720:
567:
1030:
377:
1123:
1110:
extends beyond its greater covert), while in other cases it is a negative number (e.g. the primary is completely covered by the greater covert, as happens in some passerine species). Next, the longest primary feather is identified, and the differences between the length of that primary and that of all remaining primaries and of the longest secondary are also measured, again in millimeters. If any primary shows a notch or emargination, this is noted, and the distance between the feather's tip and any notch is measured, as is the depth of the notch. All distance measurements are made with the bird's wing closed, so as to maintain the relative positions of the feathers.
431:
863:
33:
771:
4428:
704:
sequence of most birds' primary moult. In the event that a species is missing the small distal 10th primary, as some passerines are, its lack does not impact the numbering of the remaining primaries. Ascendant numbering, on the other hand, allows for uniformity in the numbering of non-passerine primaries, as they almost invariably have four attached to the manus regardless of how many primaries they have overall. This method is particularly useful for indicating wing formulae, as the outermost primary is the one with which the measurements begin.
961:
945:
above) and outermost secondary (S1), and a focus point in the middle of the center pair of rectrices. As passerine moult begins, the two feathers closest to the focus are the first to drop. When replacement feathers reach roughly half of their eventual length, the next feathers in line (P2 and S2 on the wing, and both R2s on the tail) are dropped. This pattern of drop and replacement continues until moult reaches either end of the wing or tail. The speed of the moult can vary somewhat within a species. Some passerines that breed in the
365:, moving the bird forward through the air. The mechanical properties of primaries are important in supporting flight. Most thrust is generated on the downstroke of flapping flight. However, on the upstroke (when the bird often draws its wing in close to its body), the primaries are separated and rotated, reducing air resistance while still helping to provide some thrust. The flexibility of the remiges on the wingtips of large soaring birds also allows for the spreading of those feathers, which helps to reduce the creation of wingtip
1013:, the third pair is the first dropped.) The pattern of feather drop and replacement proceeds as described for passerines (above) until all other rectrices have been replaced; only then are the central tail rectrices moulted. This provides some protection to the growing feathers, since they're always covered by at least one existing feather, and also ensures that the bird's newly strengthened tail is best able to cope with the loss of the crucial central rectrices. Ground-feeding woodpeckers, such as the
310:
1087:
558:
be found on either side of the feather. A notch is an abrupt change, and is only found on the wider trailing edge of the remex. (Both are visible on the primary in the photo showing the feathers; they can be found about halfway along both sides of the left hand feather—a shallow notch on the left, and a gradual emargination on the right.) The presence of notches and emarginations creates gaps at the wingtip; air is forced through these gaps, increasing the generation of lift.
4255:
4279:
297:
seven primaries attached to the metacarpus and 12 in all. Secondary feathers are attached to the ulna. The fifth secondary remex (numbered inwards from the carpal joint) was formerly thought to be absent in some species, but the modern view of this diastataxy is that there is a gap between the fourth and fifth secondaries. Tertiary feathers growing upon the adjoining portion of the brachium are not considered true remiges.
4291:
4267:
447:
915:
277:. The flight feathers of some birds perform additional functions, generally associated with territorial displays, courtship rituals or feeding methods. In some species, these feathers have developed into long showy plumes used in visual courtship displays, while in others they create a sound during display flights. Tiny serrations on the leading edge of their remiges help
462:, on the ulna; in other species, no such knobs exist. Secondary feathers remain close together in flight (they cannot be individually separated like the primaries can) and help to provide lift by creating the airfoil shape of the bird's wing. Secondaries tend to be shorter and broader than primaries, with blunter ends (see illustration). They vary in number from 6 in
1005:, which depend on their tails—particularly the strong central pair of rectrices—for support while they feed, have a unique tail moult. Rather than moulting their central tail feathers first, as most birds do, they retain these feathers until last. Instead, the second pair of rectrices (both R2 feathers) are the first to drop. (In some species in the genera
2581:
470:. In general, larger and longer-winged species have a larger number of secondaries. Birds in more than 40 non-passerine families seem to be missing the fifth secondary feather on each wing, a state known as diastataxis (those that do have the fifth secondary are said to be eutaxic). In these birds, the fifth set of secondary
767:
produced by these two former conspecific subspecies—and the fact that the outer two pairs of rectrices in Wilson's snipe are modified, while only the single outermost pair are modified in common snipe—were among the characteristics used to justify their splitting into two distinct and separate species.
1109:
To determine a bird's wing formula, the distance between the tip of the most distal primary and the tip of its greater covert (the longest of the feathers that cover and protect the shaft of that primary) is measured in millimeters. In some cases, this results in a positive number (e.g., the primary
1037:
There are often substantial differences between the remiges and rectrices of adults and juveniles of the same species. Because all juvenile feathers are grown at once—a tremendous energy burden to the developing bird—they are softer and of poorer quality than the equivalent feathers of adults, which
976:
In many species, there is more than one focus along the wing. Here, moult begins at all foci simultaneously, but generally proceeds only in one direction. Most grouse, for example, have two wing foci: one at the wingtip, the other between feathers P1 and S1. In this case, moult proceeds descendantly
590:
or bastard wing are not generally considered to be flight feathers in the strict sense; though they are asymmetrical, they lack the length and stiffness of most true flight feathers. However, alula feathers are definitely an aid to slow flight. These feathers—which are attached to the bird's "thumb"
557:
The outermost primaries of large soaring birds, particularly raptors, often show a pronounced narrowing at some variable distance along the feather edges. These narrowings are called either notches or emarginations depending on the degree of their slope. An emargination is a gradual change, and can
514:
Tertials arise in the brachial region and are not considered true remiges as they are not supported by attachment to the corresponding bone, in this case the humerus. These elongated "true" tertials act as a protective cover for all or part of the folded primaries and secondaries, and do not qualify
985:
for a sizeable portion of the year. Instead, these birds lose all their flight feathers at once. This leaves them completely flightless for a period of three to four weeks, but means their overall period of vulnerability is significantly shorter than it would otherwise be. Eleven families of birds,
703:
Most authorities number the primaries descendantly, starting from the innermost primary (the one closest to the secondaries) and working outwards; others number them ascendantly, from the most distal primary inwards. There are some advantages to each method. Descendant numbering follows the normal
786:
have modified P2 primaries (using the descendant numbering scheme explained above) which are displayed during their courtship rituals. In the standard-winged nightjar, this modified primary consists of an extremely long shaft with a small "pennant" (actually a large web of barbules) at the tip. In
707:
Secondaries are always numbered ascendantly, starting with the outermost secondary (the one closest to the primaries) and working inwards. Tertials are also numbered ascendantly, but in this case, the numbers continue on consecutively from that given to the last secondary (e.g. ... S5, S6, T7, T8,
1137:
The distance that a bird's longest primaries extend beyond its longest secondaries (or tertials) when its wings are folded is referred to as the primary extension or primary projection. As with wing formulae, this measurement is useful for distinguishing between similarly plumaged birds; however,
1060:
The flight feathers of adults and juveniles can differ considerably in length, particularly among the raptors. Juveniles tend to have slightly longer rectrices and shorter, broader wings (with shorter outer primaries, and longer inner primaries and secondaries) than do adults of the same species.
1056:
In general, juveniles have feathers which are narrower and more sharply pointed at the tip. This can be particularly visible when the bird is in flight, especially in the case of raptors. The trailing edge of the wing of a juvenile bird can appear almost serrated, due to the feathers' sharp tips,
300:
The moult of their flight feathers can cause serious problems for birds, as it can impair their ability to fly. Different species have evolved different strategies for coping with this, ranging from dropping all their flight feathers at once (and thus becoming flightless for some relatively short
296:
based on their position along the wing. There are typically 11 primaries attached to the manus (six attached to the metacarpus and five to the phalanges), but the outermost primary, called the remicle, is often rudimentary or absent; certain birds, notably the flamingos, grebes, and storks, have
944:
For most birds, moult begins at a certain specific point, called a focus (plural foci), on the wing or tail and proceeds in a sequential manner in one or both directions from there. For example, most passerines have a focus between the innermost primary (P1, using the numbering scheme explained
766:
have modified outer tail feathers which make noise when they are spread during the birds' roller coaster display flights; as the bird dives, wind flows through the modified feathers and creates a series of rising and falling notes, which is known as "winnowing". Differences between the sounds
631:. They use these small rounded hooks to grasp branches when clambering about in trees, and feathering on these digits would presumably interfere with that functionality. Most youngsters shed their claws sometime between their 70th and 100th day of life, but some retain them— though
997:
The cuckoos show what is called saltatory or transilient wing moults. In simple forms, this involves the moulting and replacement of odd-numbered primaries and then the even-numbered primaries. There are however complex variations with differences based on life history.
1057:
while that of an older bird will be straighter-edged. The flight feathers of a juvenile bird will also be uniform in length, since they all grew at the same time. Those of adults will be of various lengths and levels of wear, since each is moulted at a different time.
735:
The flight feathers of some species provide additional functionality. In some species, for example, either remiges or rectrices make a sound during flight. These sounds are most often associated with courtship or territorial displays. The outer primaries of male
753:
use modified secondaries to make a clear trilling courtship call. A curve-tipped secondary on each wing is dragged against an adjacent ridged secondary at high speeds (as many as 110 times per second—slightly faster than a hummingbird's wingbeat) to create a
821:
have remiges which are serrated rather than smooth on the leading edge. This adaptation disrupts the flow of air over the wings, eliminating the noise that airflow over a smooth surface normally creates, and allowing the birds to fly and hunt silently.
787:
the pennant-winged nightjar, the P2 primary is an extremely long (but otherwise normal) feather, while P3, P4 and P5 are successively shorter; the overall effect is a broadly forked wingtip with a very long plume beyond the lower half of the fork.
980:
Birds that are heavily "wing-loaded"—that is, heavy-bodied birds with relatively short wings—have great difficulty flying with the loss of even a few flight feathers. A protracted moult like the one described above would leave them vulnerable to
1113:
While there can be considerable variation across members of a species—and while the results are obviously impacted by the effects of moult and feather regeneration—even very closely related species show clear differences in their wing formulas.
802:
are extremely long and strongly curved at the ends. These plumes are raised up over the bird's head (along with a fine spray of modified uppertail coverts) during his extraordinary display. Rectrix modification reaches its pinnacle among the
829:
are proportionately short and very stiff, allowing them to better brace themselves against tree trunks while feeding. This adaptation is also found, though to a lesser extent, in some other species that feed along tree trunks, including
361:); these are the longest and narrowest of the remiges (particularly those attached to the phalanges), and they can be individually rotated. These feathers are especially important for flapping flight, as they are the principal source of
906:, which is the world's only flightless parrot, has remiges which are shorter, rounder and more symmetrically vaned than those of parrots capable of flight; these flight feathers also contain fewer interlocking barbules near their tips.
643:
Rectrices (singular rectrix) from the Latin word for "helmsman", help the bird to brake and steer in flight. These feathers lie in a single horizontal row on the rear margin of the anatomic tail. Only the central pair are attached (via
1077:
buzzards have narrower wings than adults do, while those of large juvenile falcons are longer. It is theorized that the differences help young birds compensate for their inexperience, weaker flight muscles and poorer flying ability.
740:
produce a distinctive high-pitched trill, both in direct flight and in power-dives during courtship displays; this trill is diminished when the outer primaries are worn, and absent when those feathers have been moulted. During the
545:), at least one layer of them both above and beneath the flight feathers of the wings as well as above and below the rectrices of the tail. These feathers may vary widely in size – in fact, the upper tail tectrices of the male
853:
have tiny recurved hooks on the leading edges of their outer primaries, but the function of these hooks is not yet known; some authorities suggest they may produce a sound during territorial or courtship displays.
373:. The barbules on these feathers, friction barbules, are specialized with large lobular barbicels that help grip and prevent slippage of overlying feathers and are present in most of the flying birds.
899:
Penguins have lost their differentiated flight feathers. As adults, their wings and tail are covered with the same small, stiff, slightly curved feathers as are found on the rest of their bodies.
415:
have ten primaries, some have only nine. Those with nine are missing the most distal primary (sometimes called the remicle) which is typically very small and sometimes rudimentary in passerines.
1045:
and their widths have been used to determine the daily nutritional status of birds. Each light and dark bar correspond to around 24 hours and the use of this technique has been called
652:, complex structures of fat and muscle that surround those bones. Rectrices are always paired, with a vast majority of species having six pairs. They are absent in grebes and some
929:
Once they have finished growing, feathers are essentially dead structures. Over time, they become worn and abraded, and need to be replaced. This replacement process is known as
2621:
749:
are shorter and slightly narrower than those of the female, and are likely the source of the whistling and twittering sounds made during his courtship display flights. Male
515:
as flight feathers as such. However, many authorities use the term tertials to refer to the shorter, more symmetrical innermost secondaries of passerines (arising from the
1170:
As a general rule, species which are long-distance migrants will have longer primary projection than similar species which do not migrate or migrate shorter distances.
896:
are reduced both in number and structure, consisting merely of 5–6 bare quills. Most ratites have completely lost their rectrices; only the ostrich still has them.
888:
The remiges of ratites are soft and downy; they lack the interlocking hooks and barbules that help to stiffen the flight feathers of other birds. In addition, the
285:
help them to brace against tree trunks as they hammer on them. Even flightless birds still retain flight feathers, though sometimes in radically modified forms.
1337:
Moller, Anders Pape; Hoglund, Jacob (1991), "Patterns of
Fluctuating Asymmetry in Avian Feather Ornaments: Implications for Models of Sexual Selection",
611:. By manipulating its thumb to create a gap between the alula and the rest of the wing, a bird can avoid stalling when flying at low speeds or landing.
798:, have one or more elongated pairs of rectrices, which play an often-critical role in their courtship rituals. The outermost pair of rectrices in male
949:, for example, drop many more flight feathers at once (sometimes becoming briefly flightless) in order to complete their entire wing moult prior to
3167:
2241:
4329:
933:(molt in the United States). The loss of wing and tail feathers can affect a bird's ability to fly (sometimes dramatically) and in certain
2597:
623:
is much delayed compared to the development of these feathers in other young birds, presumably because young hoatzins are equipped with
2462:
Shawkey, Matthew D.; Beck, Michelle L.; Hill, Geoffrey E. (2003), "Use of a gel documentation system to measure feather growth bars",
4685:
1982:
2628:
2541:
395:
Species vary somewhat in the number of primaries they possess. The number in non-passerines generally varies between 9 and 11, but
2571:
3162:
1018:
696:
assign a number to each flight feather. By convention, the numbers assigned to primary feathers always start with the letter P
1983:"Morphological corollaries and ecological implications of flightlessness in the kakapo (Psittaciformes: Strigops habroptilus)"
345:
or damage), though not necessarily in the pattern. They are given different names depending on their position along the wing.
4690:
1671:
1644:
1102:
way. It can be used to help distinguish between species with similar plumages, and thus is particularly useful for those who
1041:
As feathers grow at variable rates, these variations lead to visible dark and light bands in the fully formed feather. These
1017:, do not have this modified moult strategy; in fact, wrynecks moult their outer tail feathers first, with moult proceeding
4322:
1038:
are moulted over a longer period of time (as long as several years in some cases). As a result, they wear more quickly.
2551:
2561:
2502:
2453:
2435:
2393:
2375:
2357:
2334:
2312:
2290:
2268:
2197:
2173:
2065:
1966:
1918:
1816:
1768:
1138:
unlike wing formulae, it is not necessary to have the bird in-hand to make the measurement. Rather, this is a useful
519:
and performing the same function as true tertials) in an effort to distinguish them from other secondaries. The term
458:. In some species, the ligaments that bind these remiges to the bone connect to small, rounded projections, known as
1608:
807:, which display an assortment of often bizarrely modified feathers, ranging from the extremely long plumes of the
745:'s zigzagging display flight, the bird's outer primaries produce a humming sound. The outer primaries of the male
2706:
841:
Scientists have not yet determined the function of all flight feather modifications. Male swallows in the genera
17:
2588:#94216 has a good example of the sounds made by remiges during courtship display flight, starting at about 2:32.
1029:
4315:
2225:
1204:
719:
1122:
812:
4449:
4427:
4295:
3152:
724:
676:
have a highly variable number as a result of changes brought about over centuries of selective breeding.
4541:
4377:
2934:
2217:
1855:
Bostwick, Kimberly S.; Prum, Richard O. (2005), "Courting Bird Sings with
Stridulating Wing Feathers",
2849:
2839:
2568:
Shows long modified rectrices which are used in display (though the video doesn't show full display).
1152:
877:
Over time, a small number of bird species have lost their ability to fly. Some of these, such as the
3175:
3157:
866:
779:
737:
1379:
Wang, Bin (2017). "Seagull feather shaft: Correlation between structure and mechanical response".
700:, those of secondaries with the letter S, those of tertials with T and those of rectrices with R.
27:
Long, stiff, feathers on the wings or tail of a bird that aid in the generation of lift and thrust
3180:
2614:
1156:
1142:
measurement—some species have long primary extensions, while others have shorter ones. Among the
965:
862:
811:(nearly three times the length of the bird itself) to the dramatically coiled twin plumes of the
783:
2854:
2018:
4680:
4624:
4619:
4604:
4271:
3147:
2959:
2909:
1070:
808:
2591:
1661:
337:
helps to hold and support the remiges in place. Corresponding remiges on individual birds are
4695:
2984:
1634:
4728:
4634:
4561:
4546:
3612:
1346:
791:
523:
is sometimes used for birds such as the albatrosses and pelicans that have a long humerus.
341:
between the two wings, matching to a large extent in size and shape (except in the case of
281:
to fly silently (and therefore hunt more successfully), while the extra-stiff rectrices of
450:
Secondaries of a pheasant showing eutaxis (above) and an eagle showing diastataxis (below)
8:
4629:
4556:
3142:
3034:
2974:
2919:
2699:
1062:
750:
531:
The calami of the flight feathers are protected by a layer of non-flight feathers called
318:
2548:
Contains excellent photographic examples of emargination and notching in raptor remiges.
2538:
2512:
1439:
1350:
4644:
4609:
4362:
3925:
2989:
2949:
2914:
2490:
2479:
2415:
2323:
2301:
2279:
2235:
2010:
1880:
1590:
1362:
596:
566:
55:
960:
941:. The timing and progression of flight feather moult therefore varies among families.
474:
does not cover any remiges, possibly due to a twisting of the feather papillae during
376:
4723:
4660:
4639:
4599:
4479:
4397:
4278:
4051:
3998:
3948:
3091:
3081:
3024:
2824:
2819:
2759:
2668:
2498:
2449:
2431:
2389:
2371:
2353:
2347:
2330:
2308:
2286:
2264:
2221:
2193:
2169:
2163:
2061:
2014:
2002:
1962:
1914:
1872:
1812:
1764:
1667:
1640:
1464:
1396:
1148:
1127:
938:
759:
746:
549:, rather than its rectrices, are what constitute its elaborate and colorful "train".
2483:
2190:
Collins Bird Guide: The Most
Complete Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe
1884:
1594:
1366:
711:
Rectrices are always numbered from the centermost pair outwards in both directions.
4670:
4444:
3917:
3059:
2731:
2471:
1994:
1864:
1580:
1454:
1388:
1354:
1189:
1164:
1073:, for example, juveniles have shorter rectrices than adults do. Juveniles of some
1050:
934:
918:
804:
742:
649:
265:). The primary function of the flight feathers is to aid in the generation of both
230:
185:
144:
108:
69:
4614:
4518:
4501:
4372:
4149:
3977:
3447:
2969:
2954:
2892:
2791:
2719:
2601:
2545:
2343:
1392:
673:
600:
354:
1090:
Measuring primary lengths, one of the steps in determining a bird's wing formula
430:
418:
The outermost primaries—those connected to the phalanges—are sometimes known as
4718:
4675:
4489:
4436:
4407:
4367:
4342:
4259:
4189:
4141:
4075:
4014:
3969:
3956:
3830:
3793:
3644:
3418:
3255:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2979:
2964:
2859:
2834:
2829:
2811:
2692:
2653:
2475:
1160:
1131:
1066:
950:
882:
849:
608:
537:
471:
435:
903:
4712:
4496:
4412:
4402:
4197:
4181:
4104:
4096:
3930:
3728:
3578:
3465:
3423:
3223:
3215:
3137:
3101:
3019:
2943:
2771:
2325:
Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume 9: Cotingas to Pipits and
Wagtails
843:
693:
661:
1998:
1868:
1459:
1309:
1086:
4578:
4283:
4027:
3872:
3688:
3526:
3474:
3346:
3307:
3076:
3064:
3054:
3044:
2741:
2006:
1876:
1400:
1358:
1179:
1155:
has a much shorter primary extension than does the very similarly plumaged
1103:
1099:
991:
763:
755:
669:
665:
604:
495:
370:
270:
32:
2404:"Ptilochronology: feather growth bars as indicators of nutritional status"
1585:
1468:
885:
and a number of the flightless rails, have a reduced number of primaries.
881:, show no appreciable changes in their flight feathers. Some, such as the
4573:
4523:
4506:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4088:
3935:
3741:
3720:
3709:
3674:
3541:
3531:
3489:
3380:
3247:
3049:
2874:
2869:
2801:
2786:
2754:
2673:
1223:
Julian J. Baumel. Handbook of Avian
Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. 1993
1184:
835:
831:
463:
388:
274:
4307:
892:'s remiges are proportionately much reduced in size, while those of the
4474:
4417:
4387:
4382:
4205:
4067:
4006:
3985:
3817:
3801:
3736:
3681:
3653:
3585:
3550:
3428:
3276:
3111:
3086:
2844:
2419:
1002:
977:
from both foci. Many large, long-winged birds have multiple wing foci.
826:
795:
778:
Flight feathers are also used by some species in visual displays. Male
599:
on an airplane wing, allowing the wing to achieve a higher than normal
459:
380:
301:
period of time) to extending the moult over a period of several years.
282:
54:) are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired
2684:
1061:
However, there are many exceptions. In longer-tailed species, such as
4551:
4165:
4120:
3909:
3702:
3619:
3603:
3592:
3502:
3438:
3397:
3096:
2897:
2884:
2864:
2764:
1194:
1144:
893:
878:
516:
499:
467:
412:
358:
4583:
4484:
4392:
4133:
3863:
3838:
3784:
3695:
3667:
3557:
3521:
3513:
3495:
3390:
3375:
3359:
3106:
3069:
2902:
2658:
2303:
Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume 4: Sandgrouse to
Cuckoos
982:
954:
799:
648:) to the tail bones; the remaining rectrices are embedded into the
645:
592:
404:
342:
338:
322:
36:
1033:
Western gull chick about 3 weeks old flapping its developing wings
770:
4511:
4043:
3896:
3775:
3660:
3626:
3564:
3385:
3239:
3231:
2924:
2796:
2781:
2637:
2606:
2403:
1199:
1014:
620:
571:
546:
520:
506:, parrots, and owls are among the families missing this feather.
483:
408:
313:
Bird wing bone structure, indicating attachment points of remiges
2321:
del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Christie, David, eds. (2004),
2299:
del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1997),
2277:
del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1992),
2212:
Christie, Thomas
Alerstam ; translated by David A. (1993).
1163:
has a long primary projection, while that of the near-lookalike
660:
species have more than 12 rectrices. In some species (including
4469:
4173:
4112:
3888:
3880:
3809:
3749:
3633:
3571:
3454:
3121:
3116:
2994:
1310:
Podulka, Sandy; Ronald W. Rohrbaugh; Rick Bonney, eds. (2003),
946:
689:
657:
653:
632:
628:
579:
475:
366:
362:
330:
329:(quills) firmly to the wing bones, and a thick, strong band of
266:
2281:
Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks
212:
171:
117:
90:
4059:
3846:
3409:
2648:
930:
685:
587:
491:
446:
400:
396:
2592:
Sound made by rectrices in courtship flight of common snipe
2346:; Dobkin, Darryl A.; Wheye, Darryl; Pimm, Stuart L. (1994),
1314:, Ithaca, New York: Cornell Lab of Ornithology, p. 1.11
914:
4665:
4533:
4346:
4035:
3402:
3365:
3335:
2749:
2715:
987:
624:
503:
487:
479:
455:
309:
239:
206:
191:
153:
123:
78:
59:
790:
Males of many species, ranging from the widely introduced
317:
Remiges (from the Latin for "oarsman") are located on the
87:
4354:
4338:
4157:
3014:
2776:
889:
818:
278:
251:
165:
84:
1854:
1098:
describes the shape of distal end of a bird's wing in a
619:
The development of the remiges (and alulae) of nestling
2320:
2298:
2276:
2187:
1944:
1782:
1746:
1734:
1722:
1710:
1510:
391:
with primaries spread to decrease drag and improve lift
2582:
Cornell
Laboratory of Ornithology's American woodcock
2342:
1932:
1911:
Nightjars: A Guide to
Nightjars and Related Nightbirds
1830:
1437:
1425:
1413:
2365:
2146:
1558:
1024:
434:
Primary (left) and secondary (right) feathers of the
257:
254:
242:
215:
209:
194:
174:
168:
156:
129:
126:
93:
1956:
1571:
Hickman, Scott (2008), "The trouble with tertials",
1336:
357:(the bird's "hand", composed of carpometacarpus and
248:
245:
236:
203:
200:
188:
162:
159:
150:
114:
75:
3306:
2539:
Wing
Feathers—US Fish and Wildlife Service document
1913:, Mountfield, East Sussex: Pica Press, p. 98,
857:
233:
197:
147:
120:
111:
81:
72:
2322:
2300:
2278:
1908:
1758:
953:south, while those same species breeding at lower
774:Leading edge of an owl feather, showing serrations
684:In order to make the discussion of such topics as
614:
442:); note the asymmetrical orientation of the shafts
2366:Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001),
1606:
1312:Home Study Course in Bird Biology, Second Edition
595:edge of the wing—function in the same way as the
62:or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called
4710:
2578:Shows use of secondary remiges to produce sound.
656:, and greatly reduced in size in penguins. Many
2461:
2259:Campbell, Bruce; Lack, Elizabeth, eds. (1985),
2105:
2055:
1659:
1609:"The Pterylosis of the Nestling Coua ruficeps"
1570:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
758:much like that produced by some insects. Both
714:
4323:
2700:
2622:
2495:The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour
2489:
2142:
2140:
1525:
3214:
2425:
2258:
2240:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2131:
2115:
2113:
2043:
2031:
1794:
1698:
1546:
1491:
2078:
2076:
1632:
1531:
1300:, 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press 2010
4330:
4316:
2707:
2693:
2629:
2615:
2157:
2155:
2137:
1653:
937:can impair the ability to feed or perform
43:) in flight, showing remiges and rectrices
4686:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water
4337:
2386:The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East
2168:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 186,
2110:
1763:, London: Christopher Helm, p. 375,
1584:
1521:
1519:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1458:
1438:Muller, Werner; Patone, Giannino (1998),
1260:Birds of Prey of the West: A Field Guide.
972:) in flight, showing moult waves in wings
2552:Video of feeding Magellanic woodpecker (
2211:
2188:Svensson, Lars; Grant, Peter J. (1999),
2073:
1961:, London: Christopher Helm, p. 33,
1121:
1085:
1028:
959:
913:
861:
769:
718:
679:
672:), the number varies among individuals.
565:
445:
429:
375:
308:
31:
2714:
2562:Video of singing male superb lyrebird (
2443:
2428:Moult and Ageing of European Passerines
2426:Jenni, Lukas; Winkler, Raffael (1994),
2383:
2161:
2152:
2119:
2099:
2082:
2060:, Oxford University Press, p. 52,
1980:
1896:
1842:
1811:, London: Academic Press, p. 180,
1552:
14:
4711:
2263:, Carlton, England: T and A D Poyser,
2192:, London: HarperCollins, p. 231,
1957:Taylor, Barry; van Berlo, Ber (1998),
1806:
1626:
1516:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1474:
137:), while those on the tail are called
4311:
3199:
2688:
2610:
2510:
2401:
2094:
2088:
1945:del Hoyo, Elliott & Christie 2004
1783:del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1997
1747:del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1992
1735:del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1992
1723:del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1992
1711:del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1997
1686:
1680:
1511:del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal 1992
1324:
925:), showing moult of central rectrices
4266:
1909:Cleere, Nigel; Nurney, Dave (1998),
1759:Madge, Steve; McGowan, Phil (2002),
1378:
1247:Ornithology in Laboratory and Field.
1117:
635:-over and unusable— into adulthood.
466:to as many as 40 in some species of
4290:
2572:Video of male club-winged manakin (
2558:Shows use of rectrices for bracing.
1666:. Marshall Cavendish. p. 295.
1497:
1249:5th Edition. Academic Press, 1985
591:and normally lie flush against the
24:
2636:
1761:Pheasants, Partridges & Grouse
1151:of the Americas, for example, the
1126:Comparison of primary extensions:
1025:Age differences in flight feathers
25:
4740:
3168:Late Quaternary prehistoric birds
2532:
2147:Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001
1639:. Рипол Классик. pp. 69–70.
1607:Berger, AJ & WA Lunk (1954),
1559:Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001
957:undergo a more protracted moult.
454:Secondaries are connected to the
4426:
4289:
4277:
4265:
4254:
4253:
4144:(New World vultures and condors)
2520:, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1440:"Air transmissivity of feathers"
1339:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
1262:Princeton University Press, 2018
1232:Bruce Campbell, Elizabeth Lack.
858:Vestigiality in flightless birds
229:
184:
143:
107:
68:
2205:
2181:
2125:
2049:
2037:
2025:
1974:
1950:
1938:
1926:
1902:
1890:
1848:
1836:
1824:
1800:
1788:
1776:
1752:
1740:
1728:
1716:
1704:
1692:
1600:
1564:
1447:Journal of Experimental Biology
1431:
1419:
1407:
1372:
1330:
1275:Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2020
1081:
615:Delayed development in hoatzins
607: – without resulting in a
582:on the leading edge of the wing
552:
353:Primaries are connected to the
3200:
1318:
1303:
1291:
1278:
1273:The Biology of Moult in Birds.
1271:Lukas Jenni, Raffael Winkler.
1265:
1252:
1239:
1226:
1217:
1205:Delayed feathering in chickens
425:
13:
1:
2252:
2106:Shawkey, Beck & Hill 2003
1809:Hummingbirds of North America
578:) landing, showing outspread
288:The remiges are divided into
2497:, London: Christopher Helm,
2448:, London: Christopher Helm,
2388:, London: T and A D Poyser,
2370:, London: Christopher Helm,
2329:, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions,
2307:, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions,
2285:, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions,
1981:Livezey, Bradley C. (2005),
1807:Howell, Steve N. G. (2002),
1393:10.1016/j.actbio.2016.11.006
1298:Oxford Dictionary of English
1288:Oxford University Press 2005
994:, have this moult strategy.
813:magnificent bird-of-paradise
731:) showing modified rectrices
638:
526:
348:
7:
4208:(woodpeckers and relatives)
2446:Shorebirds of North America
2352:, Oxford University Press,
1245:Olin Sewall Pettingill Jr.
1236:T & AD Poyser Ltd. 1985
1173:
725:long-tailed paradise whydah
715:Specialized flight feathers
509:
411:have 16. While most modern
10:
4745:
4542:Flying and gliding animals
4378:Fin and flipper locomotion
4070:(cormorants and relatives)
3163:Extinct species since 1500
2476:10.1648/0273-8570-74.2.125
2430:, London: Academic Press,
2349:The Birdwatcher's Handbook
2218:Cambridge University Press
873:) showing modified remiges
304:
4653:
4592:
4532:
4435:
4424:
4353:
4249:
4200:(kingfishers and rollers)
4132:
4087:
4054:(albatrosses and petrels)
4026:
3997:
3968:
3947:
3938:(swifts and hummingbirds)
3920:(nightjars and relatives)
3908:
3871:
3862:
3829:
3792:
3783:
3774:
3770:
3744:(pheasants and relatives)
3719:
3643:
3602:
3540:
3512:
3488:
3464:
3437:
3358:
3345:
3302:
3275:
3271:
3210:
3206:
3195:
3191:
3130:
3033:
2933:
2883:
2810:
2740:
2727:
2644:
2574:Machaeropterus deliciosus
2544:30 September 2017 at the
1737:, pp. 84–85, 91, 104
738:broad-tailed hummingbirds
4099:(seriemas and relatives)
4078:(pelicans and relatives)
2554:Campephilus magellanicus
2444:Paulson, Dennis (2005),
2132:Jenni & Winkler 1994
2056:Robert B. Payne (2005),
2044:Campbell & Lack 1985
2032:Campbell & Lack 1985
1795:Jenni & Winkler 1994
1699:Campbell & Lack 1985
1660:Jason A. Mobley (2008).
1547:Campbell & Lack 1985
1492:Jenni & Winkler 1994
1210:
909:
867:Double-wattled cassowary
784:pennant-winged nightjars
561:
385:Haliaeetus leucocephalus
4192:(hornbills and hoopoes)
4107:(falcons and relatives)
1999:10.1002/jmor.1052130108
1869:10.1126/science.1111701
1460:10.1242/jeb.201.18.2591
966:white-bellied sea eagle
4681:Terrestrial locomotion
4625:Evolution of cetaceans
4620:Origin of avian flight
4605:Evolution of tetrapods
4176:(trogons and quetzals)
3988:(cranes and relatives)
3258:(emus and cassowaries)
3148:Glossary of bird terms
2960:Confuciusornithiformes
2600:5 October 2018 at the
2564:Menuta novaehollandiae
2511:Trail, Pepper (2001),
2493:; et al. (2001),
2384:Forsman, Dick (1999),
2162:Kaufman, Kenn (1990),
2058:The Cuckoos: Cuculidae
1636:Dictionary of aviation
1359:10.1098/rspb.1991.0080
1234:A Dictionary of Birds.
1134:
1091:
1071:European honey buzzard
1034:
973:
970:Haliaeetus leucogaster
926:
874:
809:ribbon-tailed astrapia
775:
732:
583:
451:
443:
392:
314:
44:
4696:Undulatory locomotion
4645:Homologous structures
4017:(kagu and sunbittern)
3980:(gulls and relatives)
2985:Songlingornithiformes
2950:Omnivoropterygiformes
2594:(Gallinago gallinago)
2402:Grubb, T. C. (1989),
2261:A Dictionary of Birds
1987:Journal of Morphology
1586:10.1525/auk.2008.2408
1125:
1089:
1032:
963:
917:
865:
773:
722:
680:Numbering conventions
569:
449:
433:
379:
312:
35:
4640:Analogous structures
4635:Convergent evolution
3839:Phoenicopteriformes
2368:Raptors of the World
1633:R.M. Pierce (1911).
1157:Hammond's flycatcher
902:The ground-dwelling
792:ring-necked pheasant
751:club-winged manakins
333:tissue known as the
4691:Rotating locomotion
4630:Comparative anatomy
3810:Mesitornithiformes
3804:(doves and pigeons)
3138:Families and orders
3000:Ichthyornithiformes
2975:Patagopterygiformes
2021:on 10 December 2012
1933:Ehrlich et al. 1994
1831:Ehrlich et al. 1994
1426:Ehrlich et al. 1994
1414:Ehrlich et al. 1994
1351:1991RSPSB.245....1P
1063:swallow-tailed kite
871:Casuarius casuarius
627:on their first two
369:, thereby reducing
273:, thereby enabling
56:pennaceous feathers
4610:Evolution of birds
4363:Aquatic locomotion
4152:(eagles and hawks)
4052:Procellariiformes
3957:Opisthocomiformes
3926:Steatornithiformes
3153:List by population
2990:Hongshanornithidae
2915:Evolution of birds
2464:J. Field Ornithol.
1935:, pp. 251–253
1663:Birds of the World
1526:Sibley et al. 2001
1381:Acta Biomaterialia
1258:Brian K. Wheeler.
1135:
1092:
1035:
990:, grebes and most
974:
939:courtship displays
927:
875:
776:
733:
698:(P1, P2, P3, etc.)
692:structure easier,
584:
576:Anas platyrhynchos
452:
444:
393:
321:side of the wing.
315:
294:secondary feathers
45:
4704:
4703:
4661:Animal locomotion
4600:Evolution of fish
4480:facultative biped
4305:
4304:
4245:
4244:
4241:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4038:(loons or divers)
4007:Phaethontiformes
3999:Phaethontimorphae
3949:Opisthocomiformes
3918:Caprimulgiformes
3858:
3857:
3847:Podicipediformes
3766:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3484:
3483:
3267:
3266:
3224:Struthioniformes
3092:Waterfowl hunting
3025:Gastornithiformes
3020:Aepyornithiformes
3010:Lithornithiformes
2682:
2681:
1673:978-0-7614-7775-4
1646:978-5-87745-565-8
1453:(18): 2591–2599,
1284:John J. Videler.
1118:Primary extension
825:The rectrices of
805:birds of paradise
794:to Africa's many
747:American woodcock
603: – and thus
16:(Redirected from
4736:
4671:Robot locomotion
4445:Limb development
4430:
4403:Lobe-finned fish
4332:
4325:
4318:
4309:
4308:
4293:
4292:
4281:
4269:
4268:
4257:
4256:
4209:
4201:
4193:
4185:
4182:Leptosomiformes
4177:
4169:
4161:
4153:
4150:Accipitriformes
4145:
4124:
4123:(perching birds)
4116:
4108:
4100:
4079:
4071:
4063:
4055:
4047:
4044:Sphenisciformes
4039:
4018:
4010:
3989:
3981:
3978:Charadriiformes
3960:
3939:
3921:
3900:
3892:
3889:Musophagiformes
3884:
3869:
3868:
3850:
3842:
3821:
3813:
3805:
3790:
3789:
3781:
3780:
3772:
3771:
3745:
3732:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3499:
3412:
3405:
3369:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3343:
3342:
3339:
3304:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3273:
3272:
3259:
3251:
3243:
3235:
3227:
3212:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3060:Bird collections
3015:Dinornithiformes
2920:Darwin's finches
2910:Origin of flight
2850:Seabird breeding
2840:Sexual selection
2709:
2702:
2695:
2686:
2685:
2631:
2624:
2617:
2608:
2607:
2584:(Scolopax minor)
2528:
2527:
2525:
2519:
2507:
2486:
2458:
2440:
2422:
2398:
2380:
2362:
2344:Ehrlich, Paul R.
2339:
2328:
2317:
2306:
2295:
2284:
2273:
2246:
2245:
2239:
2231:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2165:Advanced Birding
2159:
2150:
2144:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2108:
2103:
2097:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2017:, archived from
1978:
1972:
1971:
1954:
1948:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1852:
1846:
1840:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1630:
1624:
1623:
1613:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1588:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1529:
1523:
1514:
1508:
1495:
1489:
1472:
1471:
1462:
1444:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1282:
1276:
1269:
1263:
1256:
1250:
1243:
1237:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1190:Drumming (snipe)
1165:Oriental skylark
1153:dusky flycatcher
1051:dendrochronology
919:Eurasian jackdaw
743:northern lapwing
729:Vidua paradisaea
674:Domestic pigeons
650:rectricial bulbs
586:Feathers on the
325:attach the long
264:
263:
260:
259:
256:
253:
250:
247:
244:
241:
238:
235:
222:
221:
218:
217:
214:
211:
208:
205:
202:
199:
196:
193:
190:
181:
180:
177:
176:
173:
170:
167:
164:
161:
158:
155:
152:
149:
136:
135:
132:
131:
128:
125:
122:
119:
116:
113:
100:
99:
96:
95:
92:
89:
86:
83:
80:
77:
74:
21:
4744:
4743:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4735:
4734:
4733:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4700:
4649:
4615:Origin of birds
4588:
4528:
4450:Limb morphology
4431:
4422:
4408:Ray-finned fish
4373:Fish locomotion
4349:
4336:
4306:
4301:
4213:
4207:
4199:
4191:
4190:Bucerotiformes
4184:(cuckoo-roller)
4183:
4175:
4167:
4159:
4151:
4143:
4142:Cathartiformes
4128:
4122:
4114:
4113:Psittaciformes
4106:
4098:
4083:
4077:
4076:Pelecaniformes
4069:
4061:
4053:
4045:
4037:
4022:
4016:
4015:Eurypygiformes
4008:
3993:
3987:
3979:
3964:
3958:
3943:
3937:
3919:
3904:
3898:
3890:
3882:
3854:
3848:
3840:
3825:
3819:
3818:Pterocliformes
3811:
3803:
3754:
3743:
3730:
3715:
3639:
3598:
3536:
3501:
3500:
3493:
3492:
3480:
3460:
3433:
3410:
3403:
3363:
3362:
3350:
3349:
3333:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3325:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3263:
3257:
3256:Casuariiformes
3249:
3248:Apterygiformes
3241:
3233:
3225:
3202:
3187:
3158:Lists by region
3126:
3036:
3029:
2970:Chaoyangiformes
2955:Jeholornithidae
2929:
2893:Origin of birds
2879:
2860:Brood parasites
2806:
2736:
2723:
2713:
2683:
2678:
2664:flight feathers
2640:
2635:
2602:Wayback Machine
2546:Wayback Machine
2535:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2505:
2456:
2438:
2396:
2378:
2360:
2337:
2315:
2293:
2271:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2220:. p. 253.
2210:
2206:
2200:
2186:
2182:
2176:
2160:
2153:
2145:
2138:
2130:
2126:
2118:
2111:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2089:
2081:
2074:
2068:
2054:
2050:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2026:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1955:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1853:
1849:
1841:
1837:
1829:
1825:
1819:
1805:
1801:
1793:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1757:
1753:
1745:
1741:
1733:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1697:
1693:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1658:
1654:
1647:
1631:
1627:
1616:Wilson Bulletin
1611:
1605:
1601:
1569:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1532:
1524:
1517:
1509:
1498:
1490:
1475:
1442:
1436:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1408:
1377:
1373:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1283:
1279:
1270:
1266:
1257:
1253:
1244:
1240:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1176:
1167:is very short.
1120:
1084:
1047:ptilochronology
1027:
923:Corvus monedula
912:
860:
780:standard-winged
717:
682:
641:
617:
601:angle of attack
564:
555:
529:
512:
472:covert feathers
428:
351:
307:
232:
228:
187:
183:
146:
142:
110:
106:
71:
67:
48:Flight feathers
28:
23:
22:
18:Flight feathers
15:
12:
11:
5:
4742:
4732:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4657:
4655:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4596:
4594:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4579:Pterosaur wing
4576:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4549:
4544:
4538:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4515:
4514:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4447:
4441:
4439:
4433:
4432:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4368:Cephalopod fin
4365:
4359:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4335:
4334:
4327:
4320:
4312:
4303:
4302:
4300:
4299:
4287:
4275:
4263:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4235:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4203:
4198:Coraciiformes
4195:
4187:
4179:
4174:Trogoniformes
4171:
4163:
4155:
4147:
4138:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4121:Passeriformes
4118:
4110:
4105:Falconiformes
4102:
4097:Cariamiformes
4093:
4091:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4073:
4065:
4060:Ciconiiformes
4057:
4049:
4041:
4032:
4030:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4020:
4012:
4003:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3991:
3983:
3974:
3972:
3970:Cursorimorphae
3966:
3965:
3963:
3962:
3953:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3941:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3914:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3894:
3886:
3877:
3875:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3844:
3835:
3833:
3831:Mirandornithes
3827:
3826:
3824:
3823:
3815:
3807:
3802:Columbiformes
3798:
3796:
3794:Columbimorphae
3787:
3778:
3768:
3767:
3764:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3752:
3747:
3739:
3734:
3729:Meleagridinae
3725:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3706:
3699:
3692:
3685:
3678:
3671:
3664:
3657:
3649:
3647:
3645:Odontophoridae
3641:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3630:
3623:
3616:
3608:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3589:
3582:
3575:
3568:
3561:
3554:
3546:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3518:
3516:
3507:
3486:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3470:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3451:
3443:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3426:
3424:Stictonettinae
3421:
3419:Dendrocygninae
3416:
3415:
3414:
3407:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3372:
3370:
3353:
3340:
3297:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3253:
3245:
3237:
3229:
3220:
3218:
3204:
3203:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3172:Notable birds
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3122:Egg collecting
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3041:
3039:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3005:Hesperornithes
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2980:Ambiortiformes
2977:
2972:
2967:
2965:Enantiornithes
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2939:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2816:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2757:
2752:
2746:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2734:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2712:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2689:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2638:Feather tracts
2634:
2633:
2626:
2619:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2589:
2579:
2569:
2559:
2549:
2534:
2533:External links
2531:
2530:
2529:
2508:
2503:
2487:
2470:(2): 125–128,
2459:
2454:
2441:
2436:
2423:
2414:(2): 314–320,
2399:
2394:
2381:
2376:
2363:
2358:
2340:
2335:
2318:
2313:
2296:
2291:
2274:
2269:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2226:
2216:. Cambridge :
2214:Bird migration
2204:
2198:
2180:
2174:
2151:
2136:
2124:
2109:
2098:
2087:
2072:
2066:
2048:
2036:
2024:
1993:(1): 105–145,
1973:
1967:
1949:
1937:
1925:
1919:
1901:
1889:
1847:
1835:
1823:
1817:
1799:
1787:
1775:
1769:
1751:
1739:
1727:
1715:
1703:
1691:
1679:
1672:
1652:
1645:
1625:
1599:
1563:
1551:
1530:
1515:
1496:
1473:
1430:
1418:
1406:
1371:
1329:
1317:
1302:
1290:
1277:
1264:
1251:
1238:
1225:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1175:
1172:
1161:common skylark
1132:willow warbler
1119:
1116:
1083:
1080:
1067:secretary bird
1049:(analogous to
1026:
1023:
911:
908:
883:Titicaca grebe
859:
856:
850:Stelgidopteryx
716:
713:
694:ornithologists
681:
678:
640:
637:
616:
613:
563:
560:
554:
551:
528:
525:
511:
508:
436:common buzzard
427:
424:
350:
347:
306:
303:
52:Pennae volatus
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4741:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4707:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4652:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4591:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4535:
4531:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4434:
4429:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4413:Pectoral fins
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4333:
4328:
4326:
4321:
4319:
4314:
4313:
4310:
4298:
4297:
4288:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4264:
4262:
4261:
4252:
4251:
4248:
4210:
4204:
4202:
4196:
4194:
4188:
4186:
4180:
4178:
4172:
4170:
4164:
4162:
4158:Strigiformes
4156:
4154:
4148:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4119:
4117:
4111:
4109:
4103:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4080:
4074:
4072:
4066:
4064:
4058:
4056:
4050:
4048:
4042:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4029:
4025:
4019:
4013:
4011:
4009:(tropicbirds)
4005:
4004:
4002:
4000:
3996:
3990:
3984:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3961:
3955:
3954:
3952:
3950:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3932:
3931:Podargiformes
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3887:
3885:
3881:Cuculiformes
3879:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3851:
3845:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3814:
3808:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3698:
3697:
3693:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3679:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3670:
3669:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3590:
3588:
3587:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3579:Macrocephalon
3576:
3574:
3573:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3548:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3491:
3487:
3477:
3476:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3466:Anseranatidae
3463:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3450:
3449:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3413:
3408:
3406:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3367:
3361:
3357:
3354:
3348:
3344:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3305:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3274:
3270:
3260:
3254:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3240:Tinamiformes
3238:
3236:
3230:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3216:Palaeognathae
3213:
3209:
3205:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3102:Pigeon racing
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2945:
2944:Archaeopteryx
2941:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2705:
2703:
2698:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2627:
2625:
2620:
2618:
2613:
2612:
2609:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2550:
2547:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2516:
2515:
2514:Wing Feathers
2509:
2506:
2504:0-7136-6250-6
2500:
2496:
2492:
2491:Sibley, David
2488:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2457:
2455:0-7136-7377-X
2451:
2447:
2442:
2439:
2437:0-12-384150-X
2433:
2429:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2400:
2397:
2395:0-85661-098-4
2391:
2387:
2382:
2379:
2377:0-7136-8026-1
2373:
2369:
2364:
2361:
2359:0-19-858407-5
2355:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2336:84-87334-69-5
2332:
2327:
2326:
2319:
2316:
2314:84-87334-22-9
2310:
2305:
2304:
2297:
2294:
2292:84-87334-10-5
2288:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2270:0-85661-039-9
2266:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2243:
2237:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2201:
2199:0-00-219728-6
2195:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2175:0-395-53376-7
2171:
2167:
2166:
2158:
2156:
2148:
2143:
2141:
2133:
2128:
2121:
2116:
2114:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2091:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2069:
2067:0-19-850213-3
2063:
2059:
2052:
2046:, p. 363
2045:
2040:
2034:, p. 361
2033:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1970:
1968:1-873403-59-3
1964:
1960:
1953:
1947:, p. 609
1946:
1941:
1934:
1929:
1922:
1920:1-873403-48-8
1916:
1912:
1905:
1899:, p. 323
1898:
1893:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1863:(5735): 736,
1862:
1858:
1851:
1845:, p. 333
1844:
1839:
1833:, p. 183
1832:
1827:
1820:
1818:0-12-356955-9
1814:
1810:
1803:
1796:
1791:
1785:, p. 105
1784:
1779:
1772:
1770:0-7136-3966-0
1766:
1762:
1755:
1749:, p. 141
1748:
1743:
1736:
1731:
1725:, p. 176
1724:
1719:
1712:
1707:
1701:, p. 285
1700:
1695:
1688:
1683:
1675:
1669:
1665:
1664:
1656:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1637:
1629:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1603:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1567:
1560:
1555:
1549:, p. 656
1548:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1512:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1493:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1441:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1416:, p. 219
1415:
1410:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1345:(1312): 1–5,
1344:
1340:
1333:
1326:
1321:
1313:
1306:
1299:
1294:
1287:
1286:Avian Flight.
1281:
1274:
1268:
1261:
1255:
1248:
1242:
1235:
1229:
1220:
1216:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1088:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1031:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
995:
993:
989:
984:
978:
971:
967:
962:
958:
956:
952:
948:
942:
940:
936:
932:
924:
920:
916:
907:
905:
900:
897:
895:
891:
886:
884:
880:
879:steamer ducks
872:
868:
864:
855:
852:
851:
846:
845:
844:Psalidoprocne
839:
837:
833:
828:
823:
820:
816:
814:
810:
806:
801:
797:
793:
788:
785:
781:
772:
768:
765:
761:
757:
752:
748:
744:
739:
730:
726:
721:
712:
709:
705:
701:
699:
695:
691:
688:processes or
687:
677:
675:
671:
667:
663:
662:ruffed grouse
659:
655:
651:
647:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
589:
581:
577:
573:
568:
559:
550:
548:
544:
540:
539:
534:
524:
522:
518:
507:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
478:development.
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
448:
441:
437:
432:
423:
421:
416:
414:
410:
407:have 12, and
406:
402:
398:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
311:
302:
298:
295:
291:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
262:
226:
220:
179:
140:
134:
104:
98:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
42:
41:Milvus milvus
38:
34:
30:
19:
4706:
4566:
4294:
4282:
4270:
4258:
4168:(mousebirds)
4166:Coliiformes
4036:Gaviiformes
4028:Aequornithes
3936:Apodiformes
3897:Otidiformes
3873:Otidimorphae
3820:(sandgrouse)
3742:Phasianinae
3708:
3701:
3694:
3689:Odontophorus
3687:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3659:
3652:
3632:
3625:
3618:
3611:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3570:
3563:
3556:
3549:
3527:Oreophasinae
3473:
3453:
3446:
3351:(waterfowls)
3347:Anseriformes
3097:Cockfighting
3082:Conservation
3077:Bird feeding
3065:Birdwatching
3055:Ornithomancy
2995:Gansuiformes
2942:
2935:Fossil birds
2825:Intelligence
2663:
2593:
2583:
2573:
2563:
2553:
2522:, retrieved
2513:
2494:
2467:
2463:
2445:
2427:
2411:
2407:
2385:
2367:
2348:
2324:
2302:
2280:
2260:
2213:
2207:
2189:
2183:
2164:
2149:, p. 39
2134:, p. 29
2127:
2122:, p. 16
2120:Forsman 1999
2101:
2090:
2083:Forsman 1999
2057:
2051:
2039:
2027:
2019:the original
1990:
1986:
1976:
1958:
1952:
1940:
1928:
1910:
1904:
1897:Paulson 2005
1892:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1843:Paulson 2005
1838:
1826:
1808:
1802:
1790:
1778:
1760:
1754:
1742:
1730:
1718:
1713:, p. 29
1706:
1694:
1682:
1662:
1655:
1635:
1628:
1622:(2): 119–126
1619:
1615:
1602:
1576:
1572:
1566:
1561:, p. 27
1554:
1528:, p. 17
1513:, p. 37
1450:
1446:
1433:
1428:, p. 79
1421:
1409:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1320:
1311:
1305:
1297:
1293:
1285:
1280:
1272:
1267:
1259:
1254:
1246:
1241:
1233:
1228:
1219:
1180:Bird anatomy
1169:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1112:
1108:
1100:mathematical
1096:wing formula
1095:
1093:
1082:Wing formula
1074:
1059:
1055:
1046:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1021:from there.
1010:
1006:
1000:
996:
979:
975:
969:
943:
928:
922:
901:
898:
887:
876:
870:
848:
842:
840:
836:woodcreepers
832:treecreepers
824:
817:
789:
777:
764:common snipe
756:stridulation
734:
728:
710:
706:
702:
697:
683:
670:common snipe
666:hazel grouse
642:
618:
585:
575:
556:
553:Emargination
542:
536:
535:feathers or
532:
530:
513:
464:hummingbirds
453:
439:
419:
417:
394:
384:
352:
335:postpatagium
334:
326:
316:
299:
293:
289:
287:
224:
223:), singular
138:
102:
101:), singular
63:
51:
47:
46:
40:
29:
4729:Bird flight
4574:Insect wing
4524:Webbed foot
4465:unguligrade
4460:plantigrade
4455:digitigrade
4296:WikiProject
4206:Piciformes
4089:Australaves
4068:Suliformes
3986:Gruiformes
3841:(flamingos)
3750:Tetraoninae
3721:Phasianidae
3710:Rhynchortyx
3675:Dactylortyx
3542:Megapodidae
3532:Penelopinae
3490:Galliformes
3232:Rheiformes
3226:(ostriches)
3176:individuals
3050:Ornithology
3037:interaction
2792:Preen gland
2674:supercilium
2085:, p. 9
1797:, p. 8
1689:, p. 6
1494:, p. 7
1387:: 270–288.
1327:, p. 8
1185:Bird flight
1159:. Europe's
1149:flycatchers
1130:(left) and
1104:ring (band)
1043:growth bars
1011:Dendropicos
1003:woodpeckers
894:cassowaries
827:woodpeckers
708:... etc.).
460:quill knobs
440:Buteo buteo
426:Secondaries
339:symmetrical
283:woodpeckers
4713:Categories
4502:Cephalopod
4418:Pelvic fin
4388:Dorsal fin
4383:Caudal fin
4046:(penguins)
3899:(bustards)
3737:Perdicinae
3682:Dendrortyx
3654:Callipepla
3586:Megapodius
3551:Aepypodius
3429:Tadorninae
3411:true geese
3242:(tinamous)
3201:Neornithes
3112:Pheasantry
3087:Aviculture
2855:Incubation
2845:Lek mating
2586:recordings
2253:References
2227:0521448220
2095:Grubb 1989
1687:Trail 2001
1579:(2): 493,
1325:Trail 2001
1128:chiffchaff
1019:proximally
986:including
541:(singular
500:sandpipers
482:, grebes,
413:passerines
381:Bald eagle
4593:Evolution
4552:Bird wing
4497:Arthropod
4490:quadruped
4115:(parrots)
3959:(hoatzin)
3910:Strisores
3891:(turacos)
3883:(cuckoos)
3812:(mesites)
3731:(turkeys)
3703:Philortyx
3620:Agelastes
3613:Acryllium
3604:Numididae
3593:Talegalla
3503:gamebirds
3496:landfowls
3475:Anseranas
3439:Anhimidae
3398:Anserinae
3181:fictional
2903:dinosaurs
2898:Theropoda
2885:Evolution
2830:Migration
2812:Behaviour
2236:cite book
2015:206090256
1195:Pinioning
1145:Empidonax
1001:Arboreal
992:waterfowl
983:predators
955:latitudes
951:migrating
800:lyrebirds
646:ligaments
639:Rectrices
538:tectrices
527:Tectrices
517:olecranon
476:embryonic
468:albatross
409:ostriches
405:flamingos
359:phalanges
349:Primaries
331:tendinous
323:Ligaments
319:posterior
139:rectrices
4724:Feathers
4584:Wingspan
4567:feathers
4562:skeleton
4547:Bat wing
4507:Tetrapod
4393:Fish fin
4260:Category
4134:Afroaves
4062:(storks)
3864:Passerea
3849:(grebes)
3785:Columbea
3696:Oreortyx
3668:Cyrtonyx
3558:Alectura
3522:Cracinae
3514:Cracidae
3391:Oxyurini
3381:Aythyini
3376:Anatinae
3360:Anatidae
3107:Falconry
3070:big year
2925:Seabirds
2835:Foraging
2782:Feathers
2669:speculum
2659:eye-ring
2598:Archived
2542:Archived
2524:4 August
2484:55380093
2007:29865598
1885:22278735
1877:16051789
1595:85245232
1401:27818305
1367:84991514
1174:See also
1140:relative
1015:wrynecks
935:families
760:Wilson's
633:callused
621:hoatzins
593:anterior
510:Tertials
484:pelicans
367:vortices
343:mutation
37:Red kite
4654:Related
4512:dactyly
4398:Flipper
4272:Commons
3776:Neoaves
3661:Colinus
3627:Guttera
3565:Eulipoa
3386:Mergini
3250:(kiwis)
3234:(rheas)
3045:Ringing
2870:Hybrids
2865:Nesting
2820:Singing
2797:Plumage
2772:Dactyly
2742:Anatomy
2732:Outline
2722:: Aves)
2654:coverts
2420:4087726
1857:Science
1469:9716511
1347:Bibcode
1200:Plumage
1106:birds.
796:whydahs
654:ratites
572:mallard
547:peafowl
543:tectrix
521:humeral
420:pinions
305:Remiges
290:primary
225:rectrix
64:remiges
58:on the
4676:Samara
4485:triped
4470:uniped
4284:Portal
4160:(owls)
3634:Numida
3572:Leipoa
3455:Chauna
3448:Anhima
3143:Genera
3117:Imping
3035:Human
2875:Colony
2802:Vision
2787:Flight
2501:
2482:
2452:
2434:
2418:
2392:
2374:
2356:
2333:
2311:
2289:
2267:
2224:
2196:
2172:
2064:
2013:
2005:
1965:
1917:
1883:
1875:
1815:
1767:
1670:
1643:
1593:
1467:
1399:
1365:
1007:Celeus
964:Young
947:Arctic
904:kākāpō
658:grouse
629:digits
580:alulae
533:covert
496:cranes
492:eagles
401:storks
397:grebes
389:flight
363:thrust
327:calami
275:flight
267:thrust
4719:Birds
4534:Wings
4519:Digit
4475:biped
4437:Limbs
4347:wings
4343:limbs
3404:swans
3366:ducks
3336:fowls
3131:Lists
2755:Brain
2720:class
2716:Birds
2649:alula
2518:(PDF)
2480:S2CID
2416:JSTOR
2011:S2CID
1959:Rails
1881:S2CID
1612:(PDF)
1591:S2CID
1443:(PDF)
1363:S2CID
1211:Notes
1075:Buteo
988:loons
931:moult
910:Moult
723:Male
686:moult
625:claws
609:stall
597:slats
588:alula
570:Male
562:Alula
504:gulls
488:hawks
480:Loons
387:) in
355:manus
103:remex
60:wings
4666:Gait
4557:keel
4355:Fins
4345:and
4339:Fins
2777:Eggs
2765:milk
2760:Crop
2750:Beak
2526:2017
2499:ISBN
2450:ISBN
2432:ISBN
2390:ISBN
2372:ISBN
2354:ISBN
2331:ISBN
2309:ISBN
2287:ISBN
2265:ISBN
2242:link
2222:ISBN
2194:ISBN
2170:ISBN
2062:ISBN
2003:PMID
1963:ISBN
1915:ISBN
1873:PMID
1813:ISBN
1765:ISBN
1668:ISBN
1641:ISBN
1465:PMID
1397:PMID
1069:and
1009:and
847:and
834:and
819:Owls
782:and
762:and
690:body
668:and
605:lift
490:and
456:ulna
403:and
371:drag
292:and
279:owls
271:lift
269:and
2472:doi
2412:106
2408:Auk
1995:doi
1991:213
1865:doi
1861:309
1581:doi
1577:125
1573:Auk
1455:doi
1451:201
1389:doi
1355:doi
1343:245
1053:).
890:emu
869:, (
182:or
4715::
4341:,
2478:,
2468:74
2466:,
2410:,
2406:,
2238:}}
2234:{{
2154:^
2139:^
2112:^
2075:^
2009:,
2001:,
1989:,
1985:,
1879:,
1871:,
1859:,
1620:66
1618:,
1614:,
1589:,
1575:,
1533:^
1518:^
1499:^
1476:^
1463:,
1449:,
1445:,
1395:.
1385:48
1383:.
1361:,
1353:,
1341:,
1094:A
1065:,
838:.
815:.
664:,
502:,
498:,
494:,
486:,
422:.
399:,
213:iː
207:aɪ
172:iː
118:iː
91:iː
88:dʒ
4331:e
4324:t
4317:v
3505:)
3498:-
3494:(
3368:)
3364:(
3338:)
3334:(
3330:e
3328:a
3326:r
3324:e
3322:s
3320:n
3318:a
3316:o
3314:l
3312:l
3310:a
3308:G
3295:e
3293:a
3291:h
3289:t
3287:a
3285:n
3283:g
3281:o
3279:e
3277:N
2718:(
2708:e
2701:t
2694:v
2630:e
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2576:)
2566:)
2556:)
2474::
2244:)
2230:.
1997::
1867::
1676:.
1649:.
1583::
1457::
1403:.
1391::
1357::
1349::
968:(
921:(
727:(
574:(
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258:s
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252:ɪ
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246:t
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234:ˈ
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227:(
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216:z
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201:t
198:ˈ
195:k
192:ɛ
189:r
186:/
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175:z
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154:ɛ
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148:ˈ
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141:(
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