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The bones of three fingers are preserved in the bird wing. The question of which fingers they are has been discussed for about 150 years, and an extensive literature is devoted to it. The anatomical, paleontological, and molecular data suggests that these are fingers 1–3, but embryological data
284:
The peregrine falcon has the highest recorded dive speed of 242 mph (389 km/h). Peregrine falcons have relatively large wings but they partially close their wings during dives. The fastest straight, powered flight is the
272:
High-speed wings are short, pointed wings that when combined with a heavy wing loading and rapid wingbeats provide an energetically expensive, but high-speed flight. This type of wing is present in fast-flying birds such as
186:
suggests that these are actually fingers 2–4. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain this discrepancy. Most likely, in birds, finger buds 2–4 began to follow the genetic program for the development of fingers 1–3.
309:
High aspect ratio (elongated) wings confer high flight efficiency for flights of long duration. When combined with a low wing loading, they are used for slow flight. This may take the form of almost hovering (as used by
225:
Most kinds of bird wings can be grouped into four types, with some falling between two of these types. These types of wings are elliptical wings, high-speed wings, high aspect ratio wings and soaring wings with slots.
202:
The shape of the wing is important in determining the flight capabilities of a bird. Different shapes correspond to different trade-offs between advantages such as speed, low energy use, and maneuverability.
246:
Elliptical wings are rounded and short. This type of wing allows for tight maneuvering in confined spaces such as dense vegetation. Elliptical wings are common in forest raptors (such as
370:
by "capturing" the energy in air flowing from the lower to upper wing surface at the tips, whilst the shorter size of the wings aids in takeoff (high aspect ratio wings require a long
256:, particularly non-migratory ones (migratory species have longer wings). They are also common in species that use a rapid takeoff to evade predators, such as
149:
The hand of birds is substantially transformed: some of its bones have been reduced, and some others have merged with each other. Three bones of the
628:
529:
984:
989:
552:
505:
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169:, the next has two, and the back has one (but some birds have one more phalanx on the first two fingers—the claw).
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338:) above ocean waves to provide lift. Low-speed flight is also important for birds that plunge-dive for fish.
300:
uses its long wings (low wing loading and high aspect ratio) to fly economically for long periods of time.
748:
726:
17:
222:(or the square of the wingspan divided by wing area). Wing loading is the ratio of weight to wing area.
840:
676:
402:(3) (Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution ed.): 206–219.
1020:
394:
Vargas, A. O.; Fallon, J. F. (2005). "The Digits of the Wing of Birds Are 1, 2, and 3. A Review".
979:
923:
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994:
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165:—a group of feathers that act like the slats of an airplane. Usually, this finger has one
8:
928:
855:
581:"Gliding Birds: Reduction of Induced Drag by Wing Tip Slots Between the Primary Feathers"
207:
943:
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661:
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Vertebrate Flight : Mechanics, Physiology, Morphology, Ecology and
Evolution
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Journal of
Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution
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161:. The bones of three fingers are attached to it. The frontmost one bears an
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334:, which takes advantage of wind speed variation at different altitudes (
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362:. The slots at the end of the wings, between the primaries, reduce the
335:
150:
41:
The skeleton of a bird wing. Places of attachment of various groups of
261:
253:
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123:
103:
54:
194:
61:
882:
783:
691:
449:"Identity of the avian wing digits: Problems resolved and unsolved"
346:
These wings are favored by larger species of inland birds, such as
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Wing skeleton. Highlighted in red: carpometacarpus and 3 fingers
768:
433:. Cambridge: Nuttall Ornithological Club. pp. 45–46, 128.
177:
359:
347:
277:. Birds that use their wings to "fly" underwater such as the
237:
are adequate for short flights in densely-vegetated habitats.
162:
80:
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832:
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Young, R. L; Bever, G. S.; Wang, Z.; Wagner, G. P. (2011).
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274:
139:
37:
653:
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278:
99:
446:
459:(5) (Developmental Dynamics ed.): 1042–1053.
431:Handbook of Avian Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium
1007:
341:
233:The short and rounded (elliptical) wings of the
98:have reduced wings or none at all (for example,
536:
622:
389:
387:
30:Not to be confused with the butterfly family
442:
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489:
629:
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528:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
422:
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172:
985:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water
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464:
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291:
228:
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126:, the forelimb of birds consists of the
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48:
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27:Paired forelimb that allows birds to fly
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14:
1008:
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281:also have small and elongated wings.
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267:
241:
24:
25:
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569:
289:at 105 mph (170 km/h).
206:Two important parameters are the
725:
585:Journal of Experimental Biology
214:. Aspect ratio is the ratio of
83:. The wings give the birds the
13:
1:
377:
342:Soaring wings with deep slots
189:
7:
579:Tucker, Vance (July 1993).
10:
1037:
841:Flying and gliding animals
677:Fin and flipper locomotion
543:Pennycuick, C. J. (2008).
117:
29:
952:
891:
831:
734:
723:
652:
545:Modelling the flying bird
326:flight, particularly the
104:aquatic flightless birds
547:. Amsterdam: Academic.
496:Norberg, U. M. (1990).
305:High aspect ratio wings
173:Finger identity problem
57:with outstretched wings
980:Terrestrial locomotion
924:Evolution of cetaceans
919:Origin of avian flight
904:Evolution of tetrapods
453:Developmental Dynamics
429:Baumel, J. J. (1993).
301:
238:
199:
182:
110:), wings can serve as
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58:
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995:Undulatory locomotion
944:Homologous structures
597:10.1242/jeb.180.1.285
295:
232:
197:
180:
64:
52:
40:
939:Analogous structures
934:Convergent evolution
322:) or in soaring and
990:Rotating locomotion
929:Comparative anatomy
408:10.1002/jez.b.21051
218:to the mean of its
909:Evolution of birds
662:Aquatic locomotion
466:10.1002/dvdy.22595
374:to get airborne).
302:
287:spine-tailed swift
239:
200:
183:
70:
67:white-tailed eagle
59:
47:
1003:
1002:
960:Animal locomotion
899:Evolution of fish
779:facultative biped
554:978-0-12-374299-5
507:978-3-642-83848-4
252:hawks), and many
146:), and the hand.
16:(Redirected from
1028:
970:Robot locomotion
744:Limb development
729:
702:Lobe-finned fish
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368:wingtip vortices
268:High speed wings
242:Elliptical wings
153:and part of the
122:Like most other
96:flightless birds
21:
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1021:Limbs (anatomy)
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1005:
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914:Origin of birds
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749:Limb morphology
730:
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707:Ray-finned fish
672:Fish locomotion
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328:dynamic soaring
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159:carpometacarpus
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43:flight feathers
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878:Pterosaur wing
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667:Cephalopod fin
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85:ability to fly
45:are indicated.
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712:Pectoral fins
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157:merge into a
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75:are a paired
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19:
1016:Bird anatomy
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588:
584:
544:
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430:
424:
399:
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364:induced drag
345:
308:
298:roseate tern
283:
271:
247:
245:
224:
212:wing loading
208:aspect ratio
205:
201:
184:
167:phalanx bone
155:carpal bones
148:
121:
94:Terrestrial
93:
72:
71:
65:Wing of the
873:Insect wing
823:Webbed foot
764:unguligrade
759:plantigrade
754:digitigrade
591:: 285–310.
198:Wing shapes
87:, creating
18:Wing (bird)
1010:Categories
801:Cephalopod
717:Pelvic fin
687:Dorsal fin
682:Caudal fin
500:. Berlin.
378:References
336:wind shear
262:partridges
254:passerines
190:Wing shape
151:metacarpus
138:(with the
130:(with the
73:Bird wings
892:Evolution
851:Bird wing
796:Arthropod
789:quadruped
563:272383165
524:cite book
516:851392205
320:nightjars
258:pheasants
249:Accipiter
124:tetrapods
55:mute swan
883:Wingspan
866:feathers
861:skeleton
846:Bat wing
806:Tetrapod
692:Fish fin
483:37372681
475:21412936
416:15880771
356:pelicans
352:vultures
332:seabirds
330:used by
312:kestrels
235:Blue Jay
216:wingspan
142:and the
128:shoulder
112:flippers
108:penguins
77:forelimb
32:Birdwing
953:Related
811:dactyly
697:Flipper
324:gliding
136:forearm
134:), the
132:humerus
118:Anatomy
975:Samara
784:triped
769:uniped
561:
551:
514:
504:
481:
473:
414:
360:storks
358:, and
348:eagles
144:radius
102:). In
833:Wings
818:Digit
774:biped
736:Limbs
646:wings
642:limbs
479:S2CID
316:terns
275:ducks
220:chord
163:alula
81:birds
965:Gait
856:keel
654:Fins
644:and
638:Fins
559:OCLC
549:ISBN
530:link
512:OCLC
502:ISBN
471:PMID
412:PMID
372:taxi
366:and
318:and
279:auks
260:and
210:and
140:ulna
89:lift
53:The
593:doi
589:180
461:doi
457:240
404:doi
400:304
100:moa
79:in
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