1577:
213:, felids, which usually ambush and grapple with their prey, have shorter and more robust limbs. Their forelimbs are used for both short sprints and grappling, which means that they need to be flexible and durable. In contrast, canids, which often pursue their prey over greater distances, have longer, more gracile limbs. Running is pretty much the only use for their forelimbs, so they do not need to be adapted for anything else and can be less flexible.
27:
216:
Predators hunting prey that is half their body weight or greater evolved shorter and more sturdy radii, ulnas, and humeri to decrease the likelihood of the bone breaking or fracturing while hunting. Predators hunting prey less than half their body weight tended to have longer and more slender
205:
carnivorans that have an arboreal lifestyle tend to have long and slender forelimb long bones, which allow for improved movement and flexibility. Semi-fossorial and aquatic musteloid species tend to have short and robust forelimb long bones to deal with the strain from digging and swimming.
496:. The forelimbs of cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians presents a classic example of convergent evolution. There is widespread convergence at the gene level. Distinct substitutions in common genes created various aquatic adaptations, most of which constitute
317:(front foot) and gradually lost their digits, standing on their metacarpals. The stegosaurian forelimb has evidence for a sauropodâlike metacarpal configuration This was a different evolutionary strategy than megafaunal mammals such as modern elephants.
503:
When comparing cetaceans to pinnipeds to sirenians, 133 parallel amino acid substitutions occur. Comparing and contrasting cetaceans-pinnipeds, cetaceans-sirenians, and pinnipeds-sirenians, 2,351, 7,684, and 2,579 substitutions occur, respectively.
276:. From this condition a new pattern of limb formation evolved, where the development axis of the limb rotated to sprout secondary axes along the lower margin, giving rise to a variable number of very stout skeletal supports for a paddle-like foot.
198:
A number of factors can influence the evolution of forelimb long bone shape, such as body mass, lifestyle, predatory behavior, or relative prey size. A general pattern is for heavier species to have more robust radii, ulnas, and humeri.
234:
were initially understood to have first developed five digits as an ancestral characteristic, which were then reduced or specialized into a number of uses. Certain animals retained 'primitive' forelimbs, such as
479:
Bat wings are composed largely of a thin membrane of skin supported on the five fingers, whereas bird wings are composed largely of feathers supported on much reduced fingers, with finger 2 supporting the
414:
is achieved by a rounded head of the radius, which allows it to swivel across the ulna. Supination requires a dorsal glide of the distal radius and pronation a palmar glide in relation to the distal ulna.
250:
Polydactyly in early tetrapods should be understood as having more than five digits to the finger or foot, a condition that was the natural state of affairs in the very first tetrapods. Early groups like
437:
were not capable of more than semi-pronation of the wrist, though bipedal origins of all quadrupedal dinosaur clades could have allowed for greater disparity in forelimb posture than often considered.
484:
and finger 4 the primary feathers of the wing; there are only distant homologies between birds and bats, with much closer homologies between any pair of bird species, or any pair of bat species.
163:
Specific uses of the forelimbs may be analogous if they evolved from different sub-structures of the forelimb, such as the flippers of turtles and dolphins, and the wings of birds and bats.
441:
have forearms that are not as dexterous as therians. Monotremes have a sprawling posture, and multiple elements in their pectoral girdles, which are ancestral traits for mammals.
190:
Changes in body size, foot posture, habitat, and substrate are frequently found to influence one another (and to connect to broader potential drivers, such as changing climate).
290:
Digits may be specialized for different forms of locomotion. A classic example is the horse's development of a single toe (monodactyly). Other hooves, like those of
492:
Marine mammals have evolved several times. Over the course of their evolution, they develop streamlined hydrodynamic bodies. The forelimb thus develops into a
554:
338:(CMC) may have occurred. In primates, a real differentiation appeared perhaps 70 mya, while the shape of the human thumb CMC finally appears about 5 mya.
1254:
922:
331:
Modern humans are unique in the musculature of the forearm and hand, though opposable thumbs or structures like them have arisen in a few animals.
1478:
1258:
866:
1451:
1834:
698:"Do constraints associated with the locomotor habitat drive the evolution of forelimb shape? A case study in musteloid carnivorans"
472:
evolved the same purpose in drastically different ways. These structures have similar form or function but were not present in the
892:
1839:
1029:
1471:
812:"Phenotypic integration in feliform carnivores: Covariation patterns and disparity in hypercarnivores versus generalists"
1464:
226:
533:
Vertebrate zoology: an introduction to the comparative anatomy, embryology, and evolution of chordate animals
1870:
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473:
285:
1875:
1690:
1526:
518:
401:
1865:
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started evolving diverse and specialized forelimbs 270 million years ago, during the
Permian.
1383:"Convergent evolution of marine mammals is associated with distinct substitutions in common genes"
870:
996:
579:
239:(five-fingered) reptiles and primates. This has mostly held true, but the earliest tetrapod or "
1829:
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of both bats and birds are ultimately homologous, despite the large differences between them.
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One of the paired articulated appendages attached on the cranial end of a vertebrate's torso
1783:
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457:
1192:"Quadrupedal Dinosaurs did not Evolve Fully Pronated Forearms: New Evidence from the Ulna"
8:
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1323:"Hundreds of Genes Experienced Convergent Shifts in Selective Pressure in Marine Mammals"
141:
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Fabre, Anne-Claire; Cornette, Raphael; Goswami, Anjali; Peigné, Stéphane (2015-05-21).
655:
Fabre, Anne-Claire; Cornette, Raphael; Peigné, Stéphane; Goswami, Anjali (2013-05-21).
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555:"Image Gallery: Homo Sapiens. homology: homologies of the forelimb among vertebrates"
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295:
244:
145:
796:
608:"The Evolution of a Single Toe in Horses: Causes, Consequences, and the Way Forward"
452:
All tetrapod forelimbs are homologous, evolving from the same initial structures in
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1350:
1334:
1285:
1203:
1162:
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1055:"Evidence of a false thumb in a fossil carnivore clarifies the evolution of pandas"
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Salesa, Manuel J.; Antón, Mauricio; Peigné, Stéphane; Morales, Jorge (2006-01-10).
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768:
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273:
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In birds, the forearm muscles supinate, pronate, flex and extend the distal wing.
1763:
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957:"Evidence for a Sauropod-Like Metacarpal Configuration in Stegosaurian Dinosaurs"
407:
314:
240:
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243:" ancestors may have had more than five digits. This was notably challenged by
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McHorse, Brianna K.; Biewener, Andrew A.; Pierce, Stephanie E. (2019-09-01).
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Evolution of the forelimb may be characterized by many trends. The number of
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893:"A Photographic Atlas of the Pes from a Hadrosaurine Hadrosaurid Dinosaur"
657:"Influence of body mass on the shape of forelimb in musteloid carnivorans"
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Evolution of chameleon locomotion: or how to become arboreal as a reptile
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because the substitutions in question are not unique to those animals.
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26:
1321:
Chikina, Maria; Robinson, Joseph D.; Clark, Nathan L. (2016-09-01).
997:"Mammals' unique arms started evolving before the dinosaurs existed"
810:
Michaud, Margot; Veron, GĂ©raldine; Fabre, Anne-Claire (2020-11-06).
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433:. However, the more basal condition is to be unable to pronate.
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Pandas have evolved pseudo-opposable thumbs by extension of the
125:, which is a distal portion of the human upper limb between the
1618:
422:
411:
379:
175:, their characteristics, as well as the shape and alignment of
172:
149:
107:
31:
754:
755:
Meachen-Samuels, Julie; Van
Valkenburgh, Blaire (June 2009).
481:
130:
126:
83:
54:
1381:
Zhou, Xuming; Seim, Inge; Gladyshev, Vadim N. (2015-11-09).
757:"Forelimb indicators of prey-size preference in the Felidae"
1814:
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461:
180:
1233:
Fins into limbs evolution, development, and transformation
867:"Stephen Jay Gould "Eight (or Fewer) Little Piggies" 1991"
695:
654:
272:
Tetrapods evolved from animals with fins such as found in
1503:
1487:
465:
1230:
1052:
1125:"Forearm Posture and Mobility in Quadrupedal Dinosaurs"
1019:
456:. However, another distinct process may be identified,
334:
In dinosaurs, a primitive autonomization of the first
156:, the arm of a human, the foreleg of a horse, and the
605:
247:
in his 1991 essay "Eight (Or Fewer) Little
Piggies".
217:
forelimb long bones to improve energetic efficiency.
1320:
1024:(3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
1123:VanBuren, Collin S.; Bonnan, Matthew (2013-09-18).
1380:
809:
1857:
1059:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1122:
530:
302:, may be regarded as similar specializations.
1472:
942:Thunder-Lizards: The Sauropodomorph Dinosaurs
897:PalArch's Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology
864:
19:For anatomical details of the human arm, see
1253:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
921:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
187:, have had major evolutionary implications.
395:
144:from the same structures. For example, the
1479:
1465:
1257:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
935:
378:Opposable with comparatively long thumbs:
1835:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water
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661:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
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298:, and even the hoof-like foot of extinct
257:had eight digits, while the more derived
166:
1271:
938:"Evolution of the titanosaur metacarpus"
121:A forelimb is not to be confused with a
25:
279:
263:had seven digits, the yet-more derived
1858:
1189:
1022:Primate anatomy : an introduction
954:
1460:
1376:
1374:
1118:
1116:
890:
936:ApesteguĂa, SebastiĂĄn (2005-01-01).
601:
599:
574:
572:
612:Integrative and Comparative Biology
326:
34:have varying functions but are all
13:
1371:
1113:
421:has evolved multiple times, among
14:
1887:
1445:
1231:Hall, Brian Keith, 1941- (2007).
596:
569:
1575:
1272:Tobalske, Bret W. (2007-09-15).
1020:Ankel-Simons, Friderun. (2007).
1327:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1314:
1278:Journal of Experimental Biology
1265:
1235:. University of Chicago Press.
1224:
1183:
1046:
1013:
989:
948:
929:
891:Zheng, R. ; Farke (2011).
524:
884:
858:
803:
748:
689:
648:
547:
345:fall into one of four groups:
305:To bear their immense weight,
227:Polydactyly in early tetrapods
220:
1:
1274:"Biomechanics of bird flight"
1196:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
961:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
540:
392:, which is not a true digit.
358:Pseudo-opposable thumbs: all
136:All vertebrate forelimbs are
1150:10.1371/journal.pone.0074842
7:
507:
487:
406:The ability to pronate the
286:Comparative foot morphology
98:is often used instead. In
10:
1892:
1691:Flying and gliding animals
1527:Fin and flipper locomotion
580:"Homologies and analogies"
519:Anatomical terms of motion
402:Anatomical terms of motion
399:
283:
224:
18:
1802:
1741:
1681:
1584:
1573:
1502:
557:. EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
309:, the most derived being
1190:Hutson, Joel D. (2014).
460:, by which the wings of
447:
396:Pronation and supination
193:
140:, meaning that they all
1080:10.1073/pnas.0504899102
535:. Sidgwick and Jackson.
531:de Beer, Gavin (1956).
1830:Terrestrial locomotion
1774:Evolution of cetaceans
1769:Origin of avian flight
1754:Evolution of tetrapods
1209:10.4202/app.00063.2014
584:evolution.berkeley.edu
410:(hand) and forearm in
313:, developed a tubular
167:Evolution of forelimbs
39:
1845:Undulatory locomotion
1794:Homologous structures
1339:10.1093/molbev/msw112
974:10.4202/app.2009.1105
955:Senter, Phil (2010).
761:Journal of Morphology
348:Nonopposable thumbs:
336:carpometacarpal joint
86:. With reference to
29:
1789:Analogous structures
1784:Convergent evolution
474:last common ancestor
458:convergent evolution
280:Digit specialization
1840:Rotating locomotion
1779:Comparative anatomy
1399:2015NatSR...516550Z
1141:2013PLoSO...874842V
1071:2006PNAS..103..379S
865:Stephen Jay Gould.
1871:Vertebrate anatomy
1759:Evolution of birds
1512:Aquatic locomotion
1387:Scientific Reports
1291:10.1242/jeb.000273
773:10.1002/jmor.10712
702:Journal of Anatomy
625:10.1093/icb/icz050
498:parallel evolution
368:Opposable thumbs:
296:odd-toed ungulates
274:lobe-finned fishes
64:) attached on the
40:
1876:Animal morphology
1853:
1852:
1810:Animal locomotion
1749:Evolution of fish
1629:facultative biped
1408:10.1038/srep16550
1284:(18): 3135â3146.
1031:978-0-08-046911-9
828:10.1111/evo.14112
822:(12): 2681â2702.
715:10.1111/joa.12315
674:10.1111/bij.12103
476:of those groups.
370:Old World monkeys
245:Stephen Jay Gould
1883:
1820:Robot locomotion
1594:Limb development
1579:
1552:Lobe-finned fish
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1333:(9): 2182â2192.
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869:. Archived from
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382:(or lesser apes)
327:Opposable thumbs
102:animals with an
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1866:Limbs (anatomy)
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1764:Origin of birds
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1599:Limb morphology
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1522:Fish locomotion
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260:Ichthyostega
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254:Acanthostega
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114:), the term
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47:
43:
41:
1723:Insect wing
1673:Webbed foot
1614:unguligrade
1609:plantigrade
1604:digitigrade
903:(7): 1â12.
561:January 27,
311:titanosaurs
221:Polydactyly
90:, the term
74:terrestrial
72:) end of a
55:articulated
1860:Categories
1651:Cephalopod
1567:Pelvic fin
1537:Dorsal fin
1532:Caudal fin
1006:2019-12-10
944:: 321â345.
877:2015-10-02
589:2019-12-09
541:References
470:pterosaurs
439:Monotremes
427:chameleons
400:See also:
374:great apes
321:Therapsids
300:hadrosaurs
284:See also:
266:Tulerpeton
225:See also:
138:homologous
116:upper limb
88:quadrupeds
80:vertebrate
58:appendages
48:front limb
36:homologous
21:Upper limb
1742:Evolution
1701:Bird wing
1646:Arthropod
1639:quadruped
1417:2045-2322
1347:0737-4038
1300:0022-0949
1249:cite book
1241:928978489
1218:0567-7920
1159:1932-6203
1089:0027-8424
1040:437597677
983:0567-7920
909:1567-2158
852:224824184
836:0014-3820
816:Evolution
781:0362-2525
724:0021-8782
683:0024-4066
634:1540-7063
435:Dinosaurs
419:Pronation
354:marmosets
307:sauropods
292:even-toed
232:Tetrapods
211:Carnivora
203:Musteloid
110:and some
96:front leg
1733:Wingspan
1716:feathers
1711:skeleton
1696:Bat wing
1656:Tetrapod
1542:Fish fin
1435:26549748
1365:27329977
1308:17766290
1177:24058633
1129:PLOS ONE
1107:16387860
844:33085081
797:20732642
789:19123240
742:25994128
642:31127281
514:Hindlimb
508:See also
488:Flippers
431:varanids
372:and all
350:tarsiers
343:Primates
241:fishapod
152:or of a
129:and the
112:primates
77:tetrapod
70:anterior
44:forelimb
1803:Related
1661:dactyly
1547:Flipper
1426:4637874
1395:Bibcode
1356:5854031
1168:3776758
1137:Bibcode
1098:1326154
1067:Bibcode
733:4450962
494:flipper
423:mammals
380:gibbons
364:Cebidae
185:humerus
154:dolphin
146:flipper
142:evolved
123:forearm
104:upright
100:bipedal
92:foreleg
66:cranial
32:mammals
1825:Samara
1634:triped
1619:uniped
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429:, and
183:, and
177:radius
173:digits
150:turtle
108:humans
52:paired
1683:Wings
1668:Digit
1624:biped
1586:Limbs
1496:wings
1492:limbs
848:S2CID
793:S2CID
482:alula
462:birds
448:Wings
408:manus
315:manus
194:Shape
158:wings
148:of a
131:wrist
127:elbow
84:torso
62:limbs
1815:Gait
1706:keel
1504:Fins
1494:and
1488:Fins
1431:PMID
1413:ISSN
1361:PMID
1343:ISSN
1304:PMID
1296:ISSN
1259:link
1255:link
1237:OCLC
1214:ISSN
1173:PMID
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1103:PMID
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1036:OCLC
1026:ISBN
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840:PMID
832:ISSN
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738:PMID
720:ISSN
679:ISSN
638:PMID
630:ISSN
563:2013
466:bats
362:and
352:and
294:and
181:ulna
1421:PMC
1403:doi
1351:PMC
1335:doi
1286:doi
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1075:doi
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