184:
establish an ideal
Islamic society based on the original organization of the first caliphs, where ethnic and tribal differences would be ignored. Nāșir al-Din demanded strict obedience to his authority by the Zawaya. He set out to create a secure and stable administration in the southern Sahara, led by himself, his vizier and four qāḍīs. To do so he would defeat warriors who failed to follow Islamic principles and who harmed the faithful, and would establish a theocratic state that rose above tribal divisions and followed the commands of God.
225:
of water from their wells, and had to feed and shelter Hassān women in time of need. This seems to have been a return to their condition before the revolt started. Many of the Zawaya continued their religious studies after puberty, while others engaged in commerce, agriculture, livestock management or hired out their labor where the work was consist with their religious practices. The Zawaya were required to educate the Ḥassanī children. Although subject to the Hassān, their religious influence on their Arab masters grew.
224:
Following this defeat, the Zawaya lost all temporal power and again became strictly tributary to the Hassān, and were parceled out among the Hassān groups. They had to provide milk from their herds to the Hassān warriors and provide them with saddles. They had to let the Hassān take the first bucket
207:
legal tax on the tributary tribes to the north of the
Senegal. When one of these tribes called for assistance from the Hassān, war broke out. Nāșir al-Din was supported by most but not all of the Zawaya, although some disputed his authority to impose the zakāt and did not assist him. There were at
183:
In the late seventeenth century, Awbek
Ashfaga of the Banū Daymān tribe, later to style himself Nāșir al-Din ("Protector of the Faith"), emerged as a leader of the Zawaya tribes in resisting the Hassān. He was widely respected for his scholarship, purity of life and healing ability. His goal was to
153:
jurist al-Muṣallī, so-called because he worshiped in the mosque so often. He was a Zawaya from the west and a regular attendant at the teaching circle of the jurist Maḥmūd, grandson of Anda Ag-Muhammad in the female line. Al-Muṣallī resolved to ask for the hand of Maḥmūd's daughter in marriage.
339:
Sufi brotherhood to the western Sudan. The Kunta produced several important clerics, of whom Sidi
Mukhtar had the greatest impact. Sidi Mukhtar became the leader of a Tuareg coalition dominated by the Kunta that controlled the Niger bend and surrounding areas. He is also credited with authoring
174:
Arab nomads began to enter the region. Hassāni rulers imposed heavy tributes on the Zawaya, but did not give them effective protection against their enemies. Although subordinate to the Banū Ḥassan warriors, the Zawaya ranked above other
Berbers. These in turn ranked above blacksmiths, who were
211:
The Zawaya elected Sīdī al-Fāḍil as Nāșir al-Din's successor, who took the name of al-Amīn. Al-Amīn was disposed to make peace with the Hassān, and they were willing to accept his religious authority but not his right to levy the zakat. Most of the Zawaya were opposed to the peace, and deposed
228:
The economic and political structure of the region changed as contact with
Europeans increased. Slaves were increasingly used to mine salt and cultivate crops in the oases rather than as trade goods. The French continued to expand the gum trade, particularly after 1815. This brought increased
240:
Both the Zawaya and the Hassāni became more wealthy in slaves and material property, but a shift in the balance of power occurred as more students and clients were attracted to the Zawaya, who also acquired better arms. The rise of the Zawaya as merchants coincided with growth in demand for
157:
The separation of the tribes of this region into warrior and Zawaya tribes had probably occurred before the fifteenth century. By then some of the Zawaya were moving south to avoid the depredations of the warrior tribes, risking conflict with the sedentary populations of
148:
tribes held military and political power. The Zawaya, with their passive lifestyle of herding, prayer and study, were treated with some contempt by the stronger groups, but this was mingled with respect. A story was told by the sixteenth century
212:
al-Amīn, replacing him with 'Uthmān, the former vizier and close friend of Nāșir al-Din. 'Uthmān took an aggressive stance against the Hassān, and again attempted to enforce collection of the zakāt. His tax collectors were massacred by a
349:
Many West
African libraries and collections of Islamic writings include works by Zawaya authors. Most of these writings are in Arabic. Today the Zawaya continue to be in demand as teachers of the Quran in West African Islamic schools.
276:
There are records of Zawaya moving into the lands south of the
Senegal in the seventeenth century, where they proselytized and intermarried with the local people. Nāșir al-Din had gained support from the
208:
least three battles, in each of which the Zawaya defeated the Hassān. However, in the last battle, which probably took place in August 1674, Nāșir al-Din and many of his immediate entourage were killed.
331:
became particularly influential in the eighteenth century. Many of them moved east to the region north of
Timbuktu and became salt merchants. They adopted the teachings of the fifteenth century cleric
233:
on the Senega River, and took some of the profits that the Zawaya had traditionally made from collecting and selling gum. However, a clerical leader managed to establish an alternative gum market at
129:
movement, although their generally more passive attitude is in contrast to that of the militant
Almoravids. They gave great importance to teaching the Islamic religious sciences and to reciting the
346:, particularly the Qadiriyya order, meant that Islam was no longer the private religion of Saharan traders, but began to steadily spread among the black populations of the Sahel and further south.
87:
who have traditionally followed a deeply religious way of life. They accepted a subordinate position to the warrior tribes, whether Arab or Berber, who had little interest in
216:
chief who had come to the assistance of the weaker tribes, and 'Uthmān was killed in battle by the Wolof. His successors were decisively defeated by the Hassān.
241:
religious instruction. The distinction between Zawaya and Hassāni also began to blur, as each group entered the traditional occupations of the other. In modern
384:
and West Africa for Sufi centers of religious education. The Zawaya tribes were nomadic, but followed the teachings that emanated from these centers.
203:
states. This would give him control of the trade in gum with the French on the Senegal, a source of income for his new state. He then imposed the
293:
of the Fouta Djallon, influenced them in embracing a more militant form of Islam. In 1726 or 1727 the Fulbe were to launch their successful
105:
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have their origins with the Zawaya. Today the Zawaya are one of the two noble castes of
1129:
1083:
1056:
1029:
1002:
975:
948:
921:
888:
861:
834:
807:
1134:
1119:
154:
Before he could make his proposal Maḥmūd politely deflected it, saying that "birds of a feather flock together".
133:. The Zawaya attempted to avoid conflict with the stronger warrior groups by renouncing arms and paying tribute.
1109:
281:
clerical clan of Futa Tooro in his struggle. After the defeat in 1674, some of the Torodbe migrated south to
880:
Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sa'Di's Ta'Rikh Al-Sudan Down to 1613 and Other Contemporary Documents
1114:
1139:
1021:
From Slave Trade to 'Legitimate' Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa
1124:
245:, the Zawaya and Hassāni are both considered noble castes, dominating the politics of the country.
1046:
1019:
938:
913:
851:
824:
797:
992:
965:
878:
1073:
994:
Between Caravan and Sultan: The Bayruk of Southern Morocco: A Study in History and Identity
372:
297:
in the Fouta Djallon. Later the Fulbe would establish Islamic states in Futa Tooro (1776),
1045:
Stanton, Andrea L.; Ramsamy, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J.; Elliott, Carolyn M. (2012-01-05).
8:
332:
799:
Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America
171:
1079:
1052:
1025:
998:
971:
944:
917:
906:
884:
857:
830:
803:
309:
298:
67:
71:
234:
117:
The Zawaya were nomadic tribes from the arid lands to the north and east of the
282:
230:
257:
brotherhoods. Muhammed al-Hafiz (1759/60-1830) and his people transmitted the
125:. Their religious beliefs may possibly be traced back to the eleventh century
1103:
752:
321:
313:
286:
192:
187:
Rather than immediately attack the Hassān, in 1673 Nāșir al-Din launched his
167:
163:
144:. In the center, the reverse applied. The Zawaya were Arab, while Berber or
137:
118:
940:
La première hégémonie peule: le Fuuta Tooro de Koli Ten̳ella à Almaami Abdul
732:
302:
266:
262:
200:
290:
141:
122:
102:
1048:
Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia
258:
242:
196:
106:
31:
336:
270:
126:
317:
229:
prosperity to the Hassāni of Ida Aish, who controlled the trade to
150:
204:
140:
origin, while after the fifteenth century the warrior tribes were
720:
381:
278:
159:
95:
brotherhoods to the black populations south of the Sahara. The
342:
213:
145:
84:
340:
over 300 treatises. His sponsorship of the proselytizing Sufi
328:
130:
97:
88:
55:
43:
1044:
738:
460:
458:
308:
In the late 1800s, Zawaya are referenced in a letter by the
254:
253:
The Zawaya introduced sub-Saharan Africans to the two main
92:
761:
455:
573:
571:
569:
269:(1729-1811) and his son Sidi Muhammad, transmitted the
643:
556:
554:
541:
539:
526:
524:
796:
Amanat, Abbas; Bernhardsson, Magnus T. (2002-02-09).
662:
660:
658:
487:
485:
445:
443:
672:
566:
470:
392:
175:
said to be Jewish in origin, and mixed-race people.
708:
696:
684:
583:
551:
536:
521:
509:
497:
905:
795:
773:
754:Folk-literature of the Galla of Southern Abyssinia
726:
655:
631:
619:
607:
595:
482:
440:
428:
416:
404:
1101:
237:, further upstream, competing with the Hassāni.
1024:. Cambridge University Press. p. 230.
856:. Cambridge University Press. p. 201.
822:
767:
464:
823:Fage, John D.; Tordoff, William (2002).
335:, said to be the first to introduce the
1075:Studies in West African Islamic History
990:
903:
876:
757:. Peabody Museum of Harvard university.
649:
476:
398:
1102:
1071:
991:Mohamed, Mohamed Hassan (2012-02-22).
912:. Cambridge University Press. p.
908:A History of African Societies to 1870
678:
577:
515:
449:
434:
422:
963:
936:
849:
779:
714:
702:
690:
666:
589:
560:
545:
530:
503:
491:
410:
25:Regions with significant populations
1017:
750:
637:
625:
613:
601:
170:. During the fifteenth century the
13:
964:Kane, Ousmane Oumar (2012-09-05).
289:. The Torodbe, the kinsmen of the
248:
14:
1151:
904:Isichei, Elizabeth (1997-04-13).
178:
943:(in French). KARTHALA Editions.
265:, including the scholars Shaykh
219:
136:In the west, the Zawaya were of
853:The Cambridge History of Africa
744:
727:Amanat & Bernhardsson 2002
360:
1:
285:and some continued on to the
112:
16:Tribes in the southern Sahara
1130:Social history of Mauritania
970:. African Books Collective.
850:Gray, Richard (1975-09-18).
191:with an invasion across the
30:Southern Sahara, especially
7:
1072:Willis, John Ralph (1979).
967:Non-Europhone Intellectuals
83:are tribes in the southern
10:
1156:
788:
1135:Social history of Senegal
1120:Berber peoples and tribes
1018:Law, Robin (2002-08-08).
877:Hunwick, John O. (2003).
91:. The Zawaya introduced
66:
61:
54:
49:
42:
37:
29:
24:
353:
768:Fage & Tordoff 2002
465:Fage & Tordoff 2002
312:'s Muslim state leader
380:, is also used in the
1110:Berbers in Mauritania
937:Kane, Oumar (2004).
1078:. Cass. p. 1.
826:A History of Africa
739:Stanton et al. 2012
333:Muhammad al-Maghili
21:
1115:Berbers in Senegal
19:
1140:Mauritanian Moors
1085:978-0-7146-1737-4
1058:978-1-4129-8176-7
1031:978-0-521-52306-6
1004:978-90-04-18379-7
977:978-2-86978-506-9
950:978-2-84586-521-1
923:978-0-521-45599-2
890:978-90-04-12822-4
863:978-0-521-20413-2
836:978-0-415-25248-5
809:978-1-86064-724-6
751:Cerulli, Enrico.
101:movements of the
77:
76:
1147:
1125:History of Islam
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1093:
1092:
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320:to Hadiya rebel
310:Kingdom of Jimma
22:
18:
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433:
429:
421:
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409:
405:
397:
393:
389:
388:
365:
361:
356:
251:
249:Wider influence
222:
181:
115:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1153:
1143:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1097:
1096:
1084:
1069:
1057:
1042:
1030:
1015:
1003:
988:
976:
961:
949:
934:
922:
901:
889:
874:
862:
847:
835:
820:
808:
802:. I.B.Tauris.
792:
790:
787:
785:
784:
772:
770:, p. 194.
760:
743:
741:, p. 148.
731:
729:, p. 244.
719:
717:, p. 207.
707:
705:, p. 206.
695:
693:, p. 205.
683:
671:
654:
652:, p. 300.
642:
640:, p. 234.
630:
628:, p. 231.
618:
616:, p. 230.
606:
604:, p. 229.
594:
592:, p. 211.
582:
565:
563:, p. 202.
550:
548:, p. 201.
535:
533:, p. 200.
520:
508:
506:, p. 379.
496:
494:, p. 199.
481:
469:
467:, p. 193.
454:
439:
427:
415:
403:
390:
387:
386:
376:, plural form
358:
357:
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352:
250:
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221:
218:
180:
179:Revolt in 1673
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114:
111:
75:
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40:
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27:
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15:
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2:
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909:
902:
892:
886:
882:
881:
875:
865:
859:
855:
854:
848:
838:
832:
829:. Routledge.
828:
827:
821:
811:
805:
801:
800:
794:
793:
782:, p. 22.
781:
776:
769:
764:
756:
755:
747:
740:
735:
728:
723:
716:
711:
704:
699:
692:
687:
681:, p. 11.
680:
675:
669:, p. 21.
668:
663:
661:
659:
651:
646:
639:
634:
627:
622:
615:
610:
603:
598:
591:
586:
580:, p. 10.
579:
574:
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562:
557:
555:
547:
542:
540:
532:
527:
525:
517:
512:
505:
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493:
488:
486:
479:, p. 44.
478:
473:
466:
461:
459:
451:
446:
444:
436:
431:
424:
419:
413:, p. 12.
412:
407:
401:, p. 20.
400:
395:
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379:
375:
374:
369:
363:
359:
351:
347:
345:
344:
338:
334:
330:
325:
323:
322:Hassan Enjamo
319:
315:
314:Abba Jifar II
311:
306:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
287:Fouta Djallon
284:
280:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
246:
244:
238:
236:
232:
226:
220:Later history
217:
215:
209:
206:
202:
198:
194:
193:Senegal River
190:
185:
176:
173:
169:
165:
161:
155:
152:
147:
143:
139:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
119:Senegal River
110:
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99:
94:
90:
86:
82:
73:
69:
65:
60:
57:
53:
48:
45:
41:
36:
33:
28:
23:
1089:. Retrieved
1074:
1062:. Retrieved
1047:
1035:. Retrieved
1020:
1008:. Retrieved
993:
981:. Retrieved
966:
954:. Retrieved
939:
927:. Retrieved
907:
894:. Retrieved
879:
867:. Retrieved
852:
840:. Retrieved
825:
813:. Retrieved
798:
775:
763:
753:
746:
734:
722:
710:
698:
686:
674:
650:Isichei 1997
645:
633:
621:
609:
597:
585:
518:, p. 8.
511:
499:
477:Hunwick 2003
472:
452:, p. 6.
437:, p. 4.
430:
425:, p. 3.
418:
406:
399:Mohamed 2012
394:
377:
371:
367:
362:
348:
341:
326:
307:
294:
275:
267:Sidi Mukhtar
261:, while the
252:
239:
227:
223:
210:
188:
186:
182:
156:
135:
116:
96:
80:
78:
679:Willis 1979
578:Willis 1979
516:Willis 1979
450:Willis 1979
435:Willis 1979
423:Willis 1979
370:. The term
301:(1808) and
172:Beni Ḥassān
123:West Africa
103:Fula people
1104:Categories
1091:2013-02-12
1064:2013-02-10
1037:2013-02-12
1010:2013-02-12
983:2013-02-12
956:2013-02-12
929:2013-02-12
896:2013-02-12
869:2013-02-12
842:2013-02-12
815:2013-02-10
259:Tijaniyyah
243:Mauritania
197:Futa Tooro
113:Background
107:Mauritania
50:Scriptures
32:Mauritania
997:. BRILL.
883:. BRILL.
780:Kane 2012
715:Gray 1975
703:Gray 1975
691:Gray 1975
667:Kane 2012
590:Gray 1975
561:Gray 1975
546:Gray 1975
531:Gray 1975
504:Kane 2004
492:Gray 1975
411:Gray 1975
337:Qadiriyya
271:Qadiriyya
195:into the
127:Almoravid
62:Languages
38:Religions
1051:. SAGE.
638:Law 2002
626:Law 2002
614:Law 2002
602:Law 2002
318:Ethiopia
305:(1818).
151:Timbuktu
789:Sources
382:Maghreb
343:tariqas
279:Torodbe
160:Chemama
1082:
1055:
1028:
1001:
974:
947:
920:
887:
860:
833:
806:
378:Zawaya
373:Zawiya
368:Zawāyā
366:Also,
303:Masina
299:Sokoto
235:Medine
214:Trarza
168:Tagant
164:Gorgol
146:Tuareg
138:Berber
85:Sahara
81:Zawaya
72:Arabic
68:Berber
20:Zawaya
354:Notes
329:Kunta
295:jihad
291:Fulbe
283:Bundu
263:Kunta
231:Bakel
205:zakāt
201:Wolof
189:jihad
131:Quran
98:jihad
89:Islam
56:Quran
44:Islam
1080:ISBN
1053:ISBN
1026:ISBN
999:ISBN
972:ISBN
945:ISBN
918:ISBN
885:ISBN
858:ISBN
831:ISBN
804:ISBN
327:The
255:Sufi
199:and
166:and
142:Arab
93:Sufi
79:The
914:300
316:in
121:in
1106::
916:.
657:^
568:^
553:^
538:^
523:^
484:^
457:^
442:^
324:.
273:.
162:,
109:.
70:,
1094:.
1067:.
1040:.
1013:.
986:.
959:.
932:.
899:.
872:.
845:.
818:.
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