Super-Earth - Knowledge

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larger than approximately 1.6 Earth-radius (more massive than approximately 6 Earth-masses) contain significant fractions of volatiles or H/He gas (such planets appear to have a diversity of compositions that is not well-explained by a single mass-radius relation as that found in rocky planets). After measuring 65 super-Earths smaller than 4 Earth-radii, the empirical data points out that Gas Dwarves would be the most usual composition: there is a trend where planets with radii up to 1.5 Earth-radii increase in density with increasing radius, but above 1.5 radii the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating that these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. Another discovery about exoplanets' composition is that about the

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planets with a core mass of more than 1.5 Earth-mass (1.15 Earth-radius max.), most likely cannot get rid of their nebula captured hydrogen envelopes during their whole lifetime. Other calculations point out that the limit between envelope-free rocky super-Earths and sub-Neptunes is around 1.75 Earth-radii, as 2 Earth-radii would be the upper limit to be rocky (a planet with 2 Earth-radii and 5 Earth-masses with a mean Earth-like core composition would imply that 1/200 of its mass would be in a H/He envelope, with an atmospheric pressure near to 2.0 GPa or 20,000 bar). Whether or not the primitive nebula-captured H/He envelope of a super-Earth is entirely lost after formation also depends on the orbital distance. For example, formation and evolution calculations of the

94: 508: 272: 449:) orbiting within the Gliese 581 planetary system. The planet has a minimum mass 3.1 times that of Earth and a nearly circular orbit at 0.146 AU with a period of 36.6 days, placing it in the middle of the habitable zone where liquid water could exist and midway between the planets c and d. It was discovered using the radial velocity method by scientists at the University of California at Santa Cruz and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. However, the existence of Gliese 581 g has been questioned by another team of astronomers, and it is currently listed as unconfirmed at 146: 31: 163: 6128: 976: 6152: 4767: 6104: 1102:(after migrating towards the proximity of their parent star). The amount of the outermost layers that is lost depends on the size and the material of the planet and the distance from the star. In a typical system, a gas giant orbiting 0.02 AU around its parent star loses 5–7% of its mass during its lifetime, but orbiting closer than 0.015 AU can mean evaporation of the whole planet except for its core. 6140: 6116: 4888: 632:, one of three stars located a relatively close 22 light years from Earth in the constellation of Scorpio, it said. The planets orbit Gliese 667C in the so-called Goldilocks Zone — a distance from the star at which the temperature is just right for water to exist in liquid form rather than being stripped away by stellar radiation or locked permanently in ice. 407:, is 2.7 times as large as Earth and orbits a star much smaller and less luminous than the Sun. "This planet probably does have liquid water," said David Charbonneau, a Harvard professor of astronomy and lead author of an article on the discovery. However, interior models of this planet suggest that under most conditions it does not have liquid water. 372:, with a mass estimated at 4.8 Earth masses and an orbital period of only 0.853 days, was announced on 3 February 2009. The density estimate obtained for COROT-7b points to a composition including rocky silicate minerals similar to that of the Solar System's four inner planets, a new and significant discovery. COROT-7b, discovered right after 116:, which is the Solar System's giant planet with the least mass), the lower bound varies from 1 or 1.9 to 5, with various other definitions appearing in the popular media. The term "super-Earth" is also used by astronomers to refer to planets bigger than Earth-like planets (from 0.8 to 1.2 Earth-radius), but smaller than 1073:

due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. These findings were corroborated by van Heck et al., who determined that plate tectonics may be more likely on super-Earths than on

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that keep the Earth warmer. Venus has a black-body temperature of only 184.2 K (−89 °C or −128 °F ) even though Venus has a true temperature of 737 K (464 °C or 867 °F ). Though the atmosphere of Venus traps more heat than Earth's, NASA lists the black-body temperature of Venus

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The low densities inferred from observations imply that a fraction of the super-Earth population has substantial H/He envelopes, which may have been even more massive soon after formation. Therefore, contrary to the terrestrial planets of the solar system, these super-Earths must have formed during

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New research suggests that the rocky centres of super-Earths are unlikely to evolve into terrestrial rocky planets like the inner planets of the Solar System because they appear to hold on to their large atmospheres. Rather than evolving into a planet composed mainly of rock with a thin atmosphere,

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of 1.9 Earth masses was announced on 21 April 2009. It was at the time the smallest extrasolar planet discovered around a normal star and the closest in mass to Earth. Being at an orbital distance of just 0.03 AU and orbiting its star in just 3.15 days, it is not in the habitable zone, and may have

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personnel. Some authors further suggest that the term Super-Earth might be limited to rocky planets without a significant atmosphere, or planets that have not just atmospheres but also solid surfaces or oceans with a sharp boundary between liquid and atmosphere, which the four giant planets in the

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or sub-Neptune). A super-Earth of high density is believed to be rocky and/or metallic, like Earth and the other terrestrial planets of the Solar System. A super-Earth's interior could be undifferentiated, partially differentiated, or completely differentiated into layers of different composition.

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On 5 December 2011, the Kepler team announced that they had discovered 2,326 planetary candidates, of which 207 are similar in size to Earth, 680 are super-Earth-size, 1,181 are Neptune-size, 203 are Jupiter-size and 55 are larger than Jupiter. Compared to the February 2011 figures, the number of

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If a super-Earth is detectable by both the radial-velocity and the transit methods, then both its mass and its radius can be determined; thus its average bulk density can be calculated. The actual empirical observations are giving similar results as theoretical models, as it's found that planets

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of detecting planets and the mass of the relevant planet what the structural composition is. For Gliese 876 d, calculations range from 9,200 km (1.4 Earth radii) for a rocky planet and very large iron core to 12,500 km (2.0 Earth radii) for a watery and icy planet. Within this range of

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Earth's magnetic field results from its flowing liquid metallic core, but in super-Earths the mass can produce high pressures with large viscosities and high melting temperatures, which could prevent the interiors from separating into different layers and so result in undifferentiated coreless

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The limit between rocky planets and planets with a thick gaseous envelope is calculated with theoretical models. Calculating the effect of the active XUV saturation phase of G-type stars over the loss of the primitive nebula-captured hydrogen envelopes in extrasolar planets, it's obtained that

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On 25 June 2013, three "super Earth" planets have been found orbiting a nearby star at a distance where life in theory could exist, according to a record-breaking tally announced on Tuesday by the European Southern Observatory. They are part of a cluster of as many as seven planets that circle

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respectively (which are within measurement errors), are extremely vulnerable to envelope loss. In particular, the complete removal of the primordial H/He envelope by energetic stellar photons appears almost inevitable in the case of Kepler-11b, regardless of its formation hypothesis.

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Due to the larger mass of super-Earths, their physical characteristics may differ from Earth's; theoretical models for super-Earths provide four possible main compositions according to their density: low-density super-Earths are inferred to be composed mainly of hydrogen and helium

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Earth-size and super-Earth-size planets increased by 200% and 140% respectively. Moreover, 48 planet candidates were found in the habitable zones of surveyed stars, marking a decrease from the February figure; this was due to the more stringent criteria in use in the December data.

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mantles. Magnesium oxide, which is rocky on Earth, can be a liquid metal at the pressures and temperatures found in super-Earths and could generate a magnetic field in the mantles of super-Earths. That said, super-Earth magnetic fields are yet to be detected observationally.

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estimates "within a thousand light-years of Earth" there are "at least 30,000 of these habitable worlds." Also based on the findings, the Kepler Team has estimated "at least 50 billion planets in the Milky Way" of which "at least 500 million" are in the habitable zone.

434:. The only confirmed radial velocity planet smaller than this planet is Gliese 581e at 1.9 Earth masses (see above). On 24 August, astronomers using ESO's HARPS instrument announced the discovery of a planetary system with up to seven planets orbiting a Sun-like star, 279:

O" for those made of water. Those between the two lines, and closer to the Fe line, are most likely solid rocky planets, while those near or above the water line are more likely gas and/or liquid. Planets in the Solar System are on the chart, labeled with their

1061:, show that the magnesium-silicate internal regions of the planet would undergo phase changes under the immense pressures and temperatures of a super-Earth planet, and that the different phases of this liquid magnesium silicate would separate into layers. 473:." Six candidates in this zone were less than twice the size of the Earth A more recent study found that one of these candidates (KOI 326.01) is in fact much larger and hotter than first reported. Based on the latest Kepler findings, astronomer 1182:. The higher surface gravity would lead to a thicker atmosphere, increased surface erosion and hence a flatter topography. The result could be an "archipelago planet" of shallow oceans dotted with island chains ideally suited for 216:(two Jupiter-sized gas giants had previously been discovered in that system). It has an estimated mass of 7.5 Earth masses and a very short orbital period of about 2 days. Due to the proximity of Gliese 876 d to its host star (a 651:, it is currently the largest known planet likely to have a predominantly rocky composition. At 17 Earth masses, it is well above the 10 Earth mass upper limit that is commonly used for the term 'super-Earth' so the term 2893: 256:(6.8 million mi, 11 million km), it is on the "warm" edge of the habitable zone around Gliese 581 with an estimated mean temperature (without considering effects from an atmosphere) of −3 degrees Celsius with an 2016:

Udry, Stéphane; Bonfils, Xavier; Delfosse, Xavier; Forveille, Thierry; Mayor, Michel; Perrier, Christian; Bouchy, François; Lovis, Christophe; Pepe, Francesco; Queloz, Didier; Bertaux, Jean-Loup (2007).

469:, including 68 candidates of approximately "Earth-size" (Rp < 1.25 Re) and 288 candidates of "super-Earth-size" (1.25 Re < Rp < 2 Re). In addition, 54 planet candidates were detected in the " 5881: 5876: 5871: 523:

was calculated which turned out to be similar to Earth's. At the size of about 2 Earth radii, it was the largest planet until 2014, which was determined to lack a significant hydrogen atmosphere.

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has been proposed. However, in July 2017, more careful analysis of HARPS-N and HIRES data showed that Kepler-10c was much less massive than originally thought, instead around 7.37 (6.18 to 8.69)

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with a mean density of 3.14 g/cm. Instead of a primarily rocky composition, the more accurately determined mass of Kepler-10c suggests a world made almost entirely of volatiles, mainly water.

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in the Solar System, and all larger planets have both at least 14 times the mass of Earth and thick gaseous envelopes without well-defined rocky or watery surfaces; that is, they are either

947:, but it is speculated to also be an ice giant like Uranus or Neptune. A refined model in 2019 constrains it to around five Earth masses; planets of this mass are probably mini-Neptunes. 3086:

Mayor, M.; et al. (2011). "The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets XXXIV. Occurrence, mass distribution and orbital properties of super-Earths and Neptune-mass planets".

489:. On HD 85512 b, it would be habitable if it exhibits more than 50% cloud cover. Then less than a month later, a flood of 41 new exoplanets, including 10 super-Earths, were announced. 275:

Mass and radius values for transiting super-Earths in context of other detected exoplanets and selected composition models. The "Fe" line defines planets made purely of iron, and "H

77:, which are 14.5 and 17 times Earth's, respectively. The term "super-Earth" refers only to the mass of the planet, and so does not imply anything about the surface conditions or 2834:

Borucki, W. J.; for the Kepler Team (2010). "Characteristics of Kepler Planetary Candidates Based on the First Data Set: The Majority are Found to be Neptune-Size and Smaller".

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is 2.4 times the radius of the Earth and occupies an orbit 15% closer to its star than the Earth to the Sun. This is compensated for, however, as the star, with a spectral type

1489: 2908: 5861: 6023: 5888: 616:, 1,200 light years from Earth. These new super-Earths have radii of 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, and 1.9 times that of Earth. Theoretical modelling of two of these super-Earths, 4600:

D'Angelo, G.; Bodenheimer, P. (2013). "Three-dimensional Radiation-hydrodynamics Calculations of the Envelopes of Young Planets Embedded in Protoplanetary Disks".

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in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of

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Theoretical models show that Hot Jupiters and Hot Neptunes can evolve by hydrodynamic loss of their atmospheres to Mini-Neptunes (as it could be the Super-Earth

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Fortney, J. J.; Marley, M. S.; Barnes, J. W. (2007). "Planetary Radii across Five Orders of Magnitude in Mass and Stellar Insolation: Application to Transits".

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Pepe, F.; et al. (2011). "The HARPS search for Earth-like planets in the habitable zone: I – Very low-mass planets around HD20794, HD85512 and HD192310".

108:. The term does not imply temperatures, compositions, orbital properties, habitability, or environments. While sources generally agree on an upper bound of 10 3237: 1961:

Zhou, J.-L.; et al. (2005). "Origin and Ubiquity of Short-Period Earth-like Planets: Evidence for the Sequential Accretion Theory of Planet Formation".

1332:"Newly Discovered Exoplanet May be Best Candidate in Search for Signs of Life - Transiting rocky super-Earth found in habitable zone of quiet red dwarf star" 962:

led some astronomers believing that a super-Earth might have formed in proximity to the Sun, cleared its neighborhood and rapidly get disrupted by the Sun.

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Researchers at Harvard Astronomy Department have developed user-friendly online tools to characterize the bulk composition of the super-Earths. A study on

5915: 1046:, which is explained by a bimodal formation of planets (rocky Super-Earths below 1.75 and sub-Neptunes with thick gas envelopes being above such radii). 4127: 2571:"The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets XXVII. Up to seven planets orbiting HD 10180: probing the architecture of low-mass planetary systems" 3468: 1677:

Borucki, William J.; et al. (2011). "Characteristics of planetary candidates observed by Kepler, II: Analysis of the first four months of data".

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On 20 December 2011, the Kepler team announced the discovery of the first Earth-size exoplanets, Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star,

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On 5 December 2011, the Kepler space telescope discovered its first planet within the habitable zone or "Goldilocks region" of its Sun-like star.

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Borucki, W. J.; et al. (2011). "Characteristics of planetary candidates observed by Kepler, II: Analysis of the first four months of data".

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Mayor, M.; Pepe, F.; Lovis, C.; Oueloz, D.; Udry, S. (2008). "The quest for very low-mass planets". In Livio, M.; Sahu, K.; Valenti, J. (eds.).

5623: 3321: 1186:. A more massive planet of two Earth masses would also retain more heat within its interior from its initial formation much longer, sustaining 2203: 541:(GJ 667 Cc) was included in a paper published on 21 November 2011. More detailed data on Gliese 667 Cc were published in early February 2012. 4698: 4660: 4491: 2093: 1534:"A team of ICE/IEEC astronomers announces the discovery of a possible terrestrial-type exoplanet orbiting a star in the constellation of Leo" 1126:

of super-Earths are unknown, the surface temperatures are unknown and generally only an equilibrium temperature is given. For example, the

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Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous

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Rajpaul, V.; Buchhave, L. A.; Aigrain, S. (2017), "Pinning down the mass of Kepler-10c: the importance of sampling and model comparison",

5594: 5177: 4309: 939:, not terrestrial planets. In January 2016, the existence of a hypothetical super-Earth ninth planet in the Solar System, referred to as 2120:

Bennett, D. P.; et al. (2008). "A Low-Mass Planet with a Possible Sub-Stellar-Mass Host in Microlensing Event MOA-2007-BLG-192".

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Bennett, D. P.; et al. (2008). "Discovery of a Low-mass Planet Orbiting a Low-mass Star in Microlensing Event MOA-2007-BLG-192".

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b was announced. At 16 light-years it is the closest super-Earth known, and its star is the second-brightest hosting a super-Earth.

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Dumusque, Xavier (2014). "The Kepler-10 Planetary System Revisited by Harps-N: A Hot Rocky World and a Solid Neptune-Mass Planet".

4749: 2522: 5577: 829:(USP) Super-Earth, with a period of 0.28 days orbiting the host star K2-141 (EPIC 246393474) was reported. Another Super-Earth, 6063: 5606: 4737: 2018: 1050: 6038: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5611: 4576: 3802: 1537: 5720: 5710: 3241: 1533: 450: 264:

and 40 degrees Celsius with an albedo comparable to Earth. Subsequent research suggested Gliese 581c had likely suffered a

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Origin and loss of nebula-captured hydrogen envelopes from `sub´- to `super-Earths´in the habitable zone of Sun-like stars

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said they found a planetary system with three super-Earths orbiting a bright, dwarf star. The four-planet system, dubbed

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Valencia, V.; Sasselov, D. D.; O'Connell, R. J. (2007). "Radius and structure models of the first super-earth planet".

1198:) for longer. The thicker atmosphere and stronger magnetic field would also shield life on the surface against harmful 3054: 2678: 1730:

Seager, S.; Kuchner, M.; Hier-Majumder, C. A.; Militzer, B. (2007). "Mass–radius relationships for solid exoplanets".

6081: 5715: 4378: 2361: 93: 3245: 2746: 5776: 5766: 5254: 3901: 3059: 2751: 500:, is slightly dimmer than the Sun (G2V). Thus, surface temperatures would still allow liquid water on its surface. 2931: 2659: 81:. The alternative term "gas dwarfs" may be more accurate for those at the higher end of the mass scale, although " 5851: 5802: 5725: 5564: 4867: 4066:

Zeng, Li; Sasselov, Dimitar (2013). "A Detailed Model Grid for Solid Planets from 0.1 through 100 Earth Masses".

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Geoffrey W. Marcy, Lauren M. Weiss, Erik A. Petigura, Howard Isaacson, Andrew W. Howard and Lars A. Buchhave. "

3696:"The first super-Earth Detection from the High Cadence and High Radial Velocity Precision Dharma Planet Survey" 3182: 612:, of the agency's Ames Research Center, found five planets orbiting in the habitable zone of a Sun-like star, 356:

In addition, the same European research team announced a planet 7.5 times the mass of Earth orbiting the star

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discovered by the Kepler space telescope. Three of the newly confirmed exoplanets were found to orbit within

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By November 2009, a total of 30 super-Earths had been discovered, 24 of which were first observed by HARPS.

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NASA found a super-Earth. It's in a tantalizing place. Scientists are investigating this curious new world.

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Fressin, François; et al. (2013). "The false positive rate of Kepler and the occurrence of planets".

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Barnes, R.; Jackson, B.; Greenberg, R.; Raymond, S. N. (2009). "Tidal Limits to Planetary Habitability".

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Lammer, Helmut; Erkaev, N. V.; Odert, P.; Kislyakova, K. G.; Leitzinger, M.; Khodachenko, M. L. (2013).

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Howard, A. W.; et al. (2009). "The NASA-UC Eta-Earth Program: I. A Super-Earth Orbiting HD 7924".

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D'Angelo, G.; Lissauer, J. J. (2018). "Formation of Giant Planets". In Deeg H., Belmonte J. (ed.).

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planetary system show that the two innermost planets Kepler-11b and c, whose calculated mass is ≈2

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was determined to have the mass comparable to Neptune (17 Earth masses). With the radius of 2.35

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In June 2008, European researchers announced the discovery of three super-Earths around the star

3442:"NASA's Kepler Marks 1,000th Exoplanet Discovery, Uncovers More Small Worlds in Habitable Zones" 326:

collaboration on June 2, 2008. This planet has approximately 3.3 Earth masses and orbits a

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Masses, Radii, and Orbits of Small Kepler Planets: The Transition from Gaseous to Rocky Planets

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and 3.3g (19 and 32 m/s). However, this planet is not known to transit its host star.

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Understanding the Mass-Radius Relation for Sub-Neptunes: Radius as a Proxy for Composition

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Earth itself, assuming similar composition. However, other studies determined that strong

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Are terrestrial exoplanets Earth-like, Venus-like, or the remnants of gas- or ice-giants?

3441: 2904: 1107: 1075: 557:, about 6.9 times the mass of Earth and somewhat hotter, was considered to be within the 299: 4623: 4560: 4444: 4191: 4089: 3973: 3926: 3869: 3721: 3640: 3409: 3356: 3151: 2804: 2716: 2462: 2384: 2299: 2175: 2145: 2106: 1986: 1931: 1808: 1755: 1700: 1645: 1585: 1450: 1425:

Charbonneau, D.; et al. (2009). "A super-Earth transiting a nearby low-mass star".

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was announced. Thirty-one light-years from the Solar System, the planet is at least 6.1

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Occurrence and core-envelope structure of 1-4x Earth-size planets around Sun-like stars

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Rogers, L.; Seager, S. (2010). "Three Possible Origins for the Gas Layer on GJ 1214b".

2396: 2370: 2311: 2285: 2157: 2131: 2066: 2040: 1998: 1972: 1943: 1917: 1820: 1794: 1767: 1741: 1712: 1686: 1659: 1631: 1597: 1571: 1470: 1436: 1404: 1368: 1313: 1287: 928: 775: 319: 197:) of the system have masses approximately four times Earth—too small to be gas giants. 4305: 3364: 3159: 2849: 2724: 2392: 1620:"The California-Kepler Survey. III. A Gap in the Radius Distribution of Small Planets" 5665: 5299: 5047: 5042: 4991: 4841: 4639: 4631: 4586: 4572: 4545:. Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature. pp. 2319–2343. 4506: 4383: 4359: 4209: 4200: 4165: 3991: 3982: 3947: 3878: 3841: 3525: 3427: 2898: 2812: 2307: 2070: 1879: 1708: 1663: 1593: 1462: 1123: 253: 4526: 4462: 4113: 3739: 3658: 3496: 3372: 3167: 3019: 2820: 2617: 2478: 2400: 2161: 2074: 2002: 1947: 1854:"Exoplanets: From Exhilarating to Exasperating, 22:59, Kepler-10c: The 'Mega-Earth'" 1716: 1601: 1317: 322:. The planet was announced by astrophysicist David P. Bennett for the international 6108: 6043: 5791: 5554: 5544: 5404: 5354: 5244: 5234: 5158: 5088: 5073: 4872: 4627: 4564: 4448: 4351: 4195: 4093: 3977: 3887: 3873: 3725: 3644: 3413: 3360: 3155: 3033:

Kaltenegger, L.; Udry, S.; Pepe, F. (2011). "A Habitable Planet around HD 85512?".

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based in Switzerland announced the discovery of two new super-Earths within the

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0.67), giving it a lower black body temperature than the more absorbent (lower

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Winn, J.N.; et al. (2008). "A Super Earth Transiting a Naked-Eye Star".

1518: 1229: 955: 538: 534: 486: 377: 360:. This star also has a Jupiter-like planet that orbits it every three years. 201: 186: 24: 4289: 3730: 3695: 3418: 6120: 5675: 5660: 5539: 5436: 5359: 5128: 5108: 5098: 4996: 4932: 4453: 4418: 3064: 1466: 1331: 1211: 1191: 1183: 1178:

According to one hypothesis, super-Earths of about two Earth masses may be

1173: 1091:

the small rocky core remains engulfed by its large hydrogen-rich envelope.

998: 989: 985: 924: 554: 474: 423: 392: 213: 117: 82: 4388: 2544: 1005:

revealed that it would be possible to infer from a radius measured by the

5601: 5379: 5374: 5344: 5314: 5269: 5224: 5219: 5148: 5133: 5068: 5012: 5007: 4958: 4953: 4947: 2756: 1977: 1922: 1373: 1292: 1223: 1199: 1179: 1140: 940: 918: 758: 750: 716: 691: 687: 683: 629: 624:, suggests both could be solid, either rocky or rocky with frozen water. 520: 512: 446: 419: 388: 327: 245: 170:– based on 2,740 candidates orbiting 2,036 stars as of November 4, 2013 ( 1458: 905:

reported the discovery of a super-Earth called TOI-715 b located in the

244:

around the star where liquid water may be possible on the surface. With

5572: 5339: 5113: 5037: 4963: 4942: 4332:"Plate tectonics on super-Earths: Equally or more likely than on Earth" 1246: 1027: 992:), or have a denser core enshrouded with an extended gaseous envelope ( 936: 932: 853: 754: 652: 641: 621: 617: 608:

In April 2013, using observations by NASA's Kepler mission team led by

574: 550: 493: 482: 427: 307: 249: 209: 179: 150: 130: 109: 20: 5022: 5017: 4983: 4968: 4857: 4250:

The mass-radius relation for 65 exoplanets smaller than 4 Earth radii

3301: 3275: 3186: 1785:

Seager, S. (2007). "Mass-Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets".

1240: 1095: 1023: 993: 786: 778: 770: 762: 671: 613: 586: 527: 404: 397: 373: 357: 134: 125:

Solar System do not have. Planets above 10 Earth masses are termed

98: 66: 58: 19:

This article is about the planet type. For the fictional polity, see

5412: 4551: 4182: 4097: 3964: 3948:"Probabilistic Forecasting of the Masses and Radii of Other Worlds" 3860: 3712: 3631: 3558: 3440:

Clavin, Whitney; Chou, Felicia; Johnson, Michele (6 January 2015).

3400: 2180: 2153: 1994: 1939: 1816: 1763: 1636: 1400: 1309: 951: 882: 870: 849: 837: 738: 435: 369: 334: 178:

The first super-Earths were discovered by Aleksander Wolszczan and

137:, depending on whether they are mostly rock and ice or mostly gas. 35: 4778:

Why is the Earth called a unique planet in our solar system ?

4614: 4476: 4435: 4275: 4262: 4249: 4236: 4223: 4146: 4080: 3347: 3142: 3092: 3039: 2994: 2840: 2795: 2707: 2592: 2453: 2375: 2290: 2136: 2045: 1799: 1746: 1729: 1691: 1576: 1441: 1044:

gap or rarity observed for planets between 1.5 and 2.0 Earth-radii

881:

In 2022, the discovery of a super-Earth around the red dwarf star

5424: 4224:

The Mass of Kepler-93b and The Composition of Terrestrial Planets

3674:"Potentially habitable super-Earth found during exoplanet search" 1195: 1011: 943:, was proposed as an explanation for the orbital behavior of six 830: 719:, and is Earth's closest known rocky, and transiting, exoplanet. 704: 445:

announced on 29 September the discovery of a fourth super-Earth (

74: 43: 4291:

Laser-Driven Shock Compression Studies of Planetary Compositions

2660:"Newly Discovered Planet May Be First Truly Habitable Exoplanet" 485:

was found using the HARPS as well as a three super-Earth system

5735: 5063: 4887: 4822: 4766: 4419:"Probing the blow-off criteria of hydrogen-rich 'super-Earths'" 2686:

Planet in the Habitable Zone of the Nearby M3V Star Gliese 581"

1148: 1131: 1119: 975: 742: 396:

100 times more tidal heating than Jupiter's volcanic satellite

257: 221: 183: 113: 70: 4782: 2358: 1275: 1079: 927:

contains no known super-Earths, because Earth is the largest

800: 582: 350: 346: 261: 248:

having a mass of at least 5 Earth masses and a distance from

120:(from 2 to 4 Earth-radii). This definition was made by the 62: 39: 2015: 1617: 4728:, Charles Q. Choi, SPACE.com, November 22, 2012 02:01pm ET, 4599: 4540: 4416: 4166:"In Situ and Ex Situ Formation Models of Kepler 11 Planets" 4163: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4054: 3530: 3501: 3446: 1139:

based on the fact that Venus has an extremely high albedo (

902: 789: 728: 679: 590: 298:

Two further possible super-Earths were discovered in 2006:

171: 105: 6115: 3840:

Batygin, Konstantin; Brown, Michael E. (20 January 2016).

3388:

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters

2833: 1490:"Canada's orbiting telescope tracks mystery 'super Earth'" 1232: – Planet larger than Neptune but smaller than Saturn 979:

Comparison of sizes of planets with different compositions

6024:

Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer

3842:"Evidence for a distant giant planet in the Solar System" 3473: 2235:"The CoRoT-7 planetary system: two orbiting Super-Earths" 796: 594: 549:

In September 2012, the discovery of two planets orbiting

338: 4593: 4152: 3803:"Discovery Alert: A 'Super-Earth' in the Habitable Zone" 3183:"Oozing Super-Earth: Images of Alien Planet 55 Cancri e" 1010:

radii the super-Earth Gliese 876 d would have a surface

65:'s, but substantially below those of the Solar System's 4068:

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

3238:"A Hot Potential Habitable Exoplanet around Gliese 163" 2780: 1838:

Astronomers find a new type of planet: The 'mega-Earth'

807:

may be a flyby destination for a fleet of interstellar

768:

In August 2016, astronomers announced the detection of

670:

On 6 January 2015, NASA announced the 1000th confirmed

4494:. 2009-04-25. Archived from the original on 2011-05-27 4031:"Scientists Model a Cornucopia of Earth-sized Planets" 3385: 1220: – Liquid water naturally occurring outside Earth 6092: 4752:, René Heller, Scientific American 312, January, 2015 4740:, René Heller, Scientific American 312, January, 2015 3755:"Super-Earth Discovered in (Fictional) Vulcan System" 3693: 3585:"One Star Over, a Planet That Might Be Another Earth" 3497:"PIA19832: Location of Nearest Rocky Exoplanet Known" 1420: 1418: 589:

candidate (1.5 times the radius of Earth) orbiting a

337:, a star that is only slightly less massive than the 149:

Illustration of the inferred size of the super-Earth

34:

Illustration of the inferred size of the super-Earth

4726:

Super-Earths Get Magnetic 'Shield' from Liquid Metal

4525:

Sotin, Christophe; Grasset, O.; Mocquet, A. (2013),

4007:"Our sun may have eaten a super-Earth for breakfast" 3272:"Newfound Alien Planet a Top Contender to Host Life" 2960:"Cosmic census finds crowd of planets in our galaxy" 2204:"AFP: Astronomers discover clutch of 'super-Earths'" 1869: 376:, is the first super-Earth discovered that orbits a 302:

with a mass of 5.5 Earth masses, which was found by

4686: 4684: 3244:(Planetary Habitability Laboratory). Archived from 3032: 1358: 715:of its star. The planet with the shortest orbit is 690:, are near-Earth-size and likely rocky; the third, 349:(High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher) in 3777:"Super-Earth Skimming Habitable Zone of Red Dwarf" 1872:A Decade of Extrasolar Planets around Normal Stars 1415: 1214: – Planet with environment similar to Earth's 481:On 17 August, a potentially habitable super-Earth 5701:Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems 5696:Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems 4423:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4330:van Heck, H.J.; Tackley, P.J. (15 October 2011). 4133:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3700:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3526:"NASA's Spitzer Confirms Closest Rocky Exoplanet" 3439: 3265: 3263: 2515:"Second Smallest Exoplanet Found To Date At Keck" 1049:Additional studies, conducted with lasers at the 761:, the first time the atmosphere of a super-Earth 330:. It was detected by gravitational microlensing. 97:Artist's impression of the super-Earth exoplanet 6164: 5320:List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules 4681: 4646: 3611:Malavolta, Luca; et al. (9 February 2018). 3517: 1851: 1778: 1236:List of nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates 909:of a red dwarf star about 137 light-years away. 220:), it may have a surface temperature of 430–650 4478:A super-Earth transiting a nearby low-mass star 4329: 3610: 3578: 3576: 3524:Chou, Felicia; Clavin, Whitney (30 July 2015). 3469:"Astronomers find star with three super-Earths" 3231: 3229: 3199: 970: 3289: 3260: 1847: 1845: 1670: 430:, is the least massive planet detected by the 318:The smallest super-Earth found as of 2008 was 104:In general, super-Earths are defined by their 4798: 3545: 3489: 3433: 3298:"Most Earth-Like Alien Planet Possibly Found" 3212:Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg 2633:"New Planet May Be Able to Nurture Organisms" 2094:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 1555: 4065: 3839: 3573: 3226: 2493:"32 planets discovered outside solar system" 2436: 1723: 1514:"Life could survive longer on a super-Earth" 813:spacecraft currently being developed by the 4310:Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics 4237:Most 1.6 Earth-Radius Planets are not Rocky 3945: 3939: 3604: 3554:"First detection of super-earth atmosphere" 3174: 3108:"First Detection of Super-Earth Atmosphere" 3026: 2951: 2679:"The Lick-Carnegie Exoplanet Survey: A 3.1 1842: 1424: 4805: 4791: 4404:"Super-Earths are more like mini-Neptunes" 3781:National Astronomical Observatory of Japan 3523: 3127: 2957: 2776: 2774: 2430: 2352: 2269: 2226: 1906:Planet Orbiting the Nearby Star, GJ 876". 1271: 1269: 1267: 1265: 1263: 227: 140: 4863:Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters 4750:Box 1 Super-Earths' Big Benefits for Life 4613: 4550: 4452: 4434: 4287: 4248:Lauren M. Weiss, and Geoffrey W. Marcy. " 4199: 4181: 4079: 3981: 3963: 3877: 3859: 3830:Mashable, Mark Kaufman, February 7, 2024 3729: 3711: 3689: 3687: 3671: 3648: 3630: 3417: 3399: 3346: 3295: 3141: 3091: 3038: 2993: 2839: 2794: 2706: 2591: 2452: 2374: 2289: 2260: 2135: 2044: 1976: 1921: 1798: 1745: 1690: 1653: 1635: 1618:Fulton, Benjamin J.; et al. (2017). 1613: 1611: 1575: 1440: 1390: 1372: 1354: 1352: 1291: 467:list of 1235 extrasolar planet candidates 5731:List of potentially habitable exoplanets 3332: 3326: 2537: 1954: 1899:Rivera, E.; et al. (2005). "A ~7.5 1134:(−18 °C or 0 °F ). It is the 974: 727:In February 2016, it was announced that 601:and possibly a "prime candidate to host 569:On 7 January 2013, astronomers from the 506: 270: 224:and be too hot to support liquid water. 161: 144: 92: 29: 3946:Chen, Jingjing; Kipping, David (2016). 2929: 2923: 2771: 2630: 2322: 2119: 2090: 1676: 1561: 1260: 418:Discovered on 5 January 2010, a planet 6165: 4534: 4306:"Earth: A Borderline Planet for Life?" 4164:D'Angelo, G.; Bodenheimer, P. (2016). 4004: 3684: 3235: 3121: 2416:"Scientists spot nearby 'super-Earth'" 2413: 2275: 2232: 1898: 1784: 1608: 1487: 1349: 1051:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 6039:Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets 4786: 4379:"The plate tectonics of alien worlds" 4376: 3752: 3582: 3551: 3214:(Strasbourg astronomical Data Center) 3205: 3180: 3085: 2891: 2885: 2568: 2545:"Richest Planetary System Discovered" 1249: – Super-Earth orbiting TOI-1452 1098:), or even to rocky planets known as 463:Kepler Space Observatory mission team 5721:Habitability of yellow dwarf systems 5711:Habitability of neutron star systems 4145:Eric D. Lopez, Jonathan J. Fortney " 3936:findplanetnine.com February 26, 2019 3753:Young, Monica (September 17, 2018). 3296:Moskowitz, Clara (January 9, 2013). 3269: 3242:University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo 2979: 2973: 2676: 2009: 1960: 1064: 553:was announced. One of the planets, 451:The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia 204:star was discovered by a team under 6064:Sudarsky's gas giant classification 5691:Habitability of binary star systems 4336:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3672:Jorgenson, Amber (March 14, 2018). 3208:"LHS 188 – High proper-motion Star" 2958:Borenstein, S. (19 February 2011). 2330:"Lightest exoplanet yet discovered" 2176:"Trio of 'super-Earths' discovered" 1190:(which is vital for regulating the 950:The fact that there are barely any 885:was reported. Part of the planet's 825:In February 2018, K2-141b, a rocky 640:In May 2014, previously discovered 13: 6049:Nexus for Exoplanet System Science 5706:Habitability of natural satellites 4475:Charbonneau, David et al. (2009), 3902:"New planet lurks in Solar System" 2414:Sutter, J. D. (16 December 2009). 1106:the gas-phase of their progenitor 965: 912: 14: 6194: 5716:Habitability of red dwarf systems 4759: 4692:"Emission Temperature of Planets" 4654:"Emission Temperature of Planets" 4401: 4288:Spaulding, Dylan Kenneth (2010). 3583:Chang, Kenneth (24 August 2016). 2677:Vogt, S. S.; et al. (2010). 2631:Overbye, D. (29 September 2010). 2362:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 1243: – Planet smaller than Earth 1154: 403:A planet found in December 2009, 288: 6150: 6138: 6126: 6114: 6102: 5813:Stars with proto-planetary discs 5777:NASA Star and Exoplanet Database 5767:Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia 5255:Extraterrestrial sample curation 4886: 4765: 4743: 4531:, American Astronomical Society. 4492:"Exoplanets Exposed to the Core" 3270:Redd, Nola (20 September 2012). 3060:Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia 2752:Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia 2521:. 7 January 2010. Archived from 2233:Queloz, D.; et al. (2009). 1852:Dimitar Sasselov (2 June 2014). 1082:to break the crust into plates. 310:with a mass of 10 Earth masses. 232:In April 2007, a team headed by 189:in 1992. The two outer planets ( 153:(right) in comparison with Earth 5726:Habitable zone for complex life 5164:Ultra-short period planet (USP) 4868:Methods of detecting exoplanets 4731: 4719: 4519: 4484: 4469: 4410: 4395: 4370: 4323: 4298: 4281: 4268: 4255: 4242: 4229: 4216: 4139: 4120: 4059: 4048: 4023: 3998: 3920: 3894: 3833: 3821: 3795: 3769: 3746: 3665: 3379: 3315: 3236:Méndez, Abel (29 August 2012). 3100: 3079: 3047: 2930:Shostak, S. (3 February 2011). 2827: 2739: 2670: 2652: 2624: 2569:Lovis, C.; et al. (2015). 2562: 2507: 2485: 2407: 2336:. 21 April 2009. Archived from 2196: 2168: 2113: 2084: 1892: 1863: 1831: 1540:. 10 April 2008. Archived from 1538:Institut de Ciències de l'Espai 1488:Spotts, P. N. (28 April 2007). 1163: 1113: 848:In July 2019, the discovery of 836:In July 2018, the discovery of 200:The first super-Earth around a 5907:Discovered exoplanets by year 4812: 4005:Gough, Evan; Today, Universe. 2210:. 16 June 2008. Archived from 1526: 1506: 1481: 1324: 1: 6034:Extrasolar planets in fiction 5681:Extraterrestrial liquid water 4569:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_140 4377:Barry, C. (17 October 2007). 4222:Courtney D. Dressing et al. " 2549:European Southern Observatory 2334:European Southern Observatory 1253: 1218:Extraterrestrial liquid water 212:and received the designation 88: 6054:Planets in globular clusters 5671:Circumstellar habitable zone 3694:Ma, Bo; et al. (2018). 2982:Astronomy & Astrophysics 2579:Astronomy & Astrophysics 2471:10.1088/0004-637X/716/2/1208 2033:Astronomy & Astrophysics 1085: 971:Density and bulk composition 700:Astronomy & Astrophysics 38:(center) in comparison with 7: 6014:Exoplanet naming convention 5124:Planet/Brown dwarf boundary 4035:Goddard Space Flight Center 3365:10.1088/0004-637X/789/2/154 3206:Staff (20 September 2012). 3160:10.1088/2041-8205/737/1/L18 3012:10.1051/0004-6361/201117055 2850:10.1088/0004-637X/728/2/117 2725:10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/954 2664:National Science Foundation 2610:10.1051/0004-6361/201015577 2393:10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/L30 2262:10.1051/0004-6361/200913096 1205: 765:was analyzed successfully. 573:announced the discovery of 515:in front of its parent star 443:National Science Foundation 238:Gliese 581 planetary system 10: 6199: 5250:Extraterrestrial materials 4884: 4632:10.1088/0004-637X/778/1/77 4356:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.07.029 4274:Geoffrey W. Marcy et al. " 4201:10.3847/0004-637X/828/1/33 4136:, Oxford University Press. 3983:10.3847/1538-4357/834/1/17 3927:The Search for Planet Nine 3879:10.3847/0004-6256/151/2/22 3552:Staff (16 February 2016). 2892:Grant, A. (8 March 2011). 2813:10.1088/0004-637X/736/1/19 2308:10.1088/0004-637X/696/1/75 2240:Astronomy and Astrophysics 2063:10.1051/0004-6361:20077612 1876:Cambridge University Press 1709:10.1088/0004-637X/736/1/19 1594:10.1088/0004-637X/766/2/81 1167: 916: 799:. Due to its closeness to 795:, the closest star to the 304:gravitational microlensing 240:, both on the edge of the 18: 6077:Discoveries of exoplanets 6072: 6001: 5790: 5749: 5651: 5563: 5470: 5403: 5280:Interplanetary dust cloud 5176: 5056: 4982: 4908: 4895: 4850: 4818: 4602:The Astrophysical Journal 4511:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4170:The Astrophysical Journal 3952:The Astrophysical Journal 3335:The Astrophysical Journal 3181:Staff (20 January 2012). 3130:The Astrophysical Journal 2783:The Astrophysical Journal 2440:The Astrophysical Journal 2278:The Astrophysical Journal 2123:The Astrophysical Journal 1964:The Astrophysical Journal 1909:The Astrophysical Journal 1787:The Astrophysical Journal 1733:The Astrophysical Journal 1679:The Astrophysical Journal 1522:(2629). 11 November 2007. 1361:The Astrophysical Journal 1279:The Astrophysical Journal 827:ultra-short period planet 266:runaway greenhouse effect 85:" is a more common term. 5782:Open Exoplanet Catalogue 5757:Nearby Habitable Systems 5643:Transit-timing variation 3847:The Astronomical Journal 3650:10.3847/1538-3881/aaa5b5 3618:The Astronomical Journal 1655:10.3847/1538-3881/aa80eb 1624:The Astronomical Journal 709:constellation Cassiopeia 571:Kepler space observatory 168:Kepler Planet Candidates 157: 61:with a mass higher than 6059:Small planet radius gap 5762:Exoplanet Data Explorer 5686:Galactic habitable zone 5260:Giant-impact hypothesis 4481:, Nature 462, p.891–894 4348:2011E&PSL.310..252V 3004:2011A&A...534A..58P 2932:"A Bucketful of Worlds" 2602:2011A&A...528A.112L 2253:2009A&A...506..303Q 2055:2007A&A...469L..43U 2026:) in a 3-planet system" 1145:Visual geometric albedo 1118:Since the atmospheres, 1059:University of Rochester 945:trans-Neptunian objects 896: 876: 869:In 2021, the exoplanet 864: 843: 820: 722: 711:, but it is not in the 665: 635: 564: 544: 511:Artist's impression of 456: 413: 363: 313: 293: 228:First in habitable zone 141:History and discoveries 6019:Exoplanet phase curves 5857:Terrestrial candidates 5808:Multiplanetary systems 5772:NASA Exoplanet Archive 5455:Mean-motion resonances 5265:Gravitational collapse 5215:Circumstellar envelope 4543:Handbook of Exoplanets 4294:(Thesis). UC Berkeley. 2873:Cite journal requires 2519:W. M. Keck Observatory 2495:. CNN. 19 October 2009 1495:The Hamilton Spectator 1170:Planetary habitability 1130:of the Earth is 255.3 1128:black-body temperature 1033:and between ≈5 and 6 M 980: 735:Hubble Space Telescope 519:In 2011, a density of 516: 432:radial velocity method 285: 175: 154: 122:Kepler space telescope 101: 46: 5894:Potentially habitable 5799:Exoplanetary systems 5741:Superhabitable planet 5500:F/Yellow-white dwarfs 5385:Sample-return mission 5285:Interplanetary medium 3731:10.1093/mnras/sty1933 3419:10.1093/mnrasl/slx116 2694:Astrophysical Journal 1564:Astrophysical Journal 1168:Further information: 978: 815:Breakthrough Starshot 510: 274: 165: 148: 127:massive solid planets 112:(~69% of the mass of 96: 33: 6029:Extragalactic planet 6009:Carl Sagan Institute 5290:Interplanetary space 5205:Circumplanetary disk 4878:Planet-hosting stars 4774:at Wikimedia Commons 4454:10.1093/mnras/sts705 2666:. 29 September 2010. 2208:Agence France-Presse 958:inside the orbit of 889:takes it within the 745:(and suggestions of 694:, is a super-Earth. 682:: two of the three, 282:astronomical symbols 6178:Terrestrial planets 5370:Protoplanetary disk 5350:Planetary migration 5305:Interstellar medium 5084:Circumtriple planet 5079:Circumbinary planet 4624:2013ApJ...778...77D 4561:2018haex.bookE.140D 4445:2013MNRAS.430.1247L 4192:2016ApJ...828...33D 4090:2013PASP..125..227Z 4037:. 24 September 2007 3974:2017ApJ...834...17C 3870:2016AJ....151...22B 3757:. Sky and Telescope 3722:2018MNRAS.480.2411M 3641:2018AJ....155..107M 3410:2017MNRAS.471L.125R 3357:2014ApJ...789..154D 3152:2011ApJ...737L..18W 2905:Kalmbach Publishing 2805:2011ApJ...736...19B 2717:2010ApJ...723..954V 2525:on 25 December 2014 2463:2010ApJ...716.1208R 2385:2009ApJ...700L..30B 2300:2009ApJ...696...75H 2146:2008ApJ...684..663B 2107:2008AAS...212.1012B 2080:on October 8, 2010. 1987:2005ApJ...631L..85Z 1932:2005ApJ...634..625R 1809:2007ApJ...669.1279S 1756:2007ApJ...669.1279S 1701:2011ApJ...736...19B 1646:2017AJ....154..109F 1586:2013ApJ...766...81F 1459:10.1038/nature08679 1451:2009Natur.462..891C 1383:2007ApJ...659.1661F 1302:2007ApJ...656..545V 1108:protoplanetary disk 1076:convection currents 901:On 31 January 2024 461:On 2 February, the 300:OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb 208:in 2005. It orbits 5335:Nebular hypothesis 5310:Interstellar space 5295:Interstellar cloud 5275:Internal structure 5210:Circumstellar disc 4235:Leslie A. Rogers " 4126:H. Lammer et al. " 3932:2020-11-30 at the 3678:Astronomy Magazine 3248:on 21 October 2019 3067:on October 5, 2011 2962:. Associated Press 2638:The New York Times 1124:greenhouse effects 1057:laboratory at the 981: 929:terrestrial planet 517: 320:MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb 286: 254:astronomical units 176: 155: 102: 47: 6090: 6089: 5666:Astrooceanography 5300:Interstellar dust 5172: 5171: 5048:Ultra-hot Neptune 5043:Ultra-hot Jupiter 4992:Eccentric Jupiter 4842:Planetary science 4770:Media related to 4738:Better Than Earth 4578:978-3-319-55332-0 4308:(Press release). 4055:www.astrozeng.com 3908:. 22 January 2016 3906:The Straits Times 3809:. 31 January 2024 2901:– Blogs / 80beats 2899:Discover Magazine 2662:(Press release). 1435:(7275): 891–894. 1180:conducive to life 1100:chthonian planets 1065:Geologic activity 1001:by a team around 833:, is discovered. 697:On 30 July 2015, 678:of their related 387:The discovery of 135:gas giant planets 16:Type of exoplanet 6190: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6143: 6142: 6141: 6131: 6130: 6129: 6119: 6118: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6098: 6044:Neptunian desert 5430:Tidally detached 5365:Planet formation 5355:Planetary system 5245:Exozodiacal dust 5235:Disrupted planet 5159:Ultra-cool dwarf 5089:Disrupted planet 5074:Chthonian planet 4906: 4905: 4890: 4873:Planetary system 4807: 4800: 4793: 4784: 4783: 4769: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4707: 4701:. Archived from 4696: 4688: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4675: 4669: 4663:. Archived from 4658: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4617: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4554: 4538: 4532: 4523: 4517: 4516: 4510: 4502: 4500: 4499: 4488: 4482: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4456: 4438: 4429:(2): 1247–1256. 4414: 4408: 4407: 4402:Black, Charles. 4399: 4393: 4392: 4387:. Archived from 4374: 4368: 4367: 4342:(3–4): 252–261. 4327: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4317: 4312:. 9 January 2008 4302: 4296: 4295: 4285: 4279: 4272: 4266: 4259: 4253: 4246: 4240: 4233: 4227: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4203: 4185: 4161: 4150: 4143: 4137: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4083: 4074:(925): 227–239. 4063: 4057: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4042: 4027: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4017: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3985: 3967: 3943: 3937: 3924: 3918: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3881: 3863: 3837: 3831: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3799: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3750: 3744: 3743: 3733: 3715: 3691: 3682: 3681: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3652: 3634: 3608: 3602: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3580: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3493: 3487: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3437: 3431: 3430: 3421: 3403: 3394:(1): L125–L130, 3383: 3377: 3376: 3350: 3330: 3324: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3267: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3233: 3224: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3145: 3125: 3119: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3104: 3098: 3097: 3095: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3063:. Archived from 3055:"Star: HD 20781" 3051: 3045: 3044: 3042: 3030: 3024: 3023: 2997: 2977: 2971: 2970: 2968: 2967: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2907:. Archived from 2889: 2883: 2882: 2876: 2871: 2869: 2861: 2843: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2798: 2778: 2769: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2755:. Archived from 2743: 2737: 2736: 2710: 2690: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2656: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2595: 2575: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2557: 2556: 2551:. 24 August 2010 2541: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2456: 2447:(2): 1208–1216. 2434: 2428: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2411: 2405: 2404: 2378: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2340:on 6 August 2009 2326: 2320: 2319: 2293: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2264: 2230: 2224: 2223: 2221: 2219: 2200: 2194: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2139: 2117: 2111: 2110: 2088: 2082: 2081: 2079: 2073:. Archived from 2048: 2030: 2013: 2007: 2006: 1980: 1978:astro-ph/0508305 1958: 1952: 1951: 1925: 1923:astro-ph/0510508 1896: 1890: 1889: 1867: 1861: 1857: 1849: 1840: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1802: 1793:(2): 1279–1297. 1782: 1776: 1775: 1749: 1740:(2): 1279–1297. 1727: 1721: 1720: 1694: 1674: 1668: 1667: 1657: 1639: 1615: 1606: 1605: 1579: 1559: 1553: 1552: 1550: 1549: 1530: 1524: 1523: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1498:. Archived from 1485: 1479: 1478: 1444: 1422: 1413: 1412: 1394: 1376: 1374:astro-ph/0612671 1367:(2): 1661–1672. 1356: 1347: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1328: 1322: 1321: 1295: 1293:astro-ph/0610122 1273: 1136:greenhouse gases 887:elliptical orbit 873:was discovered. 793:Proxima Centauri 747:hydrogen cyanide 733: 420:HD 156668 b 6198: 6197: 6193: 6192: 6191: 6189: 6188: 6187: 6183:Types of planet 6163: 6162: 6161: 6151: 6149: 6139: 6137: 6127: 6125: 6113: 6103: 6101: 6093: 6091: 6086: 6082:Search projects 6068: 5997: 5786: 5745: 5647: 5619:Radial velocity 5559: 5515:K/Orange dwarfs 5505:G/Yellow dwarfs 5466: 5460:Titius–Bode law 5399: 5330:Molecular cloud 5230:Detached object 5181: 5179: 5168: 5154:Toroidal planet 5144:Sub-brown dwarf 5052: 4978: 4950:(Super-Mercury) 4923:Coreless planet 4899: 4897: 4891: 4882: 4846: 4814: 4811: 4762: 4757: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4724: 4720: 4711: 4709: 4705: 4694: 4690: 4689: 4682: 4673: 4671: 4667: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4647: 4598: 4594: 4579: 4539: 4535: 4524: 4520: 4504: 4503: 4497: 4495: 4490: 4489: 4485: 4474: 4470: 4415: 4411: 4400: 4396: 4375: 4371: 4328: 4324: 4315: 4313: 4304: 4303: 4299: 4286: 4282: 4273: 4269: 4260: 4256: 4247: 4243: 4234: 4230: 4221: 4217: 4176:(1): in press. 4162: 4153: 4144: 4140: 4125: 4121: 4064: 4060: 4053: 4049: 4040: 4038: 4029: 4028: 4024: 4015: 4013: 4003: 3999: 3944: 3940: 3934:Wayback Machine 3925: 3921: 3911: 3909: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3838: 3834: 3826: 3822: 3812: 3810: 3801: 3800: 3796: 3786: 3784: 3783:. 1 August 2022 3775: 3774: 3770: 3760: 3758: 3751: 3747: 3692: 3685: 3670: 3666: 3609: 3605: 3595: 3593: 3581: 3574: 3564: 3562: 3550: 3546: 3536: 3534: 3522: 3518: 3508: 3506: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3480: 3478: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3452: 3450: 3438: 3434: 3384: 3380: 3331: 3327: 3320: 3316: 3306: 3304: 3294: 3290: 3280: 3278: 3268: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3234: 3227: 3217: 3215: 3204: 3200: 3191: 3189: 3179: 3175: 3126: 3122: 3112: 3110: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3084: 3080: 3070: 3068: 3053: 3052: 3048: 3031: 3027: 2978: 2974: 2965: 2963: 2956: 2952: 2942: 2940: 2937:Huffington Post 2928: 2924: 2914: 2912: 2911:on 9 March 2011 2890: 2886: 2874: 2872: 2863: 2862: 2832: 2828: 2779: 2772: 2762: 2760: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2675: 2671: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2643: 2641: 2629: 2625: 2573: 2567: 2563: 2554: 2552: 2543: 2542: 2538: 2528: 2526: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2498: 2496: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2435: 2431: 2421: 2419: 2412: 2408: 2357: 2353: 2343: 2341: 2328: 2327: 2323: 2274: 2270: 2231: 2227: 2217: 2215: 2214:on 19 June 2008 2202: 2201: 2197: 2187: 2185: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2118: 2114: 2089: 2085: 2077: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2014: 2010: 1959: 1955: 1905: 1902: 1897: 1893: 1886: 1868: 1864: 1850: 1843: 1836: 1832: 1783: 1779: 1728: 1724: 1675: 1671: 1616: 1609: 1560: 1556: 1547: 1545: 1544:on 1 March 2012 1532: 1531: 1527: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1486: 1482: 1423: 1416: 1392:10.1.1.337.1073 1357: 1350: 1340: 1338: 1330: 1329: 1325: 1274: 1261: 1256: 1208: 1188:plate tectonics 1176: 1166: 1157: 1116: 1088: 1071:plate tectonics 1067: 1036: 1031: 973: 968: 966:Characteristics 921: 915: 913:In Solar system 899: 879: 867: 859: 856: 846: 823: 781:that is in the 731: 725: 676:habitable zones 668: 661: 658: 650: 647: 638: 610:William Borucki 593:similar to the 567: 547: 459: 416: 366: 343:radial velocity 316: 296: 291: 278: 230: 160: 143: 91: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6196: 6186: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6160: 6159: 6147: 6135: 6123: 6111: 6088: 6087: 6085: 6084: 6079: 6073: 6070: 6069: 6067: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6005: 6003: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5885: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5818: 5817: 5816: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5796: 5794: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5753: 5751: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5657: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5645: 5640: 5639: 5638: 5631:Transit method 5628: 5627: 5626: 5616: 5615: 5614: 5604: 5599: 5598: 5597: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5578:Direct imaging 5575: 5569: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5476: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5439: 5434: 5433: 5432: 5422: 5421: 5420: 5409: 5407: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5397: 5395:Star formation 5392: 5390:Scattered disc 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5240:Excretion disk 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5195:Accretion disk 5192: 5186: 5184: 5174: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5104:Eyeball planet 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5060: 5058: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4914: 4912: 4903: 4893: 4892: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4854: 4852: 4848: 4847: 4845: 4844: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4819: 4816: 4815: 4810: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4775: 4761: 4760:External links 4758: 4755: 4754: 4742: 4730: 4718: 4680: 4645: 4592: 4577: 4533: 4518: 4483: 4468: 4409: 4394: 4391:on 4 May 2012. 4369: 4322: 4297: 4280: 4267: 4254: 4241: 4228: 4215: 4151: 4138: 4119: 4106:10.1086/669163 4098:10.1086/669163 4058: 4047: 4022: 3997: 3938: 3919: 3893: 3832: 3820: 3794: 3768: 3745: 3683: 3664: 3603: 3590:New York Times 3572: 3544: 3516: 3505:. 30 July 2015 3488: 3477:. 30 July 2015 3460: 3432: 3378: 3325: 3322:Indian Express 3314: 3288: 3259: 3225: 3198: 3173: 3120: 3099: 3078: 3046: 3025: 2972: 2950: 2922: 2884: 2875:|journal= 2826: 2770: 2759:on 10 May 2012 2747:"Star: Gl 581" 2738: 2701:(1): 954–965. 2683: 2680: 2669: 2651: 2623: 2561: 2536: 2506: 2484: 2429: 2406: 2369:(1): L30–L33. 2351: 2321: 2268: 2247:(1): 303–319. 2225: 2195: 2184:. 16 June 2008 2167: 2154:10.1086/589940 2130:(1): 663–683. 2112: 2083: 2039:(3): L43–L47. 2023: 2020: 2008: 1995:10.1086/497094 1971:(1): L85–L88. 1953: 1940:10.1086/491669 1916:(1): 625–640. 1903: 1900: 1891: 1885:978-0521897846 1884: 1862: 1841: 1830: 1817:10.1086/521346 1777: 1764:10.1086/521346 1722: 1669: 1607: 1554: 1525: 1505: 1502:on 2015-11-06. 1480: 1414: 1401:10.1086/512120 1348: 1323: 1310:10.1086/509800 1286:(1): 545–551. 1258: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1244: 1238: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1215: 1207: 1204: 1194:and hence the 1165: 1162: 1156: 1155:Magnetic field 1153: 1115: 1112: 1087: 1084: 1066: 1063: 1034: 1029: 1007:transit method 1003:Diana Valencia 972: 969: 967: 964: 917:Main article: 914: 911: 907:habitable zone 898: 895: 891:habitable zone 878: 875: 866: 863: 857: 854: 845: 842: 822: 819: 783:habitable zone 724: 721: 713:habitable zone 667: 664: 659: 656: 648: 645: 637: 634: 599:habitable zone 566: 563: 559:habitable zone 546: 543: 471:habitable zone 458: 455: 415: 412: 405:GJ 1214 b 365: 362: 345:method by the 315: 312: 295: 292: 290: 289:Others by year 287: 276: 260:comparable to 242:habitable zone 229: 226: 206:Eugenio Rivera 159: 156: 142: 139: 90: 87: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6195: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6158: 6148: 6146: 6136: 6134: 6124: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6110: 6100: 6099: 6096: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6071: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5906: 5905: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5823: 5820: 5819: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5793: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5754: 5752: 5748: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5658: 5656: 5654: 5650: 5644: 5641: 5637: 5634: 5633: 5632: 5629: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5620: 5617: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5592: 5591: 5588: 5584: 5581: 5580: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5556: 5555:Yellow giants 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5469: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5442: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5431: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5423: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5414: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5325:Merging stars 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5200:Asteroid belt 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5175: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5139:Pulsar planet 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5094:Double planet 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5055: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5033:Super-Neptune 5031: 5029: 5028:Super-Jupiter 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5003:Helium planet 5001: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4989: 4987: 4985: 4981: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4938:Hycean planet 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4928:Desert planet 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4918:Carbon planet 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4894: 4889: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4849: 4843: 4840: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4824: 4821: 4820: 4817: 4808: 4803: 4801: 4796: 4794: 4789: 4788: 4785: 4779: 4776: 4773: 4768: 4764: 4763: 4751: 4746: 4739: 4734: 4727: 4722: 4708:on 2018-08-26 4704: 4700: 4693: 4687: 4685: 4670:on 2018-08-26 4666: 4662: 4655: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4544: 4537: 4530: 4529: 4522: 4514: 4508: 4493: 4487: 4480: 4479: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4413: 4405: 4398: 4390: 4386: 4385: 4380: 4373: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4326: 4311: 4307: 4301: 4293: 4292: 4284: 4277: 4271: 4264: 4258: 4251: 4245: 4238: 4232: 4225: 4219: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4160: 4158: 4156: 4148: 4142: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4123: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4062: 4056: 4051: 4036: 4032: 4026: 4012: 4008: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3942: 3935: 3931: 3928: 3923: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3836: 3829: 3824: 3808: 3804: 3798: 3782: 3778: 3772: 3756: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3688: 3679: 3675: 3668: 3660: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3642: 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