30:
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nearby in North Africa, the
Egyptians developed a calendar of their own. The Egyptian calendar was solar based, while the Babylonian calendar was lunar based. A potential blend between the two that has been noted by some historians is the adoption of a crude leap year by the Babylonians after the Egyptians developed one. The Babylonian leap year shares no similarities with the leap year practiced today. It involved the addition of a thirteenth month as a means to re-calibrate the calendar to better match the growing season.
380:. The stars followed and possibly charted by these city-states are identical stars to the ones in the astrolabes. Each region had a set of twelve stars it followed, which combined equals the thirty-six stars in the astrolabes. The twelve stars of each region also correspond to the months of the year. The two cuneiform texts that provide the information for this claim are the large star list “K 250” and “K 8067”. Both of these tablets were translated and transcribed by Weidner. During the reign of
315:. Since omens via the planets were produced without any human action, they were seen as more powerful. But they believed the events these omens foretold were also avoidable. The relationship Mesopotamians had with omens can be seen in the Omen Compendia, a Babylonian text composed starting from the beginning of the second millennium on-wards. It is the primary source text that tells us that ancient Mesopotamians saw omens as preventable. The text also contains information on
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that is considered excellent by other historians who specialize in
Babylonian astronomy. Two other texts concerning the astrolabes that should be mentioned are the Brussels and Berlin compilations. They offer similar information to the Pinches anthology, but do contain some differing information from
451:
Babylonian priests were the ones responsible for developing new forms of mathematics and did so to better calculate the movements of celestial bodies. One such priest, Nabu-rimanni, is the first documented
Babylonian astronomer. He was a priest for the moon god and is credited with writing lunar and
294:
and world view of the ancient
Babylonian astrologers and astronomers. This is largely due to the current fragmentary state of Babylonian planetary theory, and also due to Babylonian astronomy and cosmology largely being separate endeavors. Nevertheless, traces of cosmology can be found in Babylonian
447:
The exploration of the Sun, Moon, and other celestial bodies affected the development of
Mesopotamian culture. The study of the sky led to the development of a calendar and advanced mathematics in these societies. The Babylonians were not the first complex society to develop a calendar globally and
438:
Tablet 1 houses information that closely parallels information contained in astrolabe B. The similarities between Tablet 1 and astrolabe B show that the authors were inspired by the same source for at least some of the information. There are six lists of stars on this tablet that relate to sixty
902:
Historians have found evidence that Athens during the late 5th century may have been aware of
Babylonian astronomy. astronomers, or astronomical concepts and practices through the documentation by Xenophon of Socrates telling his students to study astronomy to the extent of being able to tell the
877:
IV.2 that
Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon's periods known to him from "even more ancient astronomers" by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by "the Chaldeans", and by himself. However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in
359:
and date back to the Old
Babylonian Kingdom. They are a list of thirty-six stars connected with the months in a year, generally considered to be written between 1800 and 1100 B.C. No complete texts have been found, but there is a modern compilation by Pinches, assembled from texts housed in the
384:
these three separate traditions were combined. This combining also ushered in a more scientific approach to astronomy as connections to the original three traditions weakened. The increased use of science in astronomy is evidenced by the traditions from these three regions being arranged in
157:
and procedure texts, hence current knowledge of
Babylonian planetary theory is in a fragmentary state. Nevertheless, the surviving fragments show that Babylonian astronomy was the first "successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena" and that "all
452:
eclipse computation tables as well as other elaborate mathematical calculations. The computation tables are organized in seventeen or eighteen tables that document the orbiting speeds of planets and the Moon. His work was later recounted by astronomers during the
Seleucid dynasty.
226:. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.
862:
and the idea of the day being split into two halves of twelve from the Babylonians. Other sources point to Greek pardegms, a stone with 365-366 holes carved into it to represent the days in a year, from the Babylonians as well.
890:). Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations. Later Greek knowledge of this specific Babylonian theory is confirmed by 2nd-century
339:, circa 2500-670 B.C., show lunar omens observed by the Mesopotamians. "When the moon disappears, evil will befall the land. When the moon disappears out of its reckoning, an eclipse will take place".
330:
is a series of cuneiform tablets that gives insight on different sky omens Babylonian astronomers observed. Celestial bodies such as the Sun and Moon were given significant power as omens. Reports from
548:. Babylonian procedure texts describe, and ephemerides employ, arithmetical procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events. More recent analysis of previously unpublished
439:
constellations in charted paths of the three groups of Babylonian star paths, Ea, Anu, and Enlil. There are also additions to the paths of both Anu and Enlil that are not found in astrolabe B.
146:. The Babylonians used the sexagesimal system to trace the planets transits, by dividing the 360 degree sky into 30 degrees, they assigned 12 zodiacal signs to the stars along the ecliptic.
822:) have been preserved up to the present time, or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references. However, achievements in these fields by earlier
894:, which contains 32 lines of a single column of calculations for the Moon using this same "System B", but written in Greek on papyrus rather than in cuneiform on clay tablets.
199:
Babylonian astronomers developed zodiacal signs. They are made up of the division of the sky into three sets of thirty degrees and the constellations that inhabit each sector.
664:. Seleucus, however, was unique among them in that he was the only one known to have supported the heliocentric theory of planetary motion proposed by Aristarchus, where the
323:
as “namburbu”, meaning roughly, “ loosening”. The god Ea was the one believed to send the omens. Concerning the severity of omens, eclipses were seen as the most dangerous.
571:. Whereas Greek astronomers expressed "prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion", such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers.
234:
The Babylonians were the first civilization known to possess a functional theory of the planets. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian
644:. The Greek geographer Strabo lists Seleucus as one of the four most influential astronomers, who came from Hellenistic Seleuceia on the Tigris, alongside
307:
could and did indicate future events to mankind through omens; sometimes through animal entrails, but most often they believed omens could be read through
102:, and some modern scholars have thus referred to this approach as a scientific revolution. This approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in
2210:, ed. Erle Leichty, Maria deJ. Ellis, and Pamela Gerardi, pp. 353–362. Philadelphia: Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 9, 1988.
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Though there is a lack of surviving material on Babylonian planetary theory, it appears most of the Chaldean astronomers were concerned mainly with
238:, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The
142:. Babylonian astronomy paved the way for modern astrology and is responsible for its spread across the Graeco-Roman empire during the 2nd Century,
368:
The thirty-six stars that make up the astrolabes are believed to be derived from the astronomical traditions from three Mesopotamian city-states,
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time of night from the stars. This skill is referenced in the poem of Aratos, which discusses telling the time of night from the zodiacal signs.
419:
MUL.APIN is a collection of two cuneiform tablets (Tablet 1 and Tablet 2) that document aspects of Babylonian astronomy such as the movement of
556:, dated between 350 and 50 BC, demonstrates that Babylonian astronomers sometimes used geometrical methods, prefiguring the methods of the
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and not with theory. It had been thought that most of the predictive Babylonian planetary models that have survived were usually strictly
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188:. First presumed to be describing rules to a game, its use was later deciphered to be a unit converter for calculating the movement of
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2613:
431:. Each tablet is also split into smaller sections called Lists. It was comprised in the general time frame of the astrolabes and
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17:
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model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used
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1741:"The Earliest Candidates of Auroral Observations in Assyrian Astrological Reports: Insights on Solar Activity around 660 BCE"
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are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.
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was not uniform, though they were unaware of why this was; it is today known that this is due to the Earth moving in an
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None of his original writings or Greek translations have survived, though a fragment of his work has survived only in
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This article is about ancient astronomy from Babylonian civilization. For information about Babylonian cosmology, see
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544:, though the Babylonian astronomers were concerned with the philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early
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Only fragments of Babylonian astronomy have survived, consisting largely of contemporary clay tablets containing
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830:, were forgotten for a long time. Since the discovery of key archaeological sites in the 19th century, many
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Writing Science Before the Greeks: A Naturalistic Analysis of the Babylonian Astronomical Treatise MUL.APIN
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1962:
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1902:"Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph"
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
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Aside from occasional interactions between the two, Babylonian astronomy was largely independent from
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van der Waerden, B. L. (1951). "Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations".
695:. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to
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2697:
1991:"Stellar Distances in Early Babylonian Astronomy: A New Perspective on the Hilprecht Text (HS 229)"
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within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the
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The only surviving planetary model from among the Chaldean astronomers is that of the Hellenistic
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1951:
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103:
1950:
Pingree, David (1998). "Legacies In Astronomy And Celestial Omens". In Dalley, Stephanie (ed.).
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and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.
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75:. This system simplified the calculating and recording of unusually great and small numbers.
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Cosmology : historical, literary, philosophical, religious, and scientific perspectives
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Contributions made by the Chaldean astronomers during this period include the discovery of
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2196:. 3 volumes. London:1956; 2nd edition, New York: Springer, 1983. (Commonly abbreviated as
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8:
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170:, and in the West … depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."
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Jones, Alexander. "The Adaptation of Babylonian Methods in Greek Numerical Astronomy."
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2002:
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Mesopotamian Astrology: An Introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian Celestial Divination
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710:, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a
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469:
243:
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38:
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1591:
1538:
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582:, and many accurate astronomical observations. For example, they observed that the
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189:
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56:
1981:
The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture
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327:
248:
211:
1714:"Three thousand years of sexagesimal numbers in Mesopotamian mathematical texts"
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Aaboe, A.; Britton, J.P.; Henderson, J.A.; Neugebauer, O.; Sachs, A.J. (1991).
803:
661:
591:
553:
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studied Assyrian cuneiform tablets, reporting unusual red skies which might be
377:
361:
111:
64:
1963:"A consideration of Babylonian astronomy within the historiography of science"
1639:
1470:
858:). Herodotus writes that the Greeks learned such aspects of astronomy as the
672:. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system through
594:
around the Sun, with the Earth moving swifter when it is nearer to the Sun at
3017:
2829:
843:
625:
575:
193:
1917:
1739:
Hayakawa, Hisashi; Mitsuma, Yasuyuki; Ebihara, Yusuke; Miyake, Fusa (2019).
78:
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new
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435:, evidenced by similar themes, mathematical principles, and occurrences.
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In 1900, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that Ptolemy had stated in his
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1691:
1682:
1658:
774: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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2015:
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and settings of the planets, and lengths of daylight as measured by a
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1620:
1604:
1124:. State Archives of Assyria. Vol. 8. Helsinki University Press.
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827:
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methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of
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381:
356:
352:
348:
320:
312:
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291:
79:
1674:
749:
2123:"Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations"
2113:
2098:"Babylonian Astronomy. III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations"
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1942:
1867:
1757:
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1225:
The Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon
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952:
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711:
629:
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587:
545:
529:
428:
414:
203:
184:
An object labelled the ivory prism was recovered from the ruins of
91:
1535:
Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science
397:, an astronomical system contained and discussed in the MUL.APIN.
319:
rites to avert evil, or “nam-bur-bi”, a term later adopted by the
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887:
653:
645:
561:
497:
481:
336:
332:
185:
131:
119:
72:
34:
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691:, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the
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Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy
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1453:
Paul Murdin, ed. (2001). "Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BCE?)".
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637:
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approach to astronomy. They began studying and recording their
1511:
1436:
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1432:
1291:
1238:
1236:
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1204:
480:
Neo-Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomy developed by
1659:"Saros Cycle Dates and Related Babylonian Astronomical Texts"
1192:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1035:
1033:
1031:
687:. Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the
394:
316:
115:
2213:
1738:
1327:
1429:
1231:
700:
688:
684:
683:, his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of
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periods of Mesopotamian history. The systematic records in
369:
304:
257:
2177:
The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages
1405:
1170:
1168:
1091:
1089:
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also laid the foundations of what would eventually become
2389:
2208:
A Scientific Humanist: Studies in Memory of Abraham Sachs
1881:
The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
1180:
842:. Most known astronomical tablets have been described by
669:
583:
390:
1381:
1227:. New York: D. Appleton & Company. pp. 451–460.
882:, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "
2016:"Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C."
1852:"The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods"
1818:"Review: Babylonian Astrological Omens and Their Stars"
1311:
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511:
1555:
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around its own axis which in turn revolved around the
71:, was based on sixty, as opposed to ten in the modern
2991:
2175:, 82(1991): 441-453; reprinted in Michael Shank, ed.
2145:
1417:
1138:
351:
of the same name) are one of the earliest documented
158:
subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the
1306:
1155:
1153:
992:
1967:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A
1101:
1074:
1004:
504:allowed for the observation of a repeating 18-year
443:
Relationship of calendar, mathematics and astronomy
1663:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
1345:
1062:
1016:
980:
699:(1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the
256:period in the 7th century BC, comprises a list of
1357:
1150:
676:, though it is not known what arguments he used.
347:The astrolabes (not to be mistaken for the later
3015:
2073:"Babylonian Astronomy. II. The Thirty-Six Stars"
729:translation, which was later referred to by the
2120:
2095:
2070:
1988:
1517:
1440:
1254:
1242:
1056:
1039:
1455:The Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics
1119:
628:model. Seleucus is known from the writings of
2229:
1927:"Hellenophilia versus the History of Science"
1795:
1704:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy
1300:
1210:
1198:
1186:
740:Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy
656:. Their works were originally written in the
598:and moving slower when it is farther away at
564:over time in an abstract mathematical space.
1956:. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137.
1899:
1775:
1631:Episodes From the Early History of Astronomy
1529:
1387:
1840:
1452:
1411:
475:
173:
2236:
2222:
2206:"Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy." In
2127:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1849:
1693:Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology
1877:"Babylonian Astronomy: Historical Sketch"
1766:
1756:
1729:
838:have been found, some of them related to
790:Learn how and when to remove this message
605:
303:It was a common Mesopotamian belief that
2179:. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000.
2019:Journal of the American Oriental Society
1977:
1960:
1874:
1822:Journal of the American Oriental Society
1796:Hunger, Hermann; Pingree, David (1999).
1315:
1222:
1174:
1080:
897:
404:
385:accordance to the paths of the stars of
28:
1949:
1924:
1815:
1711:
1399:
1144:
1068:
986:
14:
3016:
2146:Watson, Rita; Horowitz, Wayne (2011).
2045:
2013:
1786:
1423:
1351:
1122:Astrological reports to Assyrian kings
1107:
208:catalogues of stars and constellations
2217:
1893:10.1086/amerjsemilanglit.55.2.3088090
1718:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
1700:
1689:
1627:
1602:
1577:
1561:
1375:
1363:
1159:
1095:
1022:
1010:
998:
620:(b. 190 BC), who supported the Greek
2975:
1806:
772:adding citations to reliable sources
743:
512:Arithmetical and geometrical methods
90:dealing with an ideal nature of the
1605:"Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity"
1248:
867:Influence on Hipparchus and Ptolemy
229:
24:
2165:
2139:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x
1596:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1958.tb00499.x
1580:"On Babylonian Planetary Theories"
210:as well as schemes for predicting
25:
3045:
2048:"Explaining Babylonian Astronomy"
1789:A History of Horoscopic Astrology
1745:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
290:, very little is known about the
3001:
2974:
2963:
2962:
2733:Southern African Large Telescope
1776:Hetherington, Norris S. (1993).
826:civilizations, notably those in
748:
118:sources frequently use the term
2102:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
2077:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1995:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1856:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1523:
1487:
1446:
1257:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1216:
1113:
759:needs additional citations for
708:Bartel Leendert van der Waerden
502:Babylonian astronomical diaries
349:astronomical measurement device
2150:. Leiden: Brill Academic Pub.
2121:Van der Waerden, B.L. (1987).
2096:Van der Waerden, B.L. (1951).
2071:Van der Waerden, B.L. (1949).
1900:Ossendrijver, Mathieu (2016).
1799:Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia
1791:. American Federation of Astr.
1541:. pp. viii & 201–17.
1223:Thompson, R. Campbell (1904).
528:, and usually did not involve
278:presented in Mesopotamian and
270:Ancient near eastern cosmology
55:was the study or recording of
47:Ancient near eastern cosmology
13:
1:
2243:
1984:. Cambridge University Press.
1845:. Cambridge University Press.
1500:, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2003,
968:
802:Many of the works of ancient
734:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi
642:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi
342:
2194:Astronomical Cuneiform Texts
1989:Rochberg-Halton, F. (1983).
1978:Rochberg, Francesca (2004).
1961:Rochberg, Francesca (2002).
1120:Hermann Hunger, ed. (1992).
973:
852:Astronomical Cuneiform Texts
560:, to describe the motion of
460:A team of scientists at the
280:Assyro-Babylonian literature
263:
59:during the early history of
7:
1841:Leverington, David (2003).
1807:Koch, Ulla Susanne (1995).
906:
886:" (sometimes attributed to
400:
10:
3050:
1811:. Museum Tusculanum Press.
1731:10.1007/s00407-019-00221-3
1707:. Oxford University Press.
1571:
963:Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
928:Babylonian star catalogues
660:and later translated into
609:
455:
412:
295:literature and mythology.
267:
236:Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
180:Babylonian star catalogues
177:
44:
2957:
2749:
2726:Large Binocular Telescope
2691:Extremely Large Telescope
2684:Extremely large telescope
2657:
2540:
2480:
2401:
2363:
2324:
2317:
2251:
1953:The Legacy of Mesopotamia
1787:Holden, James H. (2006).
1640:10.1007/978-1-4613-0109-7
1301:Hunger & Pingree 1999
1211:Hunger & Pingree 1999
1199:Hunger & Pingree 1999
1187:Hunger & Pingree 1999
409:Mul.apin cuneiform tablet
126:, who were considered as
2698:Gran Telescopio Canarias
1768:10.3847/2041-8213/ab42e4
476:Neo-Babylonian astronomy
472:between 680 and 650 BC.
298:
174:Old Babylonian astronomy
2793:Astrology and astronomy
2503:Gravitational radiation
2014:Sarton, George (1955).
1925:Pingree, David (1992).
1918:10.1126/science.aad8085
1875:Olmstead, A.T. (1938).
1850:Neugebauer, O. (1948).
1712:Friberg, Jöran (2019).
1471:10.1888/0333750888/3998
846:and later published by
540:like that of the later
484:astronomers during the
94:and began employing an
2712:Hubble Space Telescope
1816:Lambert, W.G. (1987).
923:Babylonian mathematics
606:Heliocentric astronomy
410:
240:Babylonian astrologers
42:
18:Mesopotamian astronomy
2816:Astroparticle physics
2551:Australian Aboriginal
2046:Steele, John (2019).
1701:Evans, James (1998).
1690:Brown, David (2000).
1628:Aaboe, Asger (2001).
1603:Aaboe, Asger (1974).
1578:Aaboe, Asger (1958).
898:Means of transmission
468:incidents, caused by
462:University of Tsukuba
408:
355:tablets that discuss
252:, written during the
108:Hellenistic astrology
100:philosophy of science
32:
3024:Babylonian astronomy
2808:Astronomers Monument
2740:Very Large Telescope
2287:Astronomical symbols
1518:Van der Waerden 1987
1441:Van der Waerden 1987
1328:Hayakawa et al. 2019
1243:Van der Waerden 1949
1057:Rochberg-Halton 1983
1040:Van der Waerden 1951
938:History of astronomy
913:Babylonian astrology
824:ancient Near Eastern
768:improve this article
622:Aristarchus of Samos
618:Seleucus of Seleucia
612:Seleucus of Seleucia
586:'s motion along the
569:Babylonian cosmology
288:Babylonian mythology
151:astronomical diaries
53:Babylonian astronomy
2881:List of astronomers
2294:Astronomical object
1463:2000eaa..bookE3998.
918:Babylonian calendar
810:writers (including
731:Persian philosopher
652:(Naburimannu), and
508:of lunar eclipses.
274:In contrast to the
138:and other forms of
2867:Physical cosmology
1098:, p. 296–297.
933:Egyptian astronomy
693:Earth's atmosphere
558:Oxford Calculators
542:Hellenistic models
470:geomagnetic storms
411:
144:Hellenistic Period
43:
2989:
2988:
2874:Quantum cosmology
2860:Planetary geology
2653:
2652:
2364:Celestial subject
2157:978-90-04-20230-6
1912:(6272): 482–484.
1649:978-0-387-95136-2
1548:978-965-223-626-5
1498:Flussi e riflussi
1388:Ossendrijver 2016
1340:Aaboe et al. 1991
1131:978-951-570-130-5
800:
799:
792:
658:Akkadian language
550:cuneiform tablets
536:, or speculative
244:Western astrology
160:Hellenistic world
57:celestial objects
37:tablet recording
16:(Redirected from
3041:
3006:
3005:
2997:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2950:
2941:
2934:
2927:
2920:
2911:
2904:
2897:
2895:Medieval Islamic
2890:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2839:
2832:
2825:
2818:
2811:
2802:
2795:
2788:
2781:
2779:Astroinformatics
2774:
2767:
2760:
2758:Archaeoastronomy
2742:
2735:
2728:
2721:
2719:Keck Observatory
2714:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2646:
2637:
2630:
2623:
2616:
2614:Medieval Islamic
2609:
2602:
2595:
2588:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2560:
2553:
2533:
2526:
2519:
2512:
2505:
2498:
2491:
2473:
2464:
2457:
2450:
2443:
2441:
2433:
2431:
2419:
2412:
2392:
2385:
2378:
2356:
2349:
2342:
2335:
2322:
2321:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2282:
2273:
2266:
2259:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2215:
2214:
2161:
2142:
2117:
2092:
2067:
2042:
2010:
1985:
1974:
1957:
1946:
1921:
1896:
1871:
1846:
1837:
1812:
1803:
1792:
1783:
1772:
1770:
1760:
1735:
1733:
1708:
1697:
1686:
1653:
1624:
1599:
1590:(3–4): 209–277.
1565:
1564:, p. 62–65.
1559:
1553:
1552:
1539:Brill Publishers
1527:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1427:
1421:
1415:
1412:Leverington 2003
1409:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1378:, p. 40–62.
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1313:
1304:
1303:, p. 57–65.
1298:
1289:
1288:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1229:
1228:
1220:
1214:
1213:, p. 12–20.
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1163:
1157:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1117:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1084:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1060:
1054:
1043:
1037:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
996:
990:
984:
795:
788:
784:
781:
775:
752:
744:
421:celestial bodies
230:Planetary theory
212:heliacal risings
190:celestial bodies
134:specializing in
21:
3049:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3000:
2992:
2990:
2985:
2973:
2961:
2953:
2946:
2937:
2930:
2925:X-ray telescope
2923:
2916:
2907:
2900:
2893:
2886:
2879:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2835:
2828:
2821:
2814:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2763:
2756:
2745:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2696:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2668:
2660:
2649:
2642:
2633:
2626:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2598:
2591:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2563:
2556:
2549:
2536:
2531:Multi-messenger
2529:
2522:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2476:
2469:
2460:
2453:
2446:
2439:
2436:
2427:
2422:
2415:
2408:
2397:
2388:
2381:
2370:
2359:
2354:Space telescope
2352:
2345:
2338:
2331:
2313:
2306:
2299:
2292:
2285:
2278:
2269:
2262:
2255:
2247:
2242:
2168:
2166:Further reading
2158:
1675:10.2307/1006543
1650:
1615:(1257): 21–42.
1574:
1569:
1568:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1537:. Vol. 2.
1528:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1492:
1488:
1481:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1430:
1422:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1307:
1299:
1292:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1232:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1201:, p. 1–33.
1197:
1193:
1185:
1181:
1173:
1166:
1158:
1151:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1087:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1046:
1038:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1005:
1001:, p. 5–6,.
997:
993:
985:
981:
976:
971:
948:Mayan astronomy
909:
900:
869:
848:Otto Neugebauer
796:
785:
779:
776:
765:
753:
742:
614:
608:
514:
478:
458:
445:
433:Enuma Anu Enlil
423:and records of
417:
403:
345:
328:Enuma Anu Enlil
301:
284:in Mesopotamian
282:, particularly
272:
266:
249:Enuma anu enlil
232:
222:, shadows, and
182:
176:
50:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3047:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3011:
3010:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2971:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2951:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2935:
2928:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2905:
2898:
2891:
2877:
2870:
2863:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2826:
2819:
2812:
2803:
2796:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2772:Astrochemistry
2768:
2761:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2705:Hale Telescope
2701:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2665:
2663:
2655:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2624:
2617:
2610:
2603:
2596:
2589:
2582:
2575:
2568:
2561:
2554:
2546:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2527:
2520:
2513:
2506:
2499:
2492:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2451:
2444:
2438:Visible-light
2434:
2420:
2413:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2379:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2350:
2343:
2336:
2328:
2326:
2319:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2311:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2260:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2241:
2240:
2233:
2226:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2201:
2187:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2156:
2143:
2133:(1): 525–545.
2118:
2114:10.1086/371009
2093:
2089:10.1086/370901
2068:
2064:10.1086/703532
2058:(2): 292–295.
2043:
2031:10.2307/595168
2025:(3): 166–173.
2011:
2001:(3): 209–217.
1986:
1975:
1958:
1947:
1943:10.1086/356288
1937:(4): 554–563.
1922:
1897:
1887:(2): 113–129.
1872:
1868:10.1086/370729
1847:
1838:
1813:
1804:
1793:
1784:
1773:
1736:
1724:(2): 183–216.
1709:
1698:
1687:
1654:
1648:
1625:
1600:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1554:
1547:
1522:
1520:, p. 527.
1510:
1486:
1480:978-0333750889
1479:
1445:
1428:
1426:, p. 169.
1416:
1414:, p. 6–7.
1404:
1402:, p. 557.
1392:
1380:
1368:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1305:
1290:
1269:10.1086/371009
1247:
1230:
1215:
1203:
1191:
1179:
1177:, p. 679.
1164:
1149:
1137:
1130:
1112:
1100:
1085:
1073:
1061:
1044:
1027:
1015:
1013:, p. 209.
1003:
991:
978:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
966:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
935:
930:
925:
920:
915:
908:
905:
899:
896:
868:
865:
812:mathematicians
798:
797:
756:
754:
747:
741:
738:
610:Main article:
607:
604:
592:elliptic orbit
576:eclipse cycles
554:British Museum
513:
510:
486:Neo-Babylonian
477:
474:
457:
454:
444:
441:
413:Main article:
402:
399:
362:British Museum
344:
341:
300:
297:
268:Main article:
265:
262:
231:
228:
224:intercalations
194:constellations
175:
172:
96:internal logic
73:decimal system
65:numeral system
39:Halley's comet
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3046:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2981:
2972:
2969:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2949:
2945:
2940:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:Constellation
2827:
2824:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2720:
2716:
2713:
2709:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2656:
2645:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:Other methods
2479:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2445:
2442:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2418:
2417:Submillimetre
2414:
2411:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2376:Extragalactic
2373:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2351:
2348:
2344:
2341:
2340:Observational
2337:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2234:
2232:
2227:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2216:
2209:
2205:
2204:Toomer, G. J.
2202:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2185:0-226-74951-7
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2169:
2159:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1982:
1976:
1973:(4): 661–684.
1972:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1705:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1632:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1575:
1563:
1558:
1550:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1519:
1514:
1507:
1506:88-07-10349-4
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1482:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1442:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1425:
1420:
1413:
1408:
1401:
1396:
1389:
1384:
1377:
1372:
1365:
1360:
1353:
1348:
1341:
1336:
1329:
1324:
1317:
1316:Olmstead 1938
1312:
1310:
1302:
1297:
1295:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1226:
1219:
1212:
1207:
1200:
1195:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1175:Rochberg 2002
1171:
1169:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1147:, p. 93.
1146:
1141:
1133:
1127:
1123:
1116:
1109:
1104:
1097:
1092:
1090:
1082:
1081:Rochberg 2004
1077:
1070:
1065:
1058:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1025:, p. 21.
1024:
1019:
1012:
1007:
1000:
995:
988:
983:
979:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
943:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
910:
904:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
876:
875:
864:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
844:Abraham Sachs
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
794:
791:
783:
780:November 2012
773:
769:
763:
762:
757:This section
755:
751:
746:
745:
737:
735:
732:
728:
723:
721:
717:
716:trigonometric
713:
709:
706:According to
704:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
679:According to
677:
675:
671:
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666:Earth rotated
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48:
40:
36:
31:
27:
19:
2806:
2786:Astrophysics
2765:Astrobiology
2557:
2429:Far-infrared
2383:Local system
2318:Astronomy by
2308:... in space
2207:
2197:
2193:
2176:
2172:
2147:
2130:
2126:
2108:(1): 20–34.
2105:
2101:
2080:
2076:
2055:
2051:
2022:
2018:
1998:
1994:
1980:
1970:
1966:
1952:
1934:
1930:
1909:
1905:
1884:
1880:
1859:
1855:
1842:
1828:(1): 93–96.
1825:
1821:
1808:
1798:
1788:
1782:. CRC Press.
1778:
1748:
1744:
1721:
1717:
1703:
1692:
1666:
1662:
1634:. Springer.
1630:
1612:
1608:
1587:
1583:
1557:
1534:
1531:Shlomo Pines
1525:
1513:
1497:
1489:
1454:
1448:
1419:
1407:
1400:Pingree 1992
1395:
1383:
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1323:
1263:(1): 20–34.
1260:
1256:
1250:
1224:
1218:
1206:
1194:
1182:
1145:Lambert 1987
1140:
1121:
1115:
1110:, p. 1.
1103:
1076:
1069:Pingree 1998
1064:
1018:
1006:
994:
987:Friberg 2019
982:
940:(Section on
901:
883:
872:
870:
855:
851:
836:clay tablets
834:writings on
801:
786:
777:
766:Please help
761:verification
758:
724:
705:
678:
626:heliocentric
615:
580:saros cycles
573:
566:
526:arithmetical
515:
479:
459:
450:
446:
437:
418:
367:
365:each other.
346:
325:
302:
273:
254:Neo-Assyrian
247:
233:
201:
198:
183:
148:
136:astronomical
124:philosophers
110:. Classical
88:philosophies
77:
52:
51:
26:
2853:Planetarium
2510:High-energy
2496:Cosmic rays
2448:Ultraviolet
2083:(1): 6–26.
1862:(1): 1–38.
1669:(6): 1–75.
1494:Lucio Russo
1424:Sarton 1955
1352:Sarton 1955
1108:Holden 2006
942:Mesopotamia
880:ephemerides
878:Babylonian
820:geographers
816:astronomers
808:Hellenistic
736:(865-925).
681:Lucio Russo
648:(Kidinnu),
518:ephemerides
506:Saros cycle
216:water clock
155:ephemerides
86:system and
69:sexagesimal
61:Mesopotamia
3018:Categories
2846:Photometry
2823:Binoculars
2800:Astrometry
2661:telescopes
2558:Babylonian
2402:EM methods
2280:Astronomer
2190:Neugebauer
1758:1909.05498
1751:(1): L18.
1562:Aaboe 2001
1376:Aaboe 2001
1364:Brown 2000
1160:Aaboe 1958
1096:Evans 1998
1023:Aaboe 1974
1011:Aaboe 1958
999:Brown 2000
969:References
720:Hipparchus
650:Naburianos
596:perihelion
538:philosophy
490:Achaemenid
343:Astrolabes
276:world view
178:See also:
140:divination
35:Babylonian
2918:Telescope
2524:Spherical
2471:Gamma-ray
2440:(optical)
2245:Astronomy
1584:Centaurus
1285:222450259
974:Citations
840:astronomy
832:cuneiform
828:Babylonia
712:geometric
674:reasoning
534:cosmology
522:empirical
425:solstices
382:Hammurabi
357:astronomy
353:cuneiform
321:Akkadians
313:astrology
309:astronomy
292:cosmology
264:Cosmology
206:contains
120:Chaldeans
80:empirical
41:in 164 BC
2968:Category
2677:Category
2572:Egyptian
2489:Neutrino
2424:Infrared
2372:Galactic
2347:Sidewalk
2301:Glossary
2271:Timeline
2192:, Otto.
1802:. Brill.
1696:. Brill.
1533:(1986).
958:Pleiades
953:MUL.APIN
907:See also
884:System B
874:Almagest
630:Plutarch
600:aphelion
588:ecliptic
546:universe
530:geometry
498:Parthian
494:Seleucid
482:Chaldean
429:eclipses
415:MUL.APIN
401:MUL.APIN
317:Sumerian
204:MUL.APIN
122:for the
92:universe
3034:Chaldea
3029:Babylon
2980:Commons
2932:history
2902:Russian
2750:Related
2659:Optical
2644:Tibetan
2628:Serbian
2621:Persian
2565:Chinese
2542:Culture
2462:History
2333:Amateur
2264:History
2257:Outline
1906:Science
1683:1006543
1572:Sources
1459:Bibcode
892:papyrus
888:Kidinnu
850:in the
654:Sudines
646:Kidenas
562:Jupiter
552:in the
466:aurorae
456:Aurorae
337:Babylon
333:Nineveh
186:Nineveh
132:scribes
2994:Portal
2948:Zodiac
2888:French
2593:Indian
2586:Hebrew
2325:Manner
2183:
2154:
2039:595168
2037:
2007:545074
2005:
1834:602955
1832:
1681:
1646:
1619:
1545:
1504:
1477:
1283:
1277:542419
1275:
1128:
860:gnomon
818:, and
727:Arabic
697:Strabo
640:, and
638:Strabo
634:Aetius
496:, and
393:, and
378:Amurru
376:, and
246:. The
220:gnomon
128:priest
84:belief
67:used,
63:. The
2939:lists
2909:Women
2600:Inuit
2579:Greek
2517:Radar
2455:X-ray
2410:Radio
2390:Solar
2035:JSTOR
2003:JSTOR
1830:JSTOR
1753:arXiv
1679:JSTOR
1621:74272
1617:JSTOR
1281:S2CID
1273:JSTOR
804:Greek
701:tides
685:tides
662:Greek
395:Enlil
374:Akkad
299:Omens
258:omens
168:Islam
166:, in
164:India
162:, in
116:Latin
112:Greek
104:Greek
3008:Asia
2670:List
2635:folk
2607:Maya
2181:ISBN
2173:Isis
2152:ISBN
2052:Isis
1931:Isis
1644:ISBN
1543:ISBN
1502:ISBN
1475:ISBN
1126:ISBN
806:and
689:Moon
578:and
524:and
427:and
370:Elam
335:and
326:The
311:and
305:gods
286:and
202:The
192:and
114:and
106:and
2837:IAU
2198:ACT
2135:doi
2131:500
2110:doi
2085:doi
2060:doi
2056:110
2027:doi
1939:doi
1914:doi
1910:351
1889:doi
1864:doi
1826:107
1763:doi
1749:884
1726:doi
1671:doi
1636:doi
1613:276
1592:doi
1467:doi
1265:doi
856:ACT
770:by
670:Sun
584:Sun
391:Anu
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2129:.
2125:.
2106:10
2104:.
2100:.
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2054:.
2050:.
2033:.
2023:55
2021:.
1999:43
1997:.
1993:.
1971:33
1969:.
1965:.
1935:83
1933:.
1929:.
1908:.
1904:.
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1883:.
1879:.
1858:.
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1824:.
1820:.
1761:.
1747:.
1743:.
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1716:.
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1667:81
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1945:.
1941::
1920:.
1916::
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