8205/769/1/L9
882:10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/59
784:10.1088/0067-0049/210/2/20
676:10.1088/2041-8205/783/1/L6
631:10.1088/0004-637X/801/1/41
477:10.1088/0004-637X/778/1/77
301:10.3847/0004-637X/828/1/33
15:
2534:Discoveries of exoplanets
2529:
2458:
2247:
2206:
2108:
2020:
1927:
1860:
1737:Interplanetary dust cloud
1633:
1513:
1439:
1365:
1352:
1307:
1275:
1183:The Astrophysical Journal
958:The Astrophysical Journal
901:The Astrophysical Journal
852:The Astrophysical Journal
799:The Astrophysical Journal
646:The Astrophysical Journal
601:The Astrophysical Journal
552:The Astrophysical Journal
446:The Astrophysical Journal
388:The Astrophysical Journal
270:The Astrophysical Journal
2239:Open Exoplanet Catalogue
2214:Nearby Habitable Systems
2100:Transit-timing variation
1057:10.3847/2041-8213/ab59d9
932:10.3847/1538-4357/ab0d93
536:10.3847/1538-3881/aa80eb
505:The Astronomical Journal
104:with less than 1.7
102:terrestrial-like planets
16:Not to be confused with
2516:Small planet radius gap
2219:Exoplanet Data Explorer
2143:Galactic habitable zone
1717:Giant-impact hypothesis
726:10.1073/pnas.1304197111
360:2012A&A...538A..46D
2476:Exoplanet phase curves
2314:Terrestrial candidates
2265:Multiplanetary systems
2229:NASA Exoplanet Archive
1912:Mean-motion resonances
1722:Gravitational collapse
1672:Circumstellar envelope
38:(sometimes known as a
28:
2351:Potentially habitable
2256:Exoplanetary systems
2198:Superhabitable planet
1957:F/Yellow-white dwarfs
1842:Sample-return mission
1742:Interplanetary medium
26:
2486:Extragalactic planet
2466:Carl Sagan Institute
1747:Interplanetary space
1662:Circumplanetary disk
1335:Planet-hosting stars
1827:Protoplanetary disk
1807:Planetary migration
1762:Interstellar medium
1541:Circumtriple planet
1536:Circumbinary planet
1205:2009ApJ...695.1006B
1103:10.1038/nature14494
1095:2015Natur.522..321J
1048:2019ApJ...887L..33K
1009:. 17 December 2019.
980:2013ApJ...769L...9B
923:2019ApJ...875...29M
874:2012ApJ...744...59S
811:2005ApJ...621.1049T
776:2014ApJS..210...20M
717:2014PNAS..11112655M
701:(35): 12655–12660.
668:2014ApJ...783L...6W
623:2015ApJ...801...41R
574:2015ApJ...800..135D
527:2017AJ....154..109F
469:2013ApJ...778...77D
410:2014ApJ...790..146F
292:2016ApJ...828...33D
151:hydrodynamic escape
44:transitional planet
1792:Nebular hypothesis
1767:Interstellar space
1752:Interstellar cloud
1732:Internal structure
1667:Circumstellar disc
453:(1): 77 (29 pp.).
174:massive than Earth
29:
2547:
2546:
2123:Astrooceanography
1757:Interstellar dust
1629:
1628:
1505:Ultra-hot Neptune
1500:Ultra-hot Jupiter
1449:Eccentric Jupiter
1299:Planetary science
1079:(7556): 321–323.
325:, Buchhave et al.
69:A gas dwarf is a
2642:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2576:
2575:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2501:Neptunian desert
1887:Tidally detached
1822:Planet formation
1812:Planetary system
1702:Exozodiacal dust
1692:Disrupted planet
1616:Ultra-cool dwarf
1546:Disrupted planet
1531:Chthonian planet
1363:
1362:
1347:
1330:Planetary system
1264:
1257:
1250:
1241:
1240:
1224:
1198:
1189:(2): 1006–1011.
1162:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1140:
1134:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1088:
1068:
1062:
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1041:
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991:
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953:
947:
946:
944:
934:
916:
892:
886:
885:
867:
847:
841:
840:
822:
805:(2): 1049–1060.
794:
788:
787:
769:
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739:
738:
728:
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686:
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661:
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353:
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202:Chthonian planet
187:
185:
184:
172:, which is less
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2640:
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2608:
2606:
2596:
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2570:
2560:
2558:
2550:
2548:
2543:
2539:Search projects
2525:
2454:
2243:
2202:
2104:
2076:Radial velocity
2016:
1972:K/Orange dwarfs
1962:G/Yellow dwarfs
1923:
1917:Titius–Bode law
1856:
1787:Molecular cloud
1687:Detached object
1638:
1636:
1625:
1611:Toroidal planet
1601:Sub-brown dwarf
1509:
1435:
1407:(Super-Mercury)
1380:Coreless planet
1356:
1354:
1348:
1339:
1303:
1271:
1268:
1231:
1171:
1169:Further reading
1166:
1165:
1155:
1153:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1069:
1065:
1018:
1014:
1005:
1004:
995:
954:
950:
893:
889:
848:
844:
820:10.1.1.122.9085
795:
791:
746:
742:
687:
683:
642:
638:
593:
589:
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496:
492:
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110:
107:
91:
88:
32:
21:
12:
11:
5:
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2400:
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2316:
2311:
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2301:
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2226:
2221:
2216:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
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2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
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2160:
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2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2088:Transit method
2085:
2084:
2083:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2056:
2055:
2054:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2035:Direct imaging
2032:
2026:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
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1889:
1879:
1878:
1877:
1866:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1852:Star formation
1849:
1847:Scattered disc
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1697:Excretion disk
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1652:Accretion disk
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1561:Eyeball planet
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1229:External links
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85:(1.7–3.9
30:
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2630:Giant planets
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2019:
2013:
2012:Yellow giants
2010:
2008:
2005:
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1998:
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1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
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1782:Merging stars
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1657:Asteroid belt
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1597:
1596:Pulsar planet
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1551:Double planet
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1498:
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1490:Super-Neptune
1488:
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1485:Super-Jupiter
1483:
1481:
1478:
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1473:
1471:
1468:
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1460:Helium planet
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1395:Hycean planet
1393:
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1385:Desert planet
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1375:Carbon planet
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276:(1): id. 33.
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238:
237:Super-Jupiter
235:
233:
230:
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225:
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217:Hycean planet
215:
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53:
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41:
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25:
19:
2614:Solar System
2356:Proper names
2133:Earth analog
2118:Astrobiology
2110:Habitability
2047:Microlensing
2007:White dwarfs
1977:M/Red dwarfs
1967:Herbig Ae/Be
1952:Brown dwarfs
1894:Rogue planet
1875:Interstellar
1817:Planetesimal
1586:Planetesimal
1566:Giant planet
1556:Ecumenopolis
1454:Mini-Neptune
1453:
1390:Dwarf planet
1186:
1182:
1154:. Retrieved
1150:Ars Technica
1148:
1138:
1127:
1076:
1072:
1066:
1029:
1025:
1015:
961:
957:
951:
942:10150/633733
904:
900:
890:
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851:
845:
802:
798:
792:
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749:
743:
698:
694:
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426:
391:
387:
383:
376:
341:
337:
330:
318:
273:
269:
190:ocean planet
167:
158:sub-Neptunes
155:
141:
136:ocean planet
133:
68:
43:
39:
36:Mini-Neptune
35:
33:
2602:Outer space
2590:Spaceflight
2368:before 2000
2284:Discoveries
2059:Polarimetry
1947:Binary star
1837:Rubble pile
1832:Ring system
1802:Outer space
1772:Kuiper belt
1727:Hills cloud
1682:Debris disk
1677:Cosmic dust
1606:Sub-Neptune
1591:Protoplanet
1526:Brown dwarf
1514:Other types
1470:Hot Neptune
1465:Hot Jupiter
1456:(Gas dwarf)
1431:Super-Earth
1416:Ocean world
1411:Lava planet
1405:Iron planet
1367:Terrestrial
1308:Main topics
1156:17 December
242:Planet Nine
232:Super-Earth
227:Sub-Neptune
212:Hot Neptune
207:Hot Jupiter
170:Kepler-138d
94:metallicity
83:Earth radii
18:Sub-Neptune
2635:Exoplanets
2624:Categories
2279:Exoplanets
2260:Host stars
2207:Catalogues
2030:Astrometry
1992:Subdwarf B
1929:Host stars
1902:Retrograde
1797:Oort cloud
1635:Formation
1571:Mesoplanet
1495:Super-puff
1421:Mega-Earth
1400:Ice planet
1285:Definition
1270:Exoplanets
1086:1506.07067
1039:1912.02701
1032:(2): L33.
914:1903.00174
558:(2): 135.
518:1703.10375
511:(3): 109.
394:(2): 146.
283:1606.08088
248:References
222:Mega-Earth
186: g/cm
130:Properties
124:gas giants
120:ice giants
98:exoplanets
75:rocky core
71:gas planet
2566:Astronomy
2373:2000–2009
2339:1501–2000
2334:1001–1500
2022:Detection
1987:Red giant
1647:Accretion
1639:evolution
1480:Ice giant
1475:Gas giant
1426:Sub-Earth
1315:Exoplanet
1196:0901.1698
1119:205243944
971:1304.5157
964:(1): L9.
865:1001.4851
858:(1): 59.
815:CiteSeerX
767:1401.4195
760:(2): 20.
708:1404.2960
659:1312.0936
652:(1): L6.
614:1407.4457
607:(1): 41.
565:1412.8687
485:118522228
460:1310.2211
401:1202.6328
351:1111.2628
310:119203398
192:instead.
118:, namely
79:volatiles
40:gas dwarf
2329:501–1000
2309:Heaviest
2289:Extremes
1997:Subgiant
1870:Exocomet
1221:18849636
1111:26085271
735:24912169
196:See also
164:Examples
52:hydrogen
2552:Portals
2304:Largest
2299:Nearest
2002:T Tauri
1898:Orbits
1882:Exomoon
1862:Systems
1576:Planemo
1441:Gaseous
1201:Bibcode
1091:Bibcode
1044:Bibcode
976:Bibcode
919:Bibcode
870:Bibcode
837:6475341
807:Bibcode
772:Bibcode
713:Bibcode
664:Bibcode
619:Bibcode
570:Bibcode
523:Bibcode
465:Bibcode
406:Bibcode
356:Bibcode
344:: A46.
288:Bibcode
73:with a
64:ammonia
48:Neptune
2319:Kepler
2294:Firsts
2193:Tholin
2064:Timing
1982:Pulsar
1907:Trojan
1521:Blanet
1280:Planet
1219:
1117:
1109:
1073:Nature
835:
817:
750:KEPLER
733:
483:
384:KEPLER
308:
56:helium
2578:Stars
2459:Other
2324:1–500
2249:Lists
1358:types
1353:Sizes
1217:S2CID
1191:arXiv
1115:S2CID
1081:arXiv
1034:arXiv
966:arXiv
909:arXiv
860:arXiv
833:S2CID
762:arXiv
703:arXiv
654:arXiv
609:arXiv
560:arXiv
513:arXiv
481:S2CID
455:arXiv
396:arXiv
346:arXiv
306:S2CID
278:arXiv
60:water
2448:2024
2443:2023
2438:2022
2433:2021
2428:2020
2423:2019
2418:2018
2413:2017
2408:2016
2403:2015
2398:2014
2393:2013
2388:2012
2383:2011
2378:2010
2093:list
2081:list
2069:list
2052:list
2040:list
1637:and
1355:and
1158:2022
1107:PMID
731:PMID
597:MOST
183:−1.2
181:+2.2
122:and
1290:IAU
1209:doi
1187:695
1099:doi
1077:522
1052:doi
1030:887
984:doi
962:769
937:hdl
927:doi
905:875
878:doi
856:744
825:doi
803:621
780:doi
758:210
721:doi
699:111
672:doi
650:783
627:doi
605:801
578:doi
556:800
531:doi
509:154
473:doi
451:778
414:doi
392:790
364:doi
342:538
296:doi
274:828
178:2.1
42:or
2626::
2346:K2
1215:.
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390:.
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354:.
340:.
304:.
294:.
286:.
272:.
268:.
256:^
126:.
116:🜨
109:🜨
90:🜨
62:,
34:A
2554::
1942:B
1937:A
1263:e
1256:t
1249:v
1223:.
1211::
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1193::
1160:.
1121:.
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475::
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370:.
366::
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312:.
298::
290::
280::
147:E
144:M
113:R
106:R
87:R
54:-
20:.
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