Groundwater pollution

1872: 106: 2047: 2451: 1990: 1453: 2708: 2141:("Fracking") wells in the United States has raised concerns regarding its potential risks of contaminating groundwater resources. EPA, along with many other researchers, has been delegated to study the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water resources. While it is possible to perform hydraulic fracturing without having a relevant impact on groundwater resources if stringent controls and quality management measures are in place, there are a number of cases where groundwater pollution due to improper handling or technical failures was observed. 3029:

into groundwater aquifers which supply drinking water to at least a million residents and used in irrigation for crops in some of the richest farmland in the US. Aquifers are made up of sand and gravel that are separated by thin layers of clay which acts as a sponge that holds onto water and arsenic. When water is pumped intensively, the aquifer compresses and ground sinks which leads to the clay releasing arsenic. Study shows that aquifers contaminated as a result from over pumping, they can recover if withdrawals stop.

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safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

7595: 1097: 146: 2028:(MCP) appears to be one of a few hazardous, persistent, soluble and mobile (it does not bind with minerals in soils) pesticides able to reach a drinking-water source. In general, more pesticide compounds are being detected as groundwater quality monitoring programs have become more extensive; however, much less monitoring has been conducted in developing countries due to the high analysis costs. 1575:(VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some time before regular testing of groundwater identified these substances in drinking water sources. 2896:

consumption of water from temporary water sources of unknown quality (mainly shallow wells) has resulted in large numbers of people suffering from water-borne diseases. In Tanzania, 23,900 children under the age of 5 are reported to die each year from dysentery and diarrhoea associated with drinking unsafe water.

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Arsenic removal filters (ARF) are dedicated technologies typically installed to remove arsenic. Many of these technologies require a capital investment and long-term maintenance. Filters in Bangladesh are usually abandoned by the users due to their high cost and complicated maintenance, which is also

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The stratigraphy of the area plays an important role in the transport of pollutants. An area can have layers of sandy soil, fractured bedrock, clay, or hardpan. Areas of karst topography on limestone bedrock are sometimes vulnerable to surface pollution from groundwater. Earthquake faults can also be

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The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For example, the unsaturated zone becomes "washed" during extended periods of heavy rain, providing hydraulic pathway for the quick pass of pathogens. It is difficult to estimate the

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Intensive pumping in San Joaquin county, California, has resulted in arsenic pollution. San Joaquin county has faced serious intensive pumping which has caused the ground below San Joaquin to sink and in turn damaged infrastructure. This intensive pumping into groundwater has allowed arsenic to move

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It refers to the capture areas around an individual groundwater source, such as a water well or a spring, to especially protect them from pollution. Thus, potential sources of degradable pollutants, such as pathogens, can be located at distances which travel times along the flowpaths are long enough

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Herbicide use can contribute to groundwater contamination through arsenic infiltration. Herbicides contribute to arsenic desorption through mobilization and transportation of the contaminant. Chlorinated herbicides exhibit a lower impact on arsenic desorption than phosphate type herbicides. This can

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spreading. This is because only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce and other plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or lost as run-off. High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to

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In India the government has proceeded to promote sanitation development in order to combat the rise in ground water contamination in several regions of the country. The effort has proved to show results and has decreased the groundwater pollution and has decreased the chance of sickness for mothers

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Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from ground water by applying various techniques thereby making it safe for use. Ground water treatment (or remediation) techniques span biological, chemical, and physical treatment technologies. Most ground water treatment techniques utilize a combination

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can lead to groundwater pollution. Chemicals can reach into ground water through precipitation and runoff. New landfills are required to be lined with clay or another synthetic material, along with leachate to protect surrounding ground water. However, older landfills do not have these measures and

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While conclusions regarding groundwater pollution as the result to hydraulic fracturing fluid flow is restricted in both space and time, researchers have hypothesized that the potential for systematic stray gas contamination depends mainly on the integrity of the shale oil/gas well structure, along

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Preparation of the vulnerability maps typically involves overlaying several thematic maps of physical factors that have been selected to describe the aquifer vulnerability. The index-based parametric mapping method GOD developed by Foster and Hirata (1988) uses three generally available or readily

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is a highly utilized solvent in the dry cleaning industry because of its cleaning effectiveness and relatively low cost. It has also been used for metal-degreasing operations. Because it is highly volatile, it is more frequently found in groundwater than in surface water. TCE has historically been

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Groundwater pollution can be caused by untreated waste discharge leading to diseases like skin lesions, bloody diarrhea and dermatitis. This is more common in locations having limited wastewater treatment infrastructure, or where there are systematic failures of the on-site sewage disposal system.

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has recently developed the interactive Groundwater Assessment Platform (GAP), where the geogenic risk of contamination in a given area can be estimated using geological, topographical and other environmental data without having to test samples from every single groundwater resource. This tool also

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from an industrial landfill that the neighborhood had been built over and around, which had then infiltrated into the water supply and evaporated in basements to further contaminate the air. Eight hundred families were reimbursed for their homes and moved, after extensive legal battles and media

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formations. While the damage can be obvious, and much more effort is being done to prevent these accidents from occurring so frequently, the lack of data from fracking oil spills continue to leave researchers in the dark. In many of these events, the data acquired from the leakage or spillage is

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Groundwater pollution is a worldwide issue. A study of the groundwater quality of the principal aquifers of the United States conducted between 1991 and 2004, showed that 23% of domestic wells had contaminants at levels greater than human-health benchmarks. Another study suggested that the major

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As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial contamination.However, no general

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strata due to their high surface area to volume ratio relative to sand-sized particles. Most pumped groundwater travels through sands and gravels with low arsenic concentration. However, during over-pumping, a high vertical gradient pulls water from less-permeable clays, thus promoting arsenic

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Sufficient investment should be given to continue monitoring over the long term. When a problem is found, action should be taken to correct it. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States decreased with the introduction of more stringent monitoring (and treatment) requirements in the early 90s.

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may also reach the aquifer if the effluent is infiltrated or discharged to local surface water bodies. Therefore, those substances that are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants may reach the groundwater as well. For example, detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in

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and children who were mainly affected by this issue. This was something greatly needed as according to the study, over 117,000 children under five die every year due to consuming polluted water. The countries effort has seen success in the more economically developed sections of the country.

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In Tanzania, many residents rely on groundwater sources, mainly from shallow on-site wells, for drinking and other domestic purposes. The cost of the official water supply has resulted in many households relying on private wells rather than Babati's urban water and sanitation facilities. The

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Portable water purification devices or "point-of-use" (POU) water treatment systems and field water disinfection techniques can be used to remove some forms of groundwater pollution prior to drinking, namely any fecal pollution. Many commercial portable water purification systems or chemical

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As the health effects of most toxic chemicals arise after prolonged exposure, risk to health from chemicals is generally lower than that from pathogens. Thus, the quality of the source protection measures is an important component in controlling whether pathogens may be present in the final

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The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater. The heavy use of nitrogenous fertilizers in cropping systems is the largest contributor to

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from treated wastewater infiltrating into the aquifer are among emerging ground-water contaminants being studied throughout the United States. Popular pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antidepressants, decongestants, tranquilizers, etc. are normally found in treated

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The peri-urban areas of Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, have ground conditions which are strongly karstified and for this reason – together with the increasing population density in these peri-urban areas – pollution of water wells from pit latrines is a major public health threat there.

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Runoff of pesticides may leach into groundwater causing human health problems from contaminated water wells. Pesticide concentrations found in groundwater are typically low, and often the regulatory human health-based limits exceeded are also very low. The organophosphorus insecticide

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Nitrate is the most common chemical contaminant in the world's groundwater and aquifers. In some low-income countries, nitrate levels in groundwater are extremely high, causing significant health problems. It is also stable (it does not degrade) under high oxygen conditions.

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into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater pollution. The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.

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Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in both groundwater and surface water are far below what is considered dangerous or of concern in most areas, but it could be an increasing problem as population grows and more reclaimed wastewater is utilized for municipal water supplies.

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can play an important role in retarding (and in some cases eliminating) pathogens and so must be considered when assessing aquifer vulnerability. The biological activity is greatest in the top soil layers where the attenuation of pathogens is generally most effective.

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and surface water are complex. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by

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The migration of metals (and metalloids) in groundwater will be affected by several factors, in particular by chemical reactions which determine the partitioning of contaminants among different phases and species. Thus, the mobility of metals primarily depends on the

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Analytical methods using equations to define groundwater flow and contaminant transport are the most widely used. The WHPA is a semi-analytical groundwater flow simulation program developed by the US EPA for delineating capture zones in a wellhead protection area.

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Groundwater quality monitoring programs have been implemented regularly in many countries around the world. They are important components to understand the hydrogeological system, and for the development of conceptual models and aquifer vulnerability maps.

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Factors controlling the fate and transport of pathogens are quite complex and the interaction among them is not well understood. If the local hydrogeological conditions (which can vary within a space of a few square kilometers) are ignored, simple on-site

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Groundwater quality must be regularly monitored across the aquifer to determine trends. Effective groundwater monitoring should be driven by a specific objective, for example, a specific contaminant of concern. Contaminant levels can be compared to the

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Although non-miscible, both LNAPLs and DNAPLs still have the potential to slowly dissolve into the aqueous (miscible) phase to create a plume and thus become a long-term source of contamination. DNAPLs (chlorinated solvents, heavy PAHs, creosote,

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Liquids leach from the pit and pass the unsaturated soil zone (which is not completely filled with water). Subsequently, these liquids from the pit enter the groundwater where they may lead to groundwater pollution. This is a problem if a nearby

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Though widespread, systematic contamination by hydraulic fracturing has been heavily disputed, one major source of contamination that has the most consensus among researchers of being the most problematic is site-specific accidental spillage of

1648:. As many other synthetic organic compounds, most pesticides have very complex molecular structures. This complexity determines the water solubility, adsorption capacity, and mobility of pesticides in the groundwater system. Thus, some types of 2239:

conducted a model study for a deep shale-gas formation in the North German Basin. They concluded that the probability is small that the rise of fracking fluids through the geological underground to the surface will impact shallow groundwater.

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High concentrations of parameters like salinity, iron, manganese, uranium, radon and chromium, in groundwater, may also be of geogenic origin. This contaminants can be important locally but they are not as widespread as arsenic and fluoride.

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purposes. During the passage in the soil, pathogens can die off or be adsorbed significantly, mostly depending on the travel time between the pit and the well. Most, but not all pathogens die within 50 days of travel through the subsurface.

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and the oxidized species arsenate, the acute toxicity of arsenite being somewhat greater than that of arsenate. Investigations by WHO indicated that 20% of 25,000 boreholes tested in Bangladesh had arsenic concentrations exceeding 50 μg/L.

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entry routes for downward contaminant entry. Water table conditions are of great importance for drinking water supplies, agricultural irrigation, waste disposal (including nuclear waste), wildlife habitat, and other ecological issues.

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statement should be made regarding the minimum lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit latrine. For example, even 50 m lateral separation distance might not be sufficient in a strongly

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Mukherjee, Abhijit; Duttagupta, Srimanti; Chattopadhyay, Siddhartha; Bhanja, Soumendra Nath; Bhattacharya, Animesh; Chakraborty, Swagata; Sarkar, Soumyajit; Ghosh, Tilottama; Bhattacharya, Jayanta; Sahu, Sohini (October 23, 2019).

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system with a downgradient supply well or spring, while 10 m lateral separation distance is completely sufficient if there is a well developed clay cover layer and the annular space of the groundwater well is well sealed.

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If treatment or remediation of the polluted groundwater is deemed to be too difficult or expensive, then abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water is the only other option.

2062:. BTEX compounds are the most common additives of the gasoline. BTEX compounds, including benzene, have densities lower than water (1 g/mL). Similar to the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as 2627:

On-site sanitation systems can be designed in such a way that groundwater pollution from these sanitation systems is prevented from occurring. Detailed guidelines have been developed to estimate safe distances to protect

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The development of land-use zoning maps has been implemented by several water authorities at different scales around the world. There are two types of zoning maps: aquifer vulnerability maps and source protection maps.

2203:; however, many researchers argue that the permeability of rocks overlying shale formations are too low to allow this to ever happen sufficiently. To ultimately prove this theory, there would have to be traces of toxic 1309:

Contaminants found in groundwater cover a broad range of physical, inorganic chemical, organic chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive parameters. Principally, many of the same pollutants that play a role in surface

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partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity; however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to

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The linkages between nitrates in drinking water and blue baby syndrome have been disputed in other studies. The syndrome outbreaks might be due to other factors than elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water.

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Techniques include boiling, filtration, activated charcoal absorption, chemical disinfection, ultraviolet purification, ozone water disinfection, solar water disinfection, solar distillation, homemade water filters.

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are often close to surface waters and in permeable soils. Closed landfills can still pose a threat to ground water if they are not capped by an impermeable material before closure to prevent leaking of contaminants.

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Despite the EPA's lack of profound widespread evidence, other researchers have made significant observations of rising groundwater contamination in close proximity to major shale oil/gas drilling sites located in

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Deep, confined aquifers are usually considered the safest source of drinking water with respect to pathogens. Pathogens from treated or untreated wastewater can contaminate certain, especially shallow, aquifers.

6330:"Impact of sanitation and socio-economy on groundwater fecal pollution and human health towards achieving sustainable development goals across India from ground-observations and satellite-derived nightlight" 2975:'s standards for drinking water. As a result, individuals who are exposed suffer from diseases that affect their dermal, neurological, reproductive and cognitive functioning, and can even result in cancer. 1875:

A traditional housing compound near Herat, Afghanistan, where a shallow water supply well (foreground) is in close proximity to the pit latrine (behind the white greenhouse) leading to contamination of the

1293:, groundwater quality monitoring, land zoning for groundwater protection, locating on-site sanitation systems correctly and applying legislation. When pollution has occurred, management approaches include 3543: 5022:

Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, Kondash A (2014). "A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States".

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DiGiulio DC, Jackson RB (April 2016). "Impact to Underground Sources of Drinking Water and Domestic Wells from Production Well Stimulation and Completion Practices in the Pavillion, Wyoming, Field".

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groundwater pollution problems in Africa, considering the order of importance are: (1) nitrate pollution, (2) pathogenic agents, (3) organic pollution, (4) salinization, and (5) acid mine drainage.

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There is a particular debate among hydrogeologists as to whether aquifer vulnerability should be established in a general (intrinsic) way for all contaminants, or specifically for each pollutant.

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Scientists have developed methods by which hazard maps could be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater. This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested.

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It refers to the intrinsic (or natural) vulnerability of a groundwater system to pollution. Intrinsically, some aquifers are more vulnerable to pollution than other aquifers. Shallow unconfined

4519: 3784: 2103:. Once they reach the aquifer, they will "sink" and eventually accumulate on the top of low-permeability layers. Historically, wood-treating facilities have also release insecticides such as 5488: 2701: 5441: 4695:

Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources

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Groundwater pollution can also occur from leaking sewers which has been observed for example in Germany. This can also lead to potential cross-contamination of drinking-water supplies.

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Ore mining and metal processing facilities are the primary responsible of the presence of metals in groundwater of anthropogenic origin, including arsenic. The low pH associated with

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Elevated nitrate levels in groundwater can be caused by on-site sanitation, sewage sludge disposal and agricultural activities. It can therefore have an urban or agricultural origin.

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and other noble gas concentration along with the rise of hydrocarbon levels supports the distinction between hydraulic fracturing fugitive gas and naturally occurring "background"

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Several trace metals occur naturally in certain rock formations and can enter in the environment from natural processes such as weathering. However, industrial activities such as

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and surface water, such as seeps and springs, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a

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Integration of Groundwater Management into Transboundary Basin Organizations in Africa: Groundwater Hazards - a Training Manual by AGW-Net, BGR, IWMI, CapNet, ANBO, & IGRAC

2967:. The arsenic levels are up to 4730 μg/L in the groundwater, ~1000 μg/L in irrigation water, and up to 3947 μg/kg in food materials all of which all exceed the 3870:"Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption, ANNEX I: PARAMETERS AND PARAMETRIC VALUES, PART B: Chemical parameters" 1159:

can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as

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contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic

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or helminth eggs), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater, whereas the relatively large helminth eggs are usually filtered out by the soil matrix.

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Guideline values for horizontal separation distances between on-site sanitation systems and water sources vary widely (e.g. 15 to 100 m horizontal distance between

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are seriously dealing with the nitrate problem related to agricultural development, as a major water supply problem that requires appropriate management and governance.

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epth to groundwater. A further approach developed by EPA, a rating system named "DRASTIC", employs seven hydrogeological factors to develop an index of vulnerability:

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Oil spills associated with underground pipelines and tanks can release benzene and other soluble petroleum hydrocarbons that rapidly percolate down into the aquifer.

1855: 1222:. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area. Its advancing boundary, often called a plume edge, can intersect with 3395: 1715:

wastewater. This wastewater is discharged from the treatment facility, and often makes its way into the aquifer or source of surface water used for drinking water.

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The simplest form of zoning employs fixed-distance methods where activities are excluded within a uniformly applied specified distance around abstraction points.

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groundwater were in the order of 50 mg/L in several locations in Germany. This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, micro-pollutants such as

2145: 3060:. Trichlorethylene levels were detected as high as 128 times higher than the states safe limit for drinking water and Hydrazine was found in 2 nearby wells. 2692:

Institutional and legal issues are critical in determining the success or failure of groundwater protection policies and strategies. In the United States the

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Groundwater pollution can be caused by chemical spills from commercial or industrial operations, chemical spills occurring during transport (e.g. spillage of

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Amini, Manouchehr; Mueller, Kim; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Rosenberg, Thomas; Afyuni, Majid; Møller, Klaus N.; Sarr, Mamadou; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008).

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Suthar S, Bishnoi P, Singh S, Mutiyar PK, Nema AK, Patil NS (November 2009). "Nitrate contamination in groundwater of some rural areas of Rajasthan, India".

2112: 4863:"Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)" 4820:

Jackson, Robert B.; Vengosh, Avner; Carey, J. William; Davies, Richard J.; Darrah, Thomas H.; O'Sullivan, Francis; Pétron, Gabrielle (October 17, 2014).

4238: 3742: 1847:. Considerably high concentrations of fluoride in groundwater are typically caused by a lack of calcium in the aquifer. Health problems associated with 5224:

Pfunt H, Houben G, Himmelsbach T (2016). "Numerical modeling of fracking fluid migration through fault zones and fractures in the North German Basin".

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Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)

3643:"Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression" 5762:

Amini, Manouchehr; Abbaspour, Karim C.; Berg, Michael; Winkel, Lenny; Hug, Stephan J.; Hoehn, Eduard; Yang, Hong; Johnson, C. Annette (May 15, 2008).

2148:, this may be due to insufficient systematic pre- and post- hydraulic fracturing data on drinking water quality, and the presence of other agents of 2006: 88: 4526: 3793: 3721:

Occurrence and Distribution of Microbiological Contamination and Enteric Viruses in Shallow Ground Water in Baltimore and Harford Counties, Maryland

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The passage of water through the subsurface can provide a reliable natural barrier to contamination but it only works under favorable conditions.

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of deep residual hyper-saline water and hydraulic fracturing fluid, slowly flowing through faults and fractures until finally making contact with

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help to prevent arsenic contamination through choosing herbicides appropriate for different concentrations of arsenic present in certain soils.

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Along with pathogens and nutrients, untreated sewage can also have an important load of heavy metals that may seep into the groundwater system.

84: 6183: 5992: 2474: 2172:, Canada). Within one kilometer of these specific sites, a subset of shallow drinking water consistently showed higher concentration levels of 1049: 2013: 1705: 2505:(WHO) guidelines for drinking-water quality. It is not rare that limits of contaminants are reduced as more medical experience is gained. 6532: 3650: 2774:

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen

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In the year 2000, groundwater pollution occurred in the small town of Walkerton, Canada leading to seven deaths in what is known as the

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is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural

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The interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models. Interactions between

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into the environment, impacting the groundwater resources. PCP is a highly soluble and toxic obsolete pesticide recently listed in the

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with its relative geological location to local fracture systems that could potentially provide flow paths for fugitive gas migration.

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A wide variety of both inorganic and organic pollutants have been found in aquifers underlying commercial and industrial activities.

5142:"Elevated levels of diesel range organic compounds in groundwater near Marcellus gas operations are derived from surface activities" 1397:

with elevated concentrations." Fluoride can especially be released from acidic volcanic rocks and dispersed volcanic ash when water

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Feedlots/animal corrals can also lead to the potential leaching of nitrogen and metals to groundwater. Over application of animal

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was one of the most widely known examples of groundwater pollution. In 1978, residents of the Love Canal neighborhood in upstate

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Singh B, Singh Y, Sekhon GS (1995). "Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries".

6566: 3223:"Chemical and isotopic constraints on evolution of groundwater salinization in the coastal plain aquifer of Laizhou Bay, China" 2693: 1277:

are complex. For example, many rivers and lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by

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Poor management practices in manure spreading can introduce both pathogens and nutrients (nitrate) in the groundwater system.

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are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, from where it may also reach the groundwater.

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remediating the aquifer by either immobilizing or detoxifying the contaminants while they are still in the aquifer (in-situ)

2910: 2636:. The following criteria have been proposed for safe siting (i.e. deciding on the location) of on-site sanitation systems: 1880:

Groundwater pollution with pathogens and nitrate can also occur from the liquids infiltrating into the ground from on-site

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may occur when fluoride concentrations in groundwater exceed 1.5 mg/L, which is the WHO guideline value since 1984.

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additives are available which can remove pathogens, chlorine, bad taste, odors, and heavy metals like lead and mercury.

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content. This contamination is speculated to be the result of leaky, failing, or improperly installed gas well casings.

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in groundwater is of growing concern as deeper groundwater is being used, "with more than 200 million people at risk of

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Bexfield, Laura M.; Toccalino, Patricia L.; Belitz, Kenneth; Foreman, William T.; Furlong, Edward T. (March 19, 2019).

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Chlorinated solvents such as PCE and TCE have densities higher than water and the non-miscible phase is referred to as

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Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (2006). Tellam JH, Rivett MO, Israfilov RG, Herringshaw LG (eds.).

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Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the United States, 1991-2004: overview of major findings

7448: 4339: 4176: 4012: 3900: 3824: 3003: 2968: 2279: 885: 790: 5986:"Guidelines for separation distances based on virus transport between on-site domestic wastewater systems and wells" 1839:

The occurrence of fluoride is close related to the abundance and solubility of fluoride-containing minerals such as

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Jiang Y, Zhong W, Yan W, Yan L (November 2019). "Arsenic mobilization from soils in the presence of herbicides".

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Johnson LR, Hiltbold AE (1969). "Arsenic Content of Soil and Crops Following Use of Methanearsonate Herbicides".

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contamination. India covers 79% of the GRB, and thus numerous states have been affected. Affected states include

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because of groundwater contamination with as much as 27 million pounds of TCE. Both PCE and TCE may degrade to

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infrastructures such as pit latrines can cause significant public health risks via contaminated groundwater.

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is the most toxic one. PAHs are generally produced as byproducts by incomplete combustion of organic matter.

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Groundwater quality protection: a guide for water utilities, municipal authorities, and environment agencies

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Trends in groundwater pollution: Loss of groundwater quality & related services - Groundwater Governance

7141: 6976: 3396:"Predicting the global extent of arsenic pollution of groundwater and its potential impact on human health" 3313: 2435: 2096:

Many types of solvents may have also been disposed illegally, leaking over time to the groundwater system.

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DRASTIC: A Standardized System For Evaluating Groundwater Pollution Potential Using Hydrogeologic Settings

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Schematic showing that there is a lower risk of groundwater pollution with greater depth of the water well

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contributes to the solubility of potential toxic metals that can eventually enter the groundwater system.

61: 26: 7465: 5943: 5679: 5417: 4711: 4059:"Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States" 3334:

Brindha, K.; Elango, L. (2011). "Fluoride in groundwater: causes, implications and mitigation measures".

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The burial of corpses and their subsequent degradation may also pose a risk of pollution to groundwater.

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Chlorinated solvents are used in nearly any industrial practice where degreasing removers are required.

7598: 7482: 7426: 6518: 6187: 6075: 6042: 6009: 4694: 3437: 3072: 1871: 1113: 470: 320: 105: 4613:

Jackson LE, Burger M, Cavagnaro TR (2008). "Roots, nitrogen transformations, and ecosystem services".

4551:

Khan MN, Mohammad F (2014). "Eutrophication: Challenges and Solutions". In Ansari AA, Gill SS (eds.).

7013: 5968: 5918: 5675: 5647: 5609: 4798: 4478:. NATO Science Series. Vol. 74. Springer Link, NATO Science Series Volume 74 2006. p. 490. 3587: 3309: 3049: 3011: 2972: 2502: 2478: 1819:

The natural arsenic pollution occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates

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disposal, paint and enamel works, etc. can lead to elevated concentrations of toxic metals including

1572: 1329: 845: 810: 770: 423: 390: 240: 2223:. So far, a significant majority of groundwater contamination events are derived from surface-level 6998: 6225:"Contamination of groundwater sources in emerging African towns: the case of Babati town, Tanzania" 5140:

Drollette BD, Hoelzer K, Warner NR, Darrah TH, Karatum O, O'Connor MP, et al. (October 2015).

4780: 3084: 3014:(PG&E) and a multimillion-dollar settlement in 1996. The legal case was dramatized in the film 2386:

themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including

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Pharmaceutical residues in urine and potential risks related to usage as fertiliser in agriculture

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as a result of improper and negligent hazardous material handling and disposal practices from the

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Options for remediation of contaminated groundwater can be grouped into the following categories:

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Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemical change, especially over long periods of time in

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Wolf J, Prüss-Ustün A, Cumming O, Bartram J, Bonjour S, Cairncross S, et al. (August 2014).

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as well as consequential release of arsenic and possibly other heavy metals. Arsenic is found in

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and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources. Interactions between

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There is an increasing concern over the groundwater pollution by gasoline leaked from petroleum

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is also an example of natural contamination, but is very often intensified by human activities.

7576: 7419: 7291: 6397: 3016: 2828: 2589: 1989: 1982: 1930: 1625:

Other organic pollutants present in groundwater and derived from industrial operations are the

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United States. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980.

5821:

Winkel, Lenny; Berg, Michael; Amini, Manouchehr; Hug, Stephan J.; Johnson, C. Annette (2008).

4386:"Combined sewer overflows: an environmental source of hormones and wastewater micropollutants" 7619: 7373: 7368: 7104: 5362: 4628: 4006:

Ward MH, deKok TM, Levallois P, Brender J, Gulis G, Nolan BT, VanDerslice J (November 2005).

2431: 1452: 1195:. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as 978: 686: 598: 295: 4754: 4288: 4159: 4138:

Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Shallow Ground Water of Suffolk County, New York, 2002–2005

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abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water.

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may also be found in polluted groundwater, although their respective importance may differ.

7654: 7567: 7539: 7504: 7431: 7231: 7168: 6986: 6807: 6343: 6274:

Chakraborti D, Singh SK, Rahman MM, Dutta RN, Mukherjee SC, Pati S, Kar PB (January 2018).

6113: 5895: 5836: 5777: 5718: 5371: 5320: 5235: 5226: 5153: 5096: 5034: 4930: 4587: 4399: 4119: 4072: 3960: 3360: 3236: 3227: 3166: 2711:

Sign near Mannheim, Germany, indicating a zone as a dedicated "groundwater protection zone"

2412: 2138: 2132: 1579: 1484: 1278: 1184: 520: 253: 5962: 5307:"Groundwater extraction, land subsidence, and sea-level rise in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam" 4861:

Office, US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment, Immediate; Ridley, Caroline.

4839: 4787:. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). August 2011. EPA 542-F-11-013. 4444: 3625: 2707: 1339:

arsenic can occur naturally in groundwater, as seen most frequently in Asia, including in

8: 7639: 7562: 7470: 7458: 7348: 7301: 7109: 7032: 6758: 6549: 4199: 4008:"Workgroup report: Drinking-water nitrate and health--recent findings and research needs" 3007: 2832: 2536:

are more at risk of pollution because there are fewer layers to filter out contaminants.

2416: 2379: 2123:) tend to be difficult to manage as they can reside very deep in the groundwater system. 2079: 2074: 2017: 1939: 1767: 1743: 1603: 1456: 1332:(WHO) as the most serious inorganic contaminants in drinking-water on a worldwide basis. 1282: 1208: 855: 800: 765: 691: 618: 568: 563: 548: 205: 68: 53: 33: 6347: 6117: 5840: 5823:"Predicting groundwater arsenic contamination in Southeast Asia from surface parameters" 5781: 5722: 5375: 5324: 5239: 5157: 5100: 5038: 4934: 4591: 4403: 4310: 4076: 3964: 3720: 3364: 3240: 3170: 3151:

Costall, A. R.; Harris, B. D.; Teo, B.; Schaa, R.; Wagner, F. M.; Pigois, J. P. (2020).

7629: 7572: 7557: 7487: 7443: 7333: 6919: 6824: 6579: 6458: 6374: 6334: 6329: 6304: 6275: 6256: 6177: 5466: 5394: 5357: 5333: 5306: 5251: 5200:"Lack of data on fracking spills leaves researchers in the dark on water contamination" 5176: 5141: 5122: 5058: 4999: 4954: 4640: 4497: 4420: 4385: 4361: 4334: 4034: 4007: 3983: 3946: 3922: 3896:"Drinking-water nitrate, methemoglobinemia, and global burden of disease: a discussion" 3895: 3846: 3819: 3677: 3195: 3157: 3152: 2788: 2040: 1539: 1441: 1089: 850: 726: 488: 270: 210: 180: 129: 5866:. Lima, Peru: Pan American Centre for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences. 4137: 3461: 3432: 2704:, also known as "Superfund", requires remediation of abandoned hazardous waste sites. 1960:

in agriculture may also be included as sources of fecal contamination in groundwater.

1289:

aquifers is an example of such interactions. Prevention methods include: applying the

7624: 7544: 7008: 6914: 6887: 6734: 6684: 6620: 6574: 6379: 6361: 6309: 6260: 6248: 6165: 6155: 6131: 5827: 5803: 5795: 5744: 5736: 5470: 5458: 5399: 5338: 5255: 5181: 5126: 5114: 5050: 5003: 4991: 4974: 4958: 4946: 4881: 4843: 4677: 4632: 4599: 4556: 4501: 4487: 4454: 4425: 4366: 4203: 4193: 4172: 4098: 4090: 4039: 3988: 3927: 3851: 3748: 3695: 3669: 3591: 3515: 3466: 3376: 3200: 3182: 3130: 3120: 3057: 3053: 3042: 3038: 2439: 2375: 2104: 1607: 1543: 1459:

can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from

1422: 1231: 738: 661: 654: 608: 475: 265: 260: 170: 21: 6276:"Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in the Ganga River Basin: A Future Health Danger" 6102:"Review of low-cost point-of-use water treatment systems for developing communities" 5539: 5062: 4289:

Guidelines on drinking water protection areas – Part 1: Groundwater protection areas

3681: 2382:

used in the dry cleaning industry. Both of these chemicals, which are thought to be

7494: 7453: 7436: 7323: 7221: 6753: 6657: 6541: 6369: 6351: 6299: 6289: 6238: 6121: 6051: 6018: 5844: 5785: 5726: 5450: 5389: 5379: 5328: 5243: 5171: 5161: 5104: 5087: 5042: 4983: 4938: 4835: 4669: 4644: 4624: 4595: 4479: 4415: 4407: 4356: 4348: 4237:. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). Archived from 4231:

Geogenic Contamination Handbook - Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water

4080: 4029: 4021: 3978: 3968: 3917: 3909: 3869: 3841: 3833: 3659: 3456: 3446: 3368: 3244: 3190: 3174: 3089: 2824: 2800: 2784: 2387: 2341: 2263: 2196: 2169: 1968:

Nitrate can also enter the groundwater via excessive use of fertilizers, including

1859:

allows the user to produce probability risk mapping for both arsenic and fluoride.

1848: 1823:

conditions in the aquifer. These conditions result in the microbial dissolution of

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are more mobile than others so they can more easily reach a drinking-water source.

1437: 998: 895: 835: 721: 674: 623: 583: 558: 543: 525: 500: 440: 325: 275: 6201: 6059: 6026: 4673: 3688: 3248: 2415:

or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it.

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and their metabolites. Inorganic pollutants might include other nutrients such as

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or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it.

7511: 7477: 7363: 7343: 7253: 6902: 6868: 6802: 6599: 6584: 5930:

Protecting groundwater for health: Managing the quality of drinking-water sources

3153:"Groundwater Throughflow and Seawater Intrusion in High Quality Coastal Aquifers" 2843:. Physical treatment techniques include, but are not limited to, pump and treat, 2840: 2808: 2697: 2329: 2317: 2295:

in Vietnam have provided evidence that over-pumping of groundwater leads to land

2200: 2115:. PAHs and other semi-VOCs are the common contaminants associated with creosote. 2059: 1311: 1180: 1156: 783: 743: 613: 578: 510: 450: 378: 315: 215: 5705:"Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Fluoride Contamination in Groundwaters" 5652:"Protecting Groundwater for Health - Understanding the drinking-water catchment" 2640:

Horizontal distance between the drinking water source and the sanitation system

1816:"Geogenic" refers to naturally occurring as a result from geological processes. 7649: 7552: 7499: 7409: 7328: 7313: 7308: 7260: 7148: 6944: 6892: 6875: 6709: 6356: 6223:

Pantaleo, P. A.; Komakech, H. C.; Mtei, K. M.; Njau, K. N. (December 1, 2018).

5950:. Ada, OK: EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory. January 26, 2017. 5483: 5384: 5146:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3178: 2936: 2485: 2391: 2220: 2216: 2204: 2090: 1909: 1634: 1611: 1551: 1394: 1352: 1101: 905: 805: 760: 753: 748: 505: 200: 6126: 6101: 5764:"Statistical Modeling of Global Geogenic Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater" 5454: 5247: 4384:

Phillips PJ, Chalmers AT, Gray JL, Kolpin DW, Foreman WT, Wall GR (May 2012).

3116:

Groundwater: Hydrogeochemistry, Environmental Impacts and Management Practices

1371:. Groundwater in these areas is also contaminated by the use of arsenic-based 7613: 7516: 7353: 7243: 7200: 6981: 6858: 6744: 6694: 6558: 6365: 6252: 6169: 6135: 5799: 5740: 5342: 4847: 4094: 3380: 3186: 3134: 2956: 2928: 2827:. Some chemical treatment techniques include ozone and oxygen gas injection, 2403: 2337: 2149: 2144:

While the EPA has not found significant evidence of a widespread, systematic

2025: 1978: 1957: 1488: 1274: 1263: 1259: 1204: 1160: 1084: 920: 410: 405: 400: 158: 5166: 4987: 4942: 4335:"Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review" 4085: 4058: 1684:. These contaminants have the potential to make their way into groundwater. 1335:

Inorganic arsenic is the most common type of arsenic in soil and water. The

7318: 7276: 7052: 7003: 6939: 6795: 6699: 6383: 6313: 6294: 5807: 5748: 5583: 5462: 5403: 5185: 5118: 5054: 4995: 4950: 4681: 4636: 4429: 4370: 4102: 4043: 3992: 3973: 3931: 3855: 3673: 3470: 3321:

Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality oPublishing for WHO

3221:

Han, D.M.; Song, X.F.; Currell, Matthew J.; Yang, J.L.; Xiao, G.Q. (2014).

3204: 2952: 2844: 2836: 2427: 2321: 2292: 2271: 2195:

Furthermore, it is theorized that contamination could also result from the

1755: 1728: 1641: 1619: 1595: 1401:

is low. High levels of fluoride in groundwater is a serious problem in the

1348: 1243: 953: 915: 900: 731: 696: 641: 360: 220: 6149: 5963:"Guidelines for assessing the risk to groundwater from on-site sanitation" 4483: 3627:

How to keep your groundwater drinkable: Safer siting of sanitation systems

3063:

The site is no longer in operation, and is an active hazmat cleanup site.

2232:

often very vague, and thus would lead researchers to lacking conclusions.

1892:, depending on the population density and the hydrogeological conditions. 1538:

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause "

7414: 7358: 7180: 7158: 7153: 7020: 6897: 6863: 6851: 6739: 6662: 6243: 6224: 5984:

Moore C, Nokes C, Loe B, Close M, Pang L, Smith V, Osbaldiston S (2010).

5621:

Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-water

4706: 4295:(Report). Bonn: Deutsche Vereinigung des Gas- und Wasserfaches e.V. 2006. 3837: 3080: 2964: 2924: 2820: 2816: 2644: 2629: 2585: 2540: 2407: 2383: 2367: 2313: 2189: 2067: 1947: 1889: 1885: 1735: 1669: 1630: 1476: 1460: 1270: 1192: 1152: 875: 573: 553: 190: 114: 5564: 4352: 4309:

Nick A, Foppen JW, Kulabako R, Lo D, Samwel M, Wagner F, Wolf L (2012).

2378:(used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and 7521: 7338: 7296: 7238: 7207: 6846: 6778: 6716: 6689: 6652: 3094: 2812: 2648: 2633: 2296: 2259: 1905: 1897: 1881: 1824: 1711: 1665: 1645: 1468: 1398: 1364: 1356: 1344: 1255: 1223: 1188: 1168: 925: 681: 185: 118: 6326: 5923:"Section 4: Approaches to drinking-water source protection management" 5790: 5763: 5731: 5704: 5524: 5046: 4411: 3664: 3451: 1550:

in the European Union stipulate less than 50 mg/L for nitrate in

7404: 7286: 7094: 7089: 7067: 6956: 6949: 6768: 6763: 6670: 6647: 4755:

ATSDR (US Agency for Toxic Substance & Disease Registry) (2008).

4025: 3913: 3114: 3093:

bacteria. This contamination was due to farm runoff into an adjacent

3046: 2948: 2944: 2807:

of technologies. Some of the biological treatment techniques include

2702:

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

2608:

for the pollutant to be eliminated through filtration or adsorption.

2488:(EU) water policy is the application of the precautionary principle. 2157: 2153: 2083: 1751: 1739: 1732: 1649: 1472: 1467:

The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly placed

1372: 1336: 1251: 1247: 1164: 1148: 993: 948: 910: 860: 795: 701: 165: 137: 6510: 5848: 5109: 5082: 7531: 7099: 7025: 6966: 6961: 6909: 6819: 6790: 6783: 6773: 6704: 6678: 6674: 6666: 5894:

Aller L, Bennett T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (September 1987).

2796: 2696:

protects groundwater by regulating the disposal of solid waste and

2656:

Vertical distance between drinking water well and sanitation system

2252: 2248: 2108: 1935: 1840: 1832: 1681: 1615: 1516: 1512: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1433: 1426: 1418: 1390: 1383: 1200: 1172: 365: 3945:

van Grinsven HJ, Ward MH, Benjamin N, de Kok TM (September 2006).

7399: 7195: 7190: 7136: 7042: 6971: 6814: 6615: 6281:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

3818:

Knobeloch L, Salna B, Hogan A, Postle J, Anderson H (July 2000).

2960: 2920: 2792: 2775: 2533: 2181: 2173: 1856:

Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG)

1828: 1782:

Causes of groundwater pollution include (further details below):

1759: 1747: 1677: 1633:

is the most soluble and mobile PAH found in groundwater, whereas

1591: 1587: 1508: 1492: 1368: 1239: 1219: 145: 6480: 5489:"Guidance on Assessing the Impacts of Cemeteries on Groundwater" 4473: 2919:

which is a sacred body of water for the Hindus is facing severe

2724:

containing the pollutants to prevent them from migrating further

7248: 7213: 7037: 6993: 6841: 6639: 6206:

Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems

5917: 5674: 5646: 5608: 3402: 2916: 2674:

Superposition, i.e. the need to consider a larger planning area

2333: 2325: 2267: 2185: 2177: 2002: 1969: 1661: 1599: 1410: 1402: 1379: 1003: 983: 890: 880: 588: 110: 6475: 5702: 4056: 3944: 3336:

Fluoride properties, applications and environmental management

7281: 7121: 7047: 6834: 3640: 2940: 2932: 2680: 2512:

The community can also help monitor the groundwater quality.

2420: 2237:

Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR)

2228: 1943: 1763: 1693: 1480: 1414: 1406: 1340: 1286: 1013: 958: 350: 6486:

IGRAC, International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre

5537: 5358:"Overpumping leads to California groundwater arsenic threat" 5139: 7226: 7082: 7077: 7057: 6931: 6882: 6726: 6506:

UPGro – Unlocking the Potential of Groundwater for the Poor

6273: 5876: 5569: 5268: 4972:

Ellsworth WL (July 2013). "Injection-induced earthquakes".

4168: 4144: 3727: 3511: 3308: 2779: 2552:

roundwater hydraulic confinement, geological nature of the

2300: 1738:, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and 1673: 1583: 1378:

Arsenic in groundwater can also be present where there are

1361:

contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic

1235: 988: 235: 230: 195: 5021: 4383: 3314:"Section 1:Managing the Quality of Drinking-water Sources" 7185: 6829: 6209: 5899: 4905: 4819: 4806: 4657: 4263: 4005: 3817: 2518: 6485: 6222: 5761: 5080: 4136:

Benotti MJ, Fisher SC, Terracciano SA (September 2006).

4135: 2370:

reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the

6476:

United States Geological Survey - Office of Groundwater

6008:

United States. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.

4157: 3576: 2434:. The movement of the plume, may be analyzed through a 2227:

routes rather than the subsurface flow from underlying

1689: 1640:

Organic pollutants can also be found in groundwater as

6402:"Overpumping groundwater increases contamination risk" 6396: 5223: 5081:

Howarth RW, Ingraffea A, Engelder T (September 2011).

4612: 3744:

Clearing the waters a focus on water quality solutions

2618: 1766:(Rn) naturally present in some geological formations. 1436:

in groundwater which is used for drinking water, both

1432:

In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of

5893: 5614:"Section 5:Approaches to pollution source management" 5553:(6): 684 – via Maxwell Scientific Organization. 4520:"Wastewater Management - A UN-Water Analytical Brief" 3551:. Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Archived from 3150: 2113:

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

6505: 5586:"Good Practices for Regulating Wastewater Treatment" 5584:

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2015).

5547:

Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences

4757:"Follow-up Health Consultation: Anniston Army Depot" 4308: 3696:"Bacteria and Their Effects on Ground-Water Quality" 3500: 3430: 3010:

starting in 1952, resulting in a legal case against

2184:

concentrations than normal. An evaluation of higher

1578:

Primary VOC pollutants found in groundwater include

6490: 5991:. Porirua, New Zealand. p. 296. Archived from 5565:"Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource" 5304: 4311:"Sustainable sanitation and groundwater protection" 4114: 4112: 3630:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance Working Group 11. 3433:"Uptake kinetics of arsenic species in rice plants" 1151:are released to the ground and make their way into 6043: 6010: 5983: 5820: 5538:A.T. Ekubo and J.F.N. Abowei (November 10, 2011). 5355: 4822:"The Environmental Costs and Benefits of Fracking" 3220: 2397: 2082:(ANAD) in the United States was placed on the EPA 2031: 1622:processes and as a metal degreaser, respectively. 91:| Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) 6491:IAH, International Association of Hydrogeologists 5274:"Getting up to Speed: Ground Water Contamination" 3820:"Blue babies and nitrate-contaminated well water" 3501:Smith M, Cross K, Paden M, Laben P, eds. (2016). 2969:United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization 2491: 1998:anthropogenic nitrogen in groundwater worldwide. 1942:residues and other micro-pollutants contained in 1811: 1328:Arsenic and fluoride have been recognized by the 1234:. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on 7611: 5438: 4575: 4553:Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control 4332: 4109: 3730:. Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4216. 2989:Water supply and sanitation in the United States 2146:impact on drinking water by hydraulic fracturing 2078:used as a metal cleaning. The military facility 4918: 4799:"Superfund Site: Atlantic Wood Industries, Inc" 4785:Technologies for Cleaning Up Contaminated Sites 4476:Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability 3718: 3431:Abedin MJ, Feldmann J, Meharg AA (March 2002). 3348: 1471:, can lead to drinking water contaminated with 1203:. Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to 1167:. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site 59: 6154:. Abdelazim M. Negm. Cham, Switzerland. 2017. 5877:Foster S, Hirata H, Gomes D, D'Elia M (2002). 4513: 4511: 3623: 3577:Fawell J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E (2006). 3097:that was vulnerable to groundwater pollution. 3083:became contaminated with the highly dangerous 2475:Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 2093:(VC), the most toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon. 2005:may also result in groundwater pollution with 1827:in the sediment and, thus, the release of the 1618:. PCE and TCE are industrial solvents used in 6526: 4732: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4158:DeSimone LA, Hamilton PA, Gilliom RJ (2009). 3333: 2423:aquifers is an example of such interactions. 1963: 1866: 1121: 6002: 5861: 5619:. In Schmoll O, Howard G, Chilton G (eds.). 4886:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4791: 4550: 4304: 4302: 4228:EAWAG (2015). Johnson CA, Brezler A (eds.). 4223: 4221: 4219: 3651:Tropical Medicine & International Health 3002:The town of Hinkley, California (U.S.), had 2733:treating the groundwater at its point of use 2527: 1727:Other organic pollutants include a range of 1706:Groundwater contamination by pharmaceuticals 1207:through poisoning or the spread of disease ( 121:in the foreground with pathogens and nitrate 17: 6194: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5630: 4894: 4606: 4508: 4317:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA). 3938: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3570: 3393: 1920: 1214:The pollutant often produces a contaminant 6533: 6519: 6454:"Walkerton E. coli outbreak declared over" 6182:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5356:Smith R, Knight R, Fendorf S (June 2018). 5076: 5074: 5072: 5017: 5015: 5013: 4827:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 4651: 4321: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 2763: 2458: 2426:A spill or ongoing release of chemical or 1128: 1114: 144: 6373: 6355: 6303: 6293: 6242: 6125: 5789: 5730: 5540:"Aspects of Aquatic Pollution in Nigeria" 5393: 5383: 5332: 5305:Erban LE, Gorelick SM, Zebker HA (2014). 5175: 5165: 5108: 4971: 4781:"A Citizen's Guide to Drycleaner Cleanup" 4569: 4419: 4360: 4299: 4216: 4084: 4033: 3982: 3972: 3921: 3845: 3663: 3504:Spring - managing groundwater sustainably 3460: 3450: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3194: 2971:'s standard for irrigation water and the 2740: 5627: 5557: 5485:Scottish Environmental Protection Agency 4912: 4860: 4629:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 4544: 4517: 4151: 4120:"Emerging Contaminants In Arizona Water" 3893: 3887: 3634: 3604: 3541: 3079:. The water supply which was drawn from 3056:facility, which was located next to the 2884: 2727:removing the pollutants from the aquifer 2706: 2602: 2449: 2045: 1988: 1870: 1451: 104: 47: 5944:"Wellhead Protection Area (WHPA) Model" 5913: 5911: 5909: 5680:"Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality" 5069: 5010: 4735:"Tetrachloroethylene in Drinking Water" 4256: 4191: 3782: 3373:10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300020032x 3352:Soil Science Society of America Journal 3112: 2891:Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania 2484:One of the six basic principles of the 2126: 2101:Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPL) 1614:(VC). BTEX are important components of 1317: 1187:(fracking) or from over application of 14: 7612: 6451: 6099: 6080:Water Encyclopedia, Science and Issues 5960: 5769:Environmental Science & Technology 5710:Environmental Science & Technology 5418:"Potential Threats to Our Groundwater" 5026:Environmental Science & Technology 4922:Environmental Science & Technology 4442: 4391:Environmental Science & Technology 4185: 4064:Environmental Science & Technology 3778: 3776: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3255: 2787:. Groundwater that moves through open 2694:Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 2519:Land zoning for groundwater protection 2064:Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) 1602:), and chlorinated solvents including 6540: 6514: 5864:Groundwater Pollution Risk Assessment 4840:10.1146/annurev-environ-031113-144051 4707:"PPDB: Pesticide Properties DataBase" 4333:Graham JP, Polizzotto ML (May 2013). 4227: 2993:Water supply and sanitation in Canada 2876:Water supply and sanitation in Zambia 1629:(PAHs). Due to its molecular weight, 100:Ground released seep into groundwater 60:Revision as of 15:13, 26 May 2024 by 44: 25: 6496:Groundwater pollution and sanitation 5906: 5083:"Natural gas: Should fracking stop?" 4699: 3999: 3740: 3734: 3216: 3214: 3146: 3144: 3066: 3032: 2911:Water supply and sanitation in India 2632:sources from pollution from on-site 2548:estimated parameters, the degree of 2243: 1561: 1324:Arsenic contamination of groundwater 1301:, or as a last resort, abandonment. 3773: 3528: 3477: 2619:Locating on-site sanitation systems 2473:, evolved from Principle 15 of the 1742:products, drug pollution involving 356:Radium and radon in the environment 117:in the background is polluting the 97: 82: 6048:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 6015:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 5573:. Denver, CO. 1998. Circular 1139. 4293:Technical rule number W101:2006-06 2014:US Environmental Protection Agency 1908:is used to supply groundwater for 1699: 1304: 98: 7666: 6469: 5928:. In Schmoll I, Howard G (eds.). 5442:Journal of Environmental Sciences 4340:Environmental Health Perspectives 4264:"Groundwater Assessment Platform" 4013:Environmental Health Perspectives 3901:Environmental Health Perspectives 3825:Environmental Health Perspectives 3624:Wolf L, Nick A, Cronin A (2015). 3211: 3141: 2869: 2340:since groundwater is part of the 1503:types that are present in feces ( 1367:in the shallower of two regional 78:(Dating maintenance tags: {{Cn}}) 52:. The present address (URL) is a 49:(Dating maintenance tags: {{Cn}}) 7594: 7593: 6100:Pooi CK, Ng HY (December 2018). 4579:Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 4451:Hamburg University of Technology 4125:. September 2016. p. 4.3.1. 3719:Banks WS, Battigelli DA (2002). 3338:. Vol. 1. pp. 111–136. 3119:. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2997: 2982: 2274:. This was eventually traced to 1627:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1568:VOC contamination of groundwater 1548:Drinking water quality standards 1095: 1083: 6500:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 6445: 6419: 6390: 6320: 6267: 6216: 6142: 6093: 6068: 6035: 5977: 5954: 5936: 5887: 5870: 5855: 5814: 5755: 5696: 5668: 5602: 5577: 5531: 5523:. July 31, 2012. Archived from 5513: 5477: 5432: 5410: 5349: 5298: 5285:Environmental Protection Agency 5270:Environmental Protection Agency 5262: 5217: 5192: 5133: 4965: 4854: 4813: 4773: 4748: 4726: 4688: 4467: 4436: 4377: 4281: 4195:Groundwater pollution in Africa 4129: 4050: 3862: 3811: 3706:United States Geological Survey 3113:Adelana, Segun Michael (2014). 2398:Interactions with surface water 2286: 2152:that preclude the link between 2032:Commercial and industrial leaks 2009:derived from veterinary drugs. 1798:Commercial and industrial leaks 176:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 5971:Commissioned Report, CR/01/142 5312:Environmental Research Letters 4661:Journal of Hazardous Materials 4616:Annual Review of Plant Biology 3424: 3387: 3342: 3327: 3106: 2850: 2778:. Non-porous aquifers such as 2687: 2492:Groundwater quality monitoring 2087:National Priorities List (NPL) 1812:Naturally-occurring (geogenic) 1786:Naturally-occurring (geogenic) 1731:and other chemical compounds, 1045:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 13: 1: 6498:(documents in library of the 6230:Water Practice and Technology 4674:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.111 4315:Factsheet of Working Group 11 4147:. Open-File Report 2006–1297. 3701:Michigan Water Science Center 3249:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.040 3100: 2847:, and dual phase extraction. 2715: 2445: 2354: 1444:can be prevalent and severe. 1425:, and some volcanic islands ( 516:Electrical resistance heating 6559:Pollution / quality 5420:. The Groundwater Foundation 5334:10.1088/1748-9326/9/8/084010 4600:10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4 4192:Xu Y, Usher B, eds. (2006). 3004:its groundwater contaminated 2671:Volume of leaking wastewater 2436:hydrological transport model 1447: 1295:point-of-use water treatment 1228:hydrological transport model 226:Persistent organic pollutant 150:Air pollution from a factory 7: 6065:Approved December 11, 1980. 5862:Foster S, Hirata H (1988). 4712:University of Hertfordshire 3894:Fewtrell L (October 2004). 2859: 2747:Portable water purification 2160:extraction and its impact. 1177:wastewater treatment plants 24:of this page, as edited by 10: 7671: 6357:10.1038/s41598-019-50875-w 6076:"Pollution of groundwater" 6032:Approved October 21, 1976. 5385:10.1038/s41467-018-04475-3 4908:. 2016. EPA 600/R-16/236F. 4904:(Report). Washington, DC: 4453:(TUHH), Hamburg, Germany. 3580:Fluoride in drinking-water 3179:10.1038/s41598-020-66516-6 3012:Pacific Gas & Electric 2986: 2908: 2888: 2873: 2767: 2744: 2668:Slope and surface drainage 2662:Groundwater flow direction 2462: 2270:and an alarming number of 2217:hydraulic fracturing fluid 2130: 1964:Fertilizers and pesticides 1929:The treated effluent from 1867:On-site sanitation systems 1795:Fertilizers and pesticides 1789:On-site sanitation systems 1703: 1573:Volatile organic compounds 1565: 1526: 1321: 7645:Water and the environment 7589: 7530: 7395: 7388: 7269: 7130:Types / location 7129: 7120: 6930: 6725: 6638: 6608: 6557: 6548: 6127:10.1038/s41545-018-0011-0 5969:British Geological Survey 5932:. IWA Publishing for WHO. 5919:World Health Organization 5676:World Health Organization 5648:World Health Organization 5610:World Health Organization 5455:10.1016/j.jes.2019.04.025 5248:10.1007/s10040-016-1418-7 3726:(Report). Baltimore, MD: 3310:World Health Organization 3050:groundwater contamination 2973:World Health Organization 2864: 2564:epth to water table, net 2528:Aquifer vulnerability map 2503:World Health Organization 2479:environmental degradation 2056:underground storage tanks 1777: 1722: 1655: 1386:that will leach arsenic. 1330:World Health Organization 1238:characteristics and site 1179:, leaking sewers, petrol 1145:groundwater contamination 771:War and environmental law 391:Health effects from noise 241:Volatile organic compound 109:Groundwater pollution in 5204:StateImpact Pennsylvania 3747:. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP. 3708:(USGS). January 4, 2017. 3542:Custodio E, ed. (2013). 2904: 2372:chlorinated hydrocarbons 2338:atmospheric contaminants 2307: 2304:release into the water. 2066:, will "float" upon the 2041:acid mine drainage (AMD) 1956:Spreading wastewater or 1921:Sewage and sewage sludge 1792:Sewage and sewage sludge 1175:leachate, effluent from 396:Marine mammals and sonar 5167:10.1073/pnas.1511474112 4988:10.1126/science.1225942 4943:10.1021/acs.est.5b04970 4086:10.1021/acs.est.8b05592 2917:Ganga River Basin (GRB) 2899: 2770:Groundwater remediation 2764:Groundwater remediation 2471:precautionary principle 2465:Precautionary principle 2459:Precautionary principle 2402:Although interrelated, 2336:from airports and even 2007:pharmaceutical residues 1931:sewage treatment plants 1299:groundwater remediation 1291:precautionary principle 871:Freshwater salinization 791:Agricultural wastewater 6398:University of Stanford 6295:10.3390/ijerph15020180 5521:"Groundwater Sampling" 4733:Health Canada (2014). 4143:(Report). Reston, VA: 3974:10.1186/1476-069X-5-26 3394:Ravenscroft P (2007). 2829:chemical precipitation 2741:Point-of-use treatment 2712: 2455: 2291:Satellite data in the 2266:noticed high rates of 2051: 1994: 1877: 1696:state of groundwater. 1485:fecal–oral transmitted 1464: 1266:, in the groundwater. 1090:Environment portal 122: 7635:Hydraulic engineering 6186:) CS1 maint: others ( 5527:on February 11, 2014. 5363:Nature Communications 4484:10.1007/1-4020-5175-1 3558:on September 21, 2018 2885:Babati town, Tanzania 2799:as dumps in areas of 2710: 2603:Source protection map 2463:Further information: 2453: 2318:illegal waste dumping 2235:Researchers from the 2201:groundwater resources 2137:The recent growth of 2131:Further information: 2049: 1992: 1874: 1580:aromatic hydrocarbons 1455: 1141:Groundwater pollution 831:Industrial wastewater 599:Municipal solid waste 521:Soil guideline values 108: 7505:remnant natural area 7142:storage and recovery 6808:habitat conservation 6626:Deforestation (REDD) 6481:UK Groundwater Forum 6244:10.2166/wpt.2018.104 6212:. December 18, 2018. 5998:on January 13, 2015. 5902:. EPA 600/S2-87/035. 5227:Hydrogeology Journal 4805:. Philadelphia, PA: 4532:on November 30, 2016 4200:Taylor & Francis 3952:Environmental Health 3838:10.1289/ehp.00108675 3741:Ross N, ed. (2010). 3228:Journal of Hydrology 3020:, released in 2000. 2556:verlying strata and 2320:, infiltration from 2139:hydraulic fracturing 2133:Hydraulic fracturing 2127:Hydraulic fracturing 1801:Hydraulic fracturing 1744:pharmaceutical drugs 1318:Arsenic and fluoride 1209:water-borne diseases 1185:hydraulic fracturing 1040:Most polluted cities 692:Overhead power lines 113:, Zambia, where the 7459:Earth Overshoot Day 7033:Marine conservation 7014:non-timber products 6348:2019NatSR...915193M 6202:"Ground Water Rule" 6118:2018npjCW...1...11P 5841:2008NatGe...1..536W 5782:2008EnST...42.3669A 5723:2008EnST...42.3662A 5376:2018NatCo...9.2089S 5325:2014ERL.....9h4010E 5240:2016HydJ...24.1343P 5158:2015PNAS..11213184D 5101:2011Natur.477..271H 5039:2014EnST...48.8334V 4935:2016EnST...50.4524D 4809:. October 23, 2018. 4592:1995JCHyd..20..167S 4404:2012EnST...46.5336P 4353:10.1289/ehp.1206028 4077:2019EnST...53.2950B 3965:2006EnvHe...5...26V 3799:on October 13, 2015 3365:1969SSASJ..33..279J 3241:2014JHyd..508...12H 3171:2020NatSR..10.9866C 3008:hexavalent chromium 2833:membrane separation 2580:opography (slope), 2417:Saltwater intrusion 2380:tetrachloroethylene 2197:capillary migration 2080:Anniston Army Depot 2018:European Commission 1768:Saltwater intrusion 1604:tetrachloroethylene 1457:Waterborne diseases 1283:Saltwater intrusion 856:Ocean acidification 766:Unexploded ordnance 687:Advertising clutter 619:Post-consumer waste 564:Foam food container 549:Biodegradable waste 206:Global distillation 89:← Previous revision 7444:Ecosystem services 6567:Ambient standards 6459:The Globe and Mail 6335:Scientific Reports 6208:. Washington, DC: 3586:. Geneva: IWA for 3158:Scientific Reports 2713: 2665:Impermeable layers 2456: 2334:de-icing chemicals 2052: 1995: 1878: 1540:blue baby syndrome 1465: 1442:skeletal fluorosis 1403:Argentinean Pampas 1102:Ecology portal 727:Herbicidal warfare 271:Introduced species 211:Indoor air quality 181:Chlorofluorocarbon 123: 45:15:13, 26 May 2024 7607: 7606: 7585: 7584: 7384: 7383: 7063:genetic resources 6999:genetic resources 6634: 6633: 6542:Natural resources 6431:Los Angeles Times 6161:978-3-319-56124-0 5828:Nature Geoscience 5791:10.1021/es702859e 5732:10.1021/es071958y 5717:(10): 3662–3668. 5047:10.1021/es405118y 4982:(6142): 1225942. 4562:978-94-007-7813-9 4518:UN-Water (2015). 4493:978-1-4020-5175-3 4460:978-3-930400-41-6 4443:Winker M (2009). 4412:10.1021/es3001294 4209:978-0-415-41167-7 3754:978-92-807-3074-6 3665:10.1111/tmi.12331 3521:978-2-8317-1789-0 3452:10.1104/pp.010733 3412:on March 19, 2017 3126:978-1-63321-791-1 3067:Walkerton, Canada 3058:Norco High School 3054:Wyle Laboratories 3043:Trichloroethylene 3039:Norco, California 3033:Norco, California 3024:San Joaquin, U.S. 2785:soil contaminants 2760:quite expensive. 2649:groundwater wells 2440:groundwater model 2376:trichloroethylene 2244:Landfill leachate 2105:pentachlorophenol 1804:Landfill leachate 1710:Trace amounts of 1608:trichloroethylene 1562:Organic compounds 1544:methemoglobinemia 1487:diseases include 1423:East African Rift 1232:groundwater model 1224:groundwater wells 1138: 1137: 1073: 1072: 739:Nuclear holocaust 662:Urban heat island 476:Radioactive waste 261:Biological hazard 171:Air quality index 7662: 7597: 7596: 7548: 7495:Natural heritage 7454:overexploitation 7393: 7392: 7127: 7126: 7073:herbal medicines 7053:FAO Plant Treaty 6593: 6570: 6555: 6554: 6535: 6528: 6521: 6512: 6511: 6464: 6463: 6449: 6443: 6442: 6440: 6438: 6423: 6417: 6416: 6414: 6412: 6400:(June 5, 2018). 6394: 6388: 6387: 6377: 6359: 6324: 6318: 6317: 6307: 6297: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6246: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6198: 6192: 6191: 6181: 6173: 6146: 6140: 6139: 6129: 6097: 6091: 6090: 6088: 6086: 6072: 6066: 6049: 6045: 6039: 6033: 6016: 6012: 6006: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5990: 5981: 5975: 5974: 5958: 5952: 5951: 5940: 5934: 5933: 5927: 5915: 5904: 5903: 5891: 5885: 5884: 5874: 5868: 5867: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5818: 5812: 5811: 5793: 5759: 5753: 5752: 5734: 5700: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5684: 5672: 5666: 5665: 5663: 5661: 5656: 5644: 5625: 5624: 5618: 5606: 5600: 5599: 5597: 5595: 5590: 5581: 5575: 5574: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5544: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5517: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5506: 5501:on July 12, 2021 5500: 5494:. Archived from 5493: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5427: 5425: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5397: 5387: 5353: 5347: 5346: 5336: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5278: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5234:(6): 1343–1358. 5221: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5196: 5190: 5189: 5179: 5169: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5112: 5078: 5067: 5066: 5019: 5008: 5007: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4885: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4817: 4811: 4810: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4777: 4771: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4761: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4703: 4697: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4655: 4649: 4648: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4586:(3–4): 167–184. 4573: 4567: 4566: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4531: 4525:. Archived from 4524: 4515: 4506: 4505: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4449:(PhD). Hamburg: 4440: 4434: 4433: 4423: 4381: 4375: 4374: 4364: 4330: 4319: 4318: 4306: 4297: 4296: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4243: 4236: 4225: 4214: 4213: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4166: 4155: 4149: 4148: 4142: 4133: 4127: 4126: 4124: 4116: 4107: 4106: 4088: 4071:(6): 2950–2960. 4054: 4048: 4047: 4037: 4026:10.1289/ehp.8043 4003: 3997: 3996: 3986: 3976: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3925: 3914:10.1289/ehp.7216 3891: 3885: 3884: 3882: 3880: 3866: 3860: 3859: 3849: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3798: 3792:. Archived from 3791: 3783:AGW-Net (2016). 3780: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3757:. Archived from 3738: 3732: 3731: 3725: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3667: 3647: 3638: 3632: 3631: 3621: 3602: 3601: 3585: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3557: 3550: 3539: 3526: 3525: 3509: 3498: 3475: 3474: 3464: 3454: 3438:Plant Physiology 3428: 3422: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3411: 3405:. Archived from 3400: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3318: 3306: 3253: 3252: 3218: 3209: 3208: 3198: 3148: 3139: 3138: 3110: 3041:was affected by 2825:phytoremediation 2801:karst topography 2624:drinking-water. 2541:unsaturated zone 2388:dichloroethylene 2342:hydrologic cycle 2276:organic solvents 2170:British Columbia 2070:in the aquifer. 1884:systems such as 1849:dental fluorosis 1384:mine waste dumps 1181:filling stations 1130: 1123: 1116: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1088: 1087: 1019: 1018: 722:Chemical warfare 624:Waste management 584:Industrial waste 559:Electronic waste 544:Advertising mail 526:Phytoremediation 501:Land degradation 441:Depleted uranium 326:Overillumination 276:Invasive species 148: 125: 124: 79: 76: 56:to this version. 51: 50: 46: 42: 41: 22:current revision 7670: 7669: 7665: 7664: 7663: 7661: 7660: 7659: 7610: 7609: 7608: 7603: 7581: 7546: 7526: 7512:Systems ecology 7478:Natural capital 7380: 7265: 7254:reclaimed water 7116: 7078:UPOV Convention 6926: 6721: 6630: 6604: 6600:Ozone depletion 6591: 6568: 6544: 6539: 6472: 6467: 6450: 6446: 6436: 6434: 6425: 6424: 6420: 6410: 6408: 6395: 6391: 6325: 6321: 6272: 6268: 6221: 6217: 6200: 6199: 6195: 6175: 6174: 6162: 6148: 6147: 6143: 6106:npj Clean Water 6098: 6094: 6084: 6082: 6074: 6073: 6069: 6047: 6040: 6036: 6014: 6007: 6003: 5995: 5988: 5982: 5978: 5961:ARGOSS (2001). 5959: 5955: 5942: 5941: 5937: 5925: 5916: 5907: 5892: 5888: 5875: 5871: 5860: 5856: 5849:10.1038/ngeo254 5819: 5815: 5776:(10): 3669–75. 5760: 5756: 5701: 5697: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5673: 5669: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5645: 5628: 5616: 5607: 5603: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5582: 5578: 5563: 5562: 5558: 5542: 5536: 5532: 5519: 5518: 5514: 5504: 5502: 5498: 5491: 5487:(SEPA) (2015). 5482: 5478: 5437: 5433: 5423: 5421: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5354: 5350: 5303: 5299: 5289: 5287: 5276: 5267: 5263: 5222: 5218: 5208: 5206: 5198: 5197: 5193: 5152:(43): 13184–9. 5138: 5134: 5110:10.1038/477271a 5095:(7364): 271–5. 5079: 5070: 5033:(15): 8334–48. 5020: 5011: 4970: 4966: 4917: 4913: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4879: 4878: 4871: 4869: 4859: 4855: 4818: 4814: 4797: 4796: 4792: 4779: 4778: 4774: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4753: 4749: 4739: 4737: 4731: 4727: 4717: 4715: 4705: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4689: 4668:(1–3): 189–99. 4656: 4652: 4611: 4607: 4574: 4570: 4563: 4549: 4545: 4535: 4533: 4529: 4522: 4516: 4509: 4494: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4441: 4437: 4398:(10): 5336–43. 4382: 4378: 4331: 4322: 4307: 4300: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4272: 4270: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4247: 4245: 4244:on May 11, 2021 4241: 4234: 4226: 4217: 4210: 4190: 4186: 4179: 4164: 4156: 4152: 4140: 4134: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4117: 4110: 4055: 4051: 4020:(11): 1607–14. 4004: 4000: 3943: 3939: 3892: 3888: 3878: 3876: 3868: 3867: 3863: 3816: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3781: 3774: 3764: 3762: 3761:on June 5, 2019 3755: 3739: 3735: 3723: 3717: 3713: 3704:. Lansing, MI: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3645: 3639: 3635: 3622: 3605: 3598: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3540: 3529: 3522: 3507: 3499: 3478: 3429: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3398: 3392: 3388: 3347: 3343: 3332: 3328: 3316: 3307: 3256: 3219: 3212: 3149: 3142: 3127: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3069: 3035: 3017:Erin Brockovich 3000: 2995: 2985: 2913: 2907: 2902: 2893: 2887: 2878: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2853: 2809:bioaugmentation 2772: 2766: 2749: 2743: 2718: 2698:hazardous waste 2690: 2621: 2605: 2530: 2521: 2494: 2467: 2461: 2448: 2400: 2357: 2310: 2289: 2246: 2205:trihalomethanes 2135: 2129: 2034: 1966: 1923: 1869: 1844: 1814: 1780: 1725: 1712:pharmaceuticals 1708: 1702: 1700:Pharmaceuticals 1658: 1570: 1564: 1529: 1450: 1363:affects 25% of 1326: 1320: 1312:water pollution 1307: 1305:Pollutant types 1157:water pollution 1155:. This type of 1134: 1096: 1094: 1082: 1075: 1074: 974: 966: 965: 939: 931: 930: 866:Pharmaceuticals 846:Nonpoint source 786: 776: 775: 744:Nuclear fallout 717: 707: 706: 677: 667: 666: 657: 647: 646: 637: 629: 628: 614:Packaging waste 579:Hazardous waste 539: 531: 530: 491: 481: 480: 451:Nuclear fallout 446:Nuclear fission 426: 416: 415: 381: 371: 370: 346: 338: 337: 311: 309:Electromagnetic 301: 300: 291: 283: 282: 256: 246: 245: 216:Ozone depletion 161: 151: 101: 96: 95: 94: 93: 92: 81: 80: 77: 66: 64: 48: 31: 29: 12: 11: 5: 7668: 7658: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7605: 7604: 7602: 7601: 7590: 7587: 7586: 7583: 7582: 7580: 7579: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7547:(perpetuation) 7542: 7536: 7534: 7528: 7527: 7525: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7508: 7507: 7500:Nature reserve 7497: 7492: 7491: 7490: 7485: 7475: 7474: 7473: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7456: 7446: 7441: 7440: 7439: 7434: 7424: 7423: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7396: 7390: 7386: 7385: 7382: 7381: 7379: 7378: 7377: 7376: 7371: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7305: 7304: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7273: 7271: 7267: 7266: 7264: 7263: 7258: 7257: 7256: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7235: 7234: 7224: 7219: 7218: 7217: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7183: 7178: 7177: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7145: 7144: 7133: 7131: 7124: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7107: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7086: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7029: 7028: 7018: 7017: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6991: 6990: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6977:climate change 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6953: 6952: 6945:Bioprospecting 6942: 6936: 6934: 6928: 6927: 6925: 6924: 6923: 6922: 6917: 6907: 6906: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6880: 6879: 6878: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6866: 6856: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6839: 6838: 6837: 6827: 6822: 6812: 6811: 6810: 6800: 6799: 6798: 6788: 6787: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6750: 6749: 6748: 6747: 6731: 6729: 6723: 6722: 6720: 6719: 6714: 6713: 6712: 6707: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6644: 6642: 6636: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6602: 6597: 6596: 6595: 6590:Clean Air Act 6582: 6577: 6572: 6563: 6561: 6552: 6546: 6545: 6538: 6537: 6530: 6523: 6515: 6509: 6508: 6503: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6471: 6470:External links 6468: 6466: 6465: 6452:McLaughlin T. 6444: 6418: 6389: 6319: 6266: 6237:(4): 980–990. 6215: 6193: 6160: 6151:The Nile Delta 6141: 6092: 6067: 6056:42 U.S.C. 6034: 6023:42 U.S.C. 6001: 5976: 5953: 5948:Water Research 5935: 5921:(WHO) (2006). 5905: 5886: 5869: 5854: 5813: 5754: 5695: 5678:(WHO) (2011). 5667: 5650:(WHO) (2006). 5626: 5623:. IWA for WHO. 5612:(WHO) (2006). 5601: 5576: 5556: 5530: 5512: 5476: 5431: 5409: 5348: 5297: 5261: 5216: 5191: 5132: 5068: 5009: 4964: 4929:(8): 4524–36. 4911: 4893: 4853: 4834:(1): 327–362. 4812: 4790: 4772: 4747: 4725: 4698: 4687: 4650: 4605: 4568: 4561: 4543: 4507: 4492: 4466: 4459: 4435: 4376: 4320: 4298: 4280: 4255: 4215: 4208: 4184: 4177: 4167:. Reston, VA: 4150: 4128: 4108: 4049: 3998: 3937: 3908:(14): 1371–4. 3886: 3861: 3810: 3772: 3753: 3733: 3711: 3687: 3633: 3603: 3597:978-9241563192 3596: 3569: 3527: 3520: 3476: 3423: 3386: 3359:(2): 279–282. 3341: 3326: 3254: 3210: 3140: 3125: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3068: 3065: 3034: 3031: 2999: 2996: 2984: 2981: 2937:Madhya Pradesh 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2886: 2883: 2871: 2870:Lusaka, Zambia 2868: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2852: 2849: 2768:Main article: 2765: 2762: 2745:Main article: 2742: 2739: 2738: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2717: 2714: 2689: 2686: 2676: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2663: 2660: 2657: 2654: 2653: 2652: 2620: 2617: 2604: 2601: 2572:quifer media, 2529: 2526: 2520: 2517: 2493: 2490: 2486:European Union 2460: 2457: 2447: 2444: 2399: 2396: 2392:vinyl chloride 2356: 2353: 2309: 2306: 2288: 2285: 2251:from sanitary 2245: 2242: 2221:produced water 2128: 2125: 2091:vinyl chloride 2033: 2030: 2016:(EPA) and the 1965: 1962: 1940:pharmaceutical 1922: 1919: 1910:drinking water 1868: 1865: 1842: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1779: 1776: 1724: 1721: 1704:Main article: 1701: 1698: 1657: 1654: 1635:benzo(a)pyrene 1612:vinyl chloride 1566:Main article: 1563: 1560: 1552:drinking water 1528: 1525: 1499:. Of the four 1449: 1446: 1395:drinking water 1382:operations or 1353:northern India 1322:Main article: 1319: 1316: 1306: 1303: 1147:) occurs when 1136: 1135: 1133: 1132: 1125: 1118: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1092: 1077: 1076: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1068: 1060: 1059: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1035:Law by country 1032: 1024: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 975: 972: 971: 968: 967: 964: 963: 962: 961: 956: 946: 940: 937: 936: 933: 932: 929: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 906:Surface runoff 903: 898: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 806:Eutrophication 803: 798: 793: 787: 782: 781: 778: 777: 774: 773: 768: 763: 761:Scorched earth 758: 757: 756: 754:Nuclear winter 751: 749:Nuclear famine 746: 736: 735: 734: 724: 718: 713: 712: 709: 708: 705: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 678: 673: 672: 669: 668: 665: 664: 658: 653: 652: 649: 648: 645: 644: 638: 635: 634: 631: 630: 627: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 546: 540: 537: 536: 533: 532: 529: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 506:Bioremediation 503: 498: 492: 487: 486: 483: 482: 479: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 436:Bioremediation 433: 427: 422: 421: 418: 417: 414: 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 386:Transportation 382: 377: 376: 373: 372: 369: 368: 363: 358: 353: 347: 344: 343: 340: 339: 336: 335: 333:Radio spectrum 330: 329: 328: 323: 312: 307: 306: 303: 302: 299: 298: 292: 289: 288: 285: 284: 281: 280: 279: 278: 268: 263: 257: 252: 251: 248: 247: 244: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 201:Global dimming 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 162: 157: 156: 153: 152: 149: 141: 140: 134: 133: 99: 62: 54:permanent link 27: 16: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7667: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7600: 7592: 7591: 7588: 7578: 7577:Non-renewable 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7537: 7535: 7533: 7529: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7517:Urban ecology 7515: 7513: 7510: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7480: 7479: 7476: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7464: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7428: 7425: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7398: 7397: 7394: 7391: 7387: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7366: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7349:Privatization 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7303: 7300: 7299: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7274: 7272: 7268: 7262: 7259: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7244:Surface water 7242: 7240: 7237: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7216: 7215: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7206: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7138: 7135: 7134: 7132: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7119: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7102: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7022: 7019: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6992: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6974: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6951: 6948: 6947: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6937: 6935: 6933: 6929: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6911: 6908: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6881: 6877: 6874: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6860: 6857: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6840: 6836: 6833: 6832: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6816: 6813: 6809: 6806: 6805: 6804: 6801: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6792: 6789: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6766: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6746: 6745:peak farmland 6743: 6742: 6741: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6724: 6718: 6715: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6645: 6643: 6641: 6637: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6611: 6607: 6601: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6565: 6564: 6562: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6536: 6531: 6529: 6524: 6522: 6517: 6516: 6513: 6507: 6504: 6501: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6461: 6460: 6455: 6448: 6432: 6428: 6422: 6407: 6406:Stanford News 6403: 6399: 6393: 6385: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6336: 6331: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6270: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6231: 6226: 6219: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6197: 6189: 6185: 6179: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6157: 6153: 6152: 6145: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6096: 6081: 6077: 6071: 6064: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6046: 6038: 6031: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6013: 6005: 5994: 5987: 5980: 5972: 5970: 5964: 5957: 5949: 5945: 5939: 5931: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5912: 5910: 5901: 5897: 5890: 5882: 5881: 5873: 5865: 5858: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5835:(8): 536–42. 5834: 5830: 5829: 5824: 5817: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5770: 5765: 5758: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5706: 5699: 5681: 5677: 5671: 5653: 5649: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5622: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5587: 5580: 5572: 5571: 5566: 5560: 5552: 5548: 5541: 5534: 5526: 5522: 5516: 5497: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5443: 5435: 5424:September 24, 5419: 5413: 5405: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5352: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5319:(8): 084010. 5318: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5301: 5290:September 30, 5286: 5282: 5275: 5271: 5265: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5228: 5220: 5205: 5201: 5195: 5187: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5136: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5077: 5075: 5073: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5027: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4976: 4968: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4923: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4897: 4889: 4883: 4868: 4867:cfpub.epa.gov 4864: 4857: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4816: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4794: 4786: 4782: 4776: 4758: 4751: 4736: 4729: 4714: 4713: 4708: 4702: 4696: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4623:(1): 341–63. 4622: 4618: 4617: 4609: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4580: 4572: 4564: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4528: 4521: 4514: 4512: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4462: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4447: 4439: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4392: 4387: 4380: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4347:(5): 521–30. 4346: 4342: 4341: 4336: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4303: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4269: 4265: 4259: 4240: 4233: 4232: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4211: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4196: 4188: 4180: 4178:9781411323506 4174: 4170: 4163: 4162: 4154: 4146: 4139: 4132: 4121: 4115: 4113: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4065: 4060: 4053: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4014: 4009: 4002: 3994: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3953: 3948: 3941: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3902: 3897: 3890: 3875: 3871: 3865: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3826: 3821: 3814: 3795: 3788: 3787: 3779: 3777: 3760: 3756: 3750: 3746: 3745: 3737: 3729: 3722: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3702: 3697: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3658:(8): 928–42. 3657: 3653: 3652: 3644: 3637: 3629: 3628: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3599: 3593: 3589: 3582: 3581: 3573: 3554: 3547: 3546: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3523: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3505: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3472: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3445:(3): 1120–8. 3444: 3440: 3439: 3434: 3427: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3353: 3345: 3337: 3330: 3322: 3315: 3311: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3224: 3217: 3215: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3159: 3154: 3147: 3145: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3118: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3076: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3030: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3019: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2998:Hinkley, U.S. 2994: 2990: 2983:North America 2980: 2976: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2929:Uttar Pradesh 2926: 2922: 2918: 2912: 2897: 2892: 2882: 2877: 2857: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2841:nanomaterials 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2804: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2748: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2722: 2721: 2709: 2705: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2685: 2682: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2641: 2639: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2587: 2584:mpact on the 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2545: 2542: 2537: 2535: 2525: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2504: 2498: 2489: 2487: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2452: 2443: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2405: 2404:surface water 2395: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2360: 2352: 2349: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2305: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2272:birth defects 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2254: 2250: 2241: 2238: 2233: 2230: 2226: 2225:anthropogenic 2222: 2218: 2212: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2150:contamination 2147: 2142: 2140: 2134: 2124: 2122: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2048: 2044: 2042: 2037: 2029: 2027: 2026:monocrotophos 2021: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1984: 1980: 1979:surface water 1976: 1971: 1961: 1959: 1958:sewage sludge 1954: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1918: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1899: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1873: 1864: 1860: 1857: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1841:fluorite (CaF 1837: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1784: 1783: 1775: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1756:radionuclides 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1729:organohalides 1720: 1716: 1713: 1707: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1569: 1559: 1555: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1533: 1524: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1333: 1331: 1325: 1315: 1313: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1275:surface water 1272: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1260:precipitation 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1205:public health 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161:contamination 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1143:(also called 1142: 1131: 1126: 1124: 1119: 1117: 1112: 1111: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1093: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1080: 1079: 1078: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1057: 1056: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1026: 1025: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 976: 970: 969: 960: 957: 955: 952: 951: 950: 947: 945: 942: 941: 935: 934: 927: 924: 922: 921:Water quality 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 788: 785: 780: 779: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 741: 740: 737: 733: 730: 729: 728: 725: 723: 720: 719: 716: 711: 710: 703: 700: 698: 697:Traffic signs 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 679: 676: 671: 670: 663: 660: 659: 656: 651: 650: 643: 640: 639: 633: 632: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 604:Nanomaterials 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 541: 535: 534: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 493: 490: 485: 484: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 466:Radioactivity 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 428: 425: 420: 419: 412: 411:Soundproofing 409: 407: 406:Noise control 404: 402: 401:Noise barrier 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 383: 380: 375: 374: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 348: 342: 341: 334: 331: 327: 324: 322: 319: 318: 317: 314: 313: 310: 305: 304: 297: 294: 293: 287: 286: 277: 274: 273: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 258: 255: 250: 249: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 163: 160: 155: 154: 147: 143: 142: 139: 136: 135: 131: 127: 126: 120: 116: 112: 107: 103: 90: 86: 74: 70: 65: 58: 57: 55: 39: 35: 30: 23: 7620:Liquid water 7575: / 7449:Exploitation 7334:Conservation 7277:Desalination 7212: 7163: 7105:conservation 6940:Biodiversity 6888:conservation 6735:Agricultural 6663:Fossil fuels 6457: 6447: 6437:November 13, 6435:. Retrieved 6430: 6421: 6409:. Retrieved 6405: 6392: 6342:(1): 15193. 6339: 6333: 6322: 6285: 6279: 6269: 6234: 6228: 6218: 6205: 6196: 6150: 6144: 6109: 6105: 6095: 6083:. Retrieved 6079: 6070: 6062: 6037: 6029: 6004: 5993:the original 5979: 5966: 5956: 5947: 5938: 5929: 5889: 5879: 5872: 5863: 5857: 5832: 5826: 5816: 5773: 5767: 5757: 5714: 5708: 5698: 5686:. Retrieved 5670: 5658:. Retrieved 5620: 5604: 5592:. Retrieved 5579: 5568: 5559: 5550: 5546: 5533: 5525:the original 5515: 5503:. Retrieved 5496:the original 5479: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5422:. Retrieved 5412: 5367: 5361: 5351: 5316: 5310: 5300: 5288:. Retrieved 5280: 5264: 5231: 5225: 5219: 5207:. Retrieved 5203: 5194: 5149: 5145: 5135: 5092: 5086: 5030: 5024: 4979: 4973: 4967: 4926: 4920: 4914: 4896: 4870:. Retrieved 4866: 4856: 4831: 4825: 4815: 4802: 4793: 4784: 4775: 4763:. Retrieved 4750: 4738:. Retrieved 4728: 4716:. Retrieved 4710: 4701: 4690: 4665: 4659: 4653: 4620: 4614: 4608: 4583: 4577: 4571: 4555:. Springer. 4552: 4546: 4534:. Retrieved 4527:the original 4475: 4469: 4445: 4438: 4395: 4389: 4379: 4344: 4338: 4314: 4292: 4283: 4271:. Retrieved 4267: 4258: 4246:. Retrieved 4239:the original 4230: 4194: 4187: 4160: 4153: 4131: 4068: 4062: 4052: 4017: 4011: 4001: 3956: 3950: 3940: 3905: 3899: 3889: 3879:December 30, 3877:. Retrieved 3873: 3864: 3832:(7): 675–8. 3829: 3823: 3813: 3801:. Retrieved 3794:the original 3785: 3763:. Retrieved 3759:the original 3743: 3736: 3714: 3699: 3690: 3655: 3649: 3636: 3626: 3579: 3572: 3560:. Retrieved 3553:the original 3544: 3503: 3442: 3436: 3426: 3414:. Retrieved 3407:the original 3389: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3335: 3329: 3320: 3232: 3226: 3162: 3156: 3115: 3108: 3088: 3074: 3070: 3062: 3037:The town of 3036: 3027: 3023: 3022: 3015: 3001: 2977: 2953:Chhattisgarh 2914: 2894: 2879: 2854: 2845:air sparging 2837:ion exchange 2805: 2773: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2719: 2691: 2677: 2659:Aquifer type 2626: 2622: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2598: 2591: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2538: 2531: 2522: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2499: 2495: 2483: 2468: 2428:radionuclide 2425: 2401: 2365: 2361: 2358: 2350: 2346: 2328:operations, 2322:urban runoff 2311: 2293:Mekong Delta 2290: 2287:Over-pumping 2258: 2247: 2234: 2213: 2209: 2194: 2162: 2143: 2136: 2117: 2098: 2095: 2072: 2060:gas stations 2053: 2038: 2035: 2022: 2011: 2000: 1996: 1967: 1955: 1952: 1928: 1924: 1915: 1902: 1894: 1890:septic tanks 1886:pit latrines 1879: 1861: 1853: 1838: 1818: 1815: 1781: 1772: 1736:hydrocarbons 1726: 1717: 1709: 1686: 1659: 1642:insecticides 1639: 1624: 1620:dry cleaning 1596:ethylbenzene 1577: 1571: 1556: 1542:" (acquired 1537: 1534: 1530: 1521: 1466: 1461:pit latrines 1431: 1388: 1377: 1349:Ganges Plain 1343:, India and 1334: 1327: 1308: 1268: 1244:hydrogeology 1213: 1163:rather than 1144: 1140: 1139: 1009:Point source 954:Heavy metals 916:Urban runoff 901:Sulfur water 876:Septic tanks 820: 732:Agent Orange 642:Space debris 496:Agricultural 361:Volcanic ash 221:Particulates 119:shallow well 102: 20:This is the 19: 18: 7655:Lithosphere 7568:Nationalism 7540:Common-pool 7181:Hydrosphere 7174:remediation 7159:Groundwater 6754:Degradation 6060:§ 9601 6027:§ 6901 5370:(1): 2089. 3165:(1): 9866. 3081:groundwater 2965:West Bengal 2925:Uttarakhand 2851:Abandonment 2821:bioslurping 2817:biosparging 2688:Legislation 2645:pit latrine 2630:groundwater 2594:onductivity 2586:vadose zone 2576:oil media, 2408:groundwater 2384:carcinogens 2368:groundwater 2190:hydrocarbon 2068:water table 1981:as well as 1876:groundwater 1825:iron oxides 1670:solid waste 1631:naphthalene 1610:(TCE), and 1586:compounds ( 1475:carried in 1365:water wells 1271:groundwater 1193:agriculture 1189:fertilizers 1153:groundwater 979:Area source 821:Groundwater 574:Green waste 554:Brown waste 538:Solid waste 296:Information 191:Exhaust gas 115:pit latrine 7640:Sanitation 7614:Categories 7563:Extraction 7522:Wilderness 7483:accounting 7466:Management 7432:ecological 7420:tragedy of 7339:Peak water 7324:Efficiency 7297:Sanitation 7239:Stormwater 7232:harvesting 7208:Irrigation 7110:management 7068:gene banks 7009:management 6987:management 6903:resilience 6869:phosphorus 6825:industrial 6803:Management 6779:soundscape 6685:Geothermal 6427:"LA Times" 6288:(2): 180. 5898:(Report). 3101:References 3095:water well 3087:strain of 3073:Walkerton 2987:See also: 2909:See also: 2889:See also: 2874:See also: 2813:bioventing 2716:Management 2700:, and the 2681:karstified 2634:sanitation 2590:hydraulic 2446:Prevention 2355:Mechanisms 2330:road salts 2297:subsidence 2283:coverage. 2260:Love Canal 2107:(PCP) and 2058:(USTs) of 1973:increased 1906:water well 1898:sanitation 1882:sanitation 1666:metallurgy 1650:pesticides 1646:herbicides 1373:pesticides 1357:Bangladesh 1345:Bangladesh 1256:adsorption 1218:within an 1169:sanitation 1149:pollutants 1066:By country 1058:Categories 949:Pollutants 926:Wastewater 896:Stagnation 841:Monitoring 816:Freshwater 682:Air travel 569:Food waste 511:Defecation 321:Ecological 254:Biological 186:Combustion 128:Part of a 7630:Hydrology 7573:Renewable 7558:Depletion 7545:Conflict 7427:Economics 7405:enclosure 7364:Resources 7344:Pollution 7261:Watershed 7164:pollution 7095:Seed bank 7090:Rangeland 6972:Fisheries 6957:Biosphere 6950:biopiracy 6893:fertility 6769:cityscape 6764:Landscape 6671:peak coal 6658:Resources 6609:Emissions 6411:March 16, 6366:2045-2322 6261:115519904 6253:1751-231X 6178:cite book 6170:988609755 6136:2059-7037 6112:(1): 11. 6085:March 21, 5800:0013-936X 5741:0013-936X 5688:March 18, 5660:March 20, 5594:March 19, 5505:March 19, 5471:164716323 5449:: 66–73. 5343:1748-9326 5256:133308889 5127:205067220 5004:206543048 4959:206553782 4848:1543-5938 4803:Superfund 4765:March 18, 4740:March 20, 4718:March 23, 4536:March 22, 4502:140583063 4273:March 22, 4248:March 19, 4095:0013-936X 3959:(1): 26. 3803:March 19, 3765:March 22, 3562:March 18, 3416:March 18, 3381:1435-0661 3235:: 12–27. 3187:2045-2322 3135:915416488 3047:Hydrazine 2949:Rajasthan 2945:Jharkhand 2797:sinkholes 2789:fractures 2568:echarge, 2253:landfills 2166:Marcellus 2158:shale gas 2154:tight oil 2084:Superfund 1821:anaerobic 1752:phosphate 1733:petroleum 1517:helminths 1473:pathogens 1448:Pathogens 1347:. In the 1337:metalloid 1252:diffusion 1248:hydrology 1171:systems, 1165:pollution 994:Garbology 911:Turbidity 861:Oil spill 811:Firewater 796:Biosolids 702:Vandalism 461:Poisoning 456:Plutonium 431:Actinides 424:Radiation 166:Acid rain 138:Pollution 63:AnomieBOT 28:AnomieBOT 7625:Aquifers 7599:Category 7532:Resource 7471:adaptive 7369:improved 7329:Conflict 7314:Security 7309:Scarcity 7302:improved 7292:Leaching 7169:recharge 7149:Drinking 7100:Wildlife 6967:Bushmeat 6962:Bushfood 6915:planning 6820:gemstone 6815:Minerals 6796:property 6784:viewshed 6774:seascape 6705:sunlight 6679:peak oil 6675:peak gas 6384:31645651 6314:29360747 5808:18546706 5749:18546705 5463:31471032 5404:29872050 5186:26460018 5119:21921896 5063:22857048 5055:24606408 4996:23846903 4951:27022977 4882:cite web 4872:April 1, 4682:19545944 4637:18444903 4430:22540536 4371:23518813 4268:GAP Maps 4103:30834750 4044:16263519 3993:16989661 3932:15471727 3856:10903623 3682:22903164 3674:24811732 3471:11891266 3205:32555499 3077:outbreak 2860:Examples 2776:aquifers 2534:aquifers 2413:fracking 2374:such as 2316:fuels), 2264:New York 2249:Leachate 2109:creosote 1983:leaching 1936:hormones 1833:arsenite 1758:such as 1740:cosmetic 1682:chromium 1616:gasoline 1582:such as 1513:protozoa 1505:bacteria 1501:pathogen 1497:diarrhea 1434:fluoride 1427:Tenerife 1419:Pakistan 1399:hardness 1391:fluoride 1389:Natural 1369:aquifers 1279:fracking 1201:fluoride 1173:landfill 1050:Treaties 1030:Diseases 886:Shipping 851:Nutrient 801:Diseases 366:Wildfire 73:contribs 38:contribs 7400:Commons 7389:Related 7354:Quality 7270:Aspects 7196:glacial 7137:Aquifer 7043:Pasture 6994:Forests 6920:reserve 6695:Nuclear 6665: ( 6621:Trading 6616:Airshed 6375:6811533 6344:Bibcode 6305:5858255 6114:Bibcode 6063:et seq. 6044:Pub. L. 6030:et seq. 6011:Pub. L. 5837:Bibcode 5778:Bibcode 5719:Bibcode 5395:5988660 5372:Bibcode 5321:Bibcode 5236:Bibcode 5177:4629325 5154:Bibcode 5097:Bibcode 5035:Bibcode 4975:Science 4931:Bibcode 4645:6817866 4588:Bibcode 4421:3352270 4400:Bibcode 4362:3673197 4073:Bibcode 4035:1310926 3984:1586190 3961:Bibcode 3923:1247562 3874:EUR-Lex 3847:1638204 3361:Bibcode 3312:(WHO). 3237:Bibcode 3196:7300005 3167:Bibcode 3090:E. coli 3085:O157:H7 3075:E. Coli 2961:Haryana 2921:arsenic 2793:caverns 2421:coastal 2280:dioxins 2182:propane 2174:methane 1829:arsenic 1762:(U) or 1760:uranium 1748:ammonia 1678:cadmium 1606:(PCE), 1600:xylenes 1592:toluene 1588:benzene 1527:Nitrate 1509:viruses 1493:cholera 1489:typhoid 1483:. 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