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497: — the apical tuft (or ungual tuberosity/process) which covers a larger portion of the phalanx on the volar side than on the dorsal side. Two lateral ungual spines project proximally from the apical tuft. Near the base of the shaft are two lateral tubercles. Between these a V-shaped ridge extending proximally serves for the insertion of the
489:(asymmetric towards the radial side), an ungual fossa, and a pair of unequal ungual spines (the ulnar being more prominent). This asymmetry is necessary to ensure that the thumb pulp is always facing the pulps of the other digits, an osteological configuration which provides the maximum contact surface with held objects.
476:
proximal. The distal phalanges, as compared with the distal phalanges of the finger, are smaller and are flattened from above downward; each presents a broad base for articulation with the corresponding bone of the second row, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.
423:. The intermediate phalanx is not only intermediate in location, but usually also in size. The thumb and large toe do not possess a middle phalanx. The distal phalanges are the bones at the tips of the fingers or toes. The proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges articulate with one another through
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In the foot, the distal phalanges are flat on their dorsal surface. It is largest proximally and tapers to the distal end. The proximal part of the phalanx presents a broad base for articulation with the middle phalanx, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.
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have the largest. A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species, indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and reduced flexor and extensor tubercles in distal phalanges and broadened distal parts of distal phalanges, coupled with expanded
475:
In the foot, the proximal phalanges have a body that is compressed from side to side, convex above, and concave below. The base is concave, and the head presents a trochlear surface for articulation with the second phalanx. The middle are remarkably small and short, but rather broader than the
751:
In non-human, living primates the apical tufts vary in size, but they are never larger than in humans. Enlarged apical tufts, to the extent they actually reflect expanded digital pulps, may have played a significant role in enhancing friction between the hand and held objects during
Neolithic
484:
In the hand, the distal phalanges are flat on their palmar surface, small, and with a roughened, elevated surface of horseshoe form on the palmar surface, supporting the finger pulp. The flat, wide expansions found at the tips of the distal phalanges are called apical tufts. They support the
901:(hoofed mammals) the forelimb is optimized for speed and endurance by a combination of length of stride and rapid step; the proximal forelimb segments are short with large muscles, while the distal segments are elongated with less musculature. In two of the major groups of ungulates,
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In the distal phalanges of the hand the centres for the bodies appear at the distal extremities of the phalanges, instead of at the middle of the bodies, as in the other phalanges. Moreover, of all the bones of the hand, the distal phalanges are the first to ossify.
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Morphological comparisons of pollical distal phalanges in
African apes, extant humans and selected hominins. Although with several morphological differences, all the features related to refined manipulation in modern humans are already present in the late Miocene
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The morphology of the distal phalanges of human thumbs closely reflects an adaptation for a refined precision grip with pad-to-pad contact. This has traditionally been associated with the advent of stone tool-making. However, the intrinsic hand proportions of
744:, the apical tufts were expanded and more robust than in modern and early upper Paleolithic humans. A proposal that Neanderthal distal phalanges was an adaptation to colder climate (than in Africa) is not supported by a recent comparison showing that in
374:
The phalanges are the bones that make up the fingers of the hand and the toes of the foot. There are 56 phalanges in the human body, with fourteen on each hand and foot. Three phalanges are present on each finger and toe, with the exception of the
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of the bones of the first row present oval, concave articular surfaces, broader from side to side than from front to back. The proximal extremity of each of the bones of the second and third rows presents a double concavity separated by a median
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517:
The number of phalanges in animals is often expressed as a "phalangeal formula" that indicates the numbers of phalanges in digits, beginning from the innermost medial or proximal. For example, humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula for the
924:
spends its life hanging upside-down from branches, and has highly specialized third and fourth digits for the purpose. They have short and squat proximal phalanges with much longer terminal phalanges. They have
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are commonly known as the finger bones. The phalanges of the foot differ from the hand in that they are often shorter and more compressed, especially in the proximal phalanges, those closest to the torso.
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is flat on either side, concave on the palmar surface, and convex on the dorsal surface. Its sides are marked with rough areas giving attachment to fibrous sheaths of flexor tendons. It tapers from above
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to develop this characteristic. The evolutionary process continued over time, and a very derived form of hyperphalangy, with six or more phalanges per digit, evolved convergently in
471:(knuckles) separated by a shallow groove; the articular surface extends farther on the palmar than on the dorsal surface, a condition best marked in the bones of the first row.
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and its associated finger or toe. The proximal phalanges are those that are closest to the hand or foot. In the hand, the prominent, knobby ends of the phalanges are known as
768:
apical pads and developed epidermal ridges. This suggests that widened distal phalanges were developed in arboreal primates, rather than in quadrupedal terrestrial primates.
933:. The arboreal specialization of these terminal phalanges makes it impossible for the sloth to walk on the ground where the animal has to drag its body with its claws.
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1666:"Review and experimental evaluation of the embryonic development and evolutionary history of flipper development and hyperphalangy in dolphins (Cetacea: Mammalia)"
1568:"Review and experimental evaluation of the embryonic development and evolutionary history of flipper development and hyperphalangy in dolphins (Cetacea: Mammalia)"
1477:"Review and experimental evaluation of the embryonic development and evolutionary history of flipper development and hyperphalangy in dolphins (Cetacea: Mammalia)"
680:. In many species, they are the longest and thickest phalanx ("finger" bone). The middle phalanx also has a corresponding place in their limbs, whether they be
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The tufts support the fleshy volar pad (also known as the distal pulp) on the palmar (volar) surface of the finger, as well as the nail on the dorsal surface.
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825:
992:
1708:
Gough-Palmer, Antony L.; Maclachlan, Jody; Routh, Andrew (March 2008). "Paws for
Thought: Comparative Radiologic Anatomy of the Mammalian Forelimb".
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733:(as found in ancestral species) — in contrast to the derived elongated hand pattern and poorly developed thumb musculature of other extant
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1544:
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917:, the largest even-toed ungulate, has large terminal phalanges and fused metacarpal bones able to absorb the stress from running.
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Hamrick, MW (Jun 1998). "Functional and adaptive significance of primate pads and claws: evidence from New World anthropoids".
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usually had the formula 2-3-4-4-5, and this pattern, with some modification, remained in many later reptiles and in the
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The distal phalanges are cone-shaped in most mammals, including most primates, but relatively wide and flat in humans.
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1400:"Early Origin for Human-Like Precision Grasping: A Comparative Study of Pollical Distal Phalanges in Fossil Hominins"
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Mittra, ES; Smith, HF; Lemelin, P; Jungers, WL (Dec 2007). "Comparative morphometrics of the primate apical tuft".
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The Netter
Collection of Medical Illustrations: Musculoskeletal System, Volume 6, Part II - Spine and Lower Limb
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Cooper, Lisa; Sears, Karen; Armfield, Brooke; Kala, Bhavneet; Hubler, Merla; Thewissen, J G M (2017-10-01).
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Cooper, Lisa; Sears, Karen; Armfield, Brooke; Kala, Bhavneet; Hubler, Merla; Thewissen, J G M (2017-10-01).
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and phalangeal bones — are elongated to the extent that they serve little use beyond locomotion. The
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1156:. Illustrations by Richard Mitchell and Paul Richardson. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone.
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White, Tim; Black, Michael; Folkens, Pieter (2011). "13 - Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and
Phalanges".
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Whales exhibit hyperphalangy. Hyperphalangy is an increase in the number of phalanges beyond the
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in which soldiers stand side by side, several rows deep, like an arrangement of fingers or toes.
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In vertebrates, proximal phalanges have a similar placement in the corresponding limbs, be they
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Moulton, Lawrence
Stephen; Prasad, Seema; Lamb, Robert G.; Sirikonda, Siva P. (December 2012).
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and style of locomotion appear to play a role in apical tuft size. Suspensory primates and
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1076:"How many joints does the 5th toe have? A review of 606 patients of 655 foot radiographs"
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Almécija, Sergio; Moyà-Solà, Salvador; Alba, David M.; Strait, David S. (22 July 2010).
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Thumb and index finger of right hand during pad-to-pad precision grasping in ulnar view.
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mammal condition of three phalanges-per-digit. Hyperphalangy was present among extinct
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fingertip pads and nails. The phalanx of the thumb has a pronounced insertion for the
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26:"Phalange" redirects here. For the Spanish or general political movement, see
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Comparison of the phalanges of an orangutan, dog, pig, cow, tapir and horse
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10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199806)106:2<113::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-R
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fifth toes are often fused together (symphalangism). The phalanges of the
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Radiographic Positioning and Procedures - 3-Volume Set
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Movement of the three finger phalanges; Distal, middle and proximal
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second and fifth metacarpals, and their palm extends to the distal
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People vary; sometimes the smallest toe also has none (not shown).
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have the smallest apical tufts, while terrestrial quadrupeds and
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and the resemblance between human hands and the short hands of
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1369:. Center for Academic Research & Training in Anthropogeny
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Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W. M. (2005).
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289:, the thumbs and big toes have two phalanges while the other
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796:-- but not other marine mammals, leaving whales as the only
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The phalanx ends in a crescent-shaped rough cap of bone
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1609:"Perspectives on hyperphalangy: patterns and processes"
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harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShrewsburyJohnson1975 (
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Palastanga, Nigel; Field, Derek; Soames, Roger (2013).
661:, for example, the phalangeal formula is 0/2/7/7/3; in
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Rollins, Jeannean; Long, Bruce; Curtis, Tammy (2022).
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apes, suggest that human hand proportions are largely
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including humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula in both the
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Digital bone in the hands and feet of most vertebrates
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are smaller than the proximal, and each ends in two
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Each phalanx consists of a central part, called the
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Textbook of
Anatomy Upper Limb and Thorax; Volume 1
293:have three phalanges. The phalanges are classed as
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
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1271:Anatomy and Human Movement: Structure and Function
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909:ungulates, what remain of the "hands" — the
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395:A phalanx is named according to whether it is
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589:and these in primates are referred to as the
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1045:"Evaluation and management of toe fractures"
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609:The term phalanx or phalanges refers to an
30:. For the Lebanese political movement, see
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1298:Iannotti, Joseph; Parker, Richard (2013).
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1043:Hatch, RL; Hacking, S (15 December 2003).
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1248:. Arcturus Publishing. pp. 192–193.
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
64:, without removing the technical details.
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505:. The flexor insertion is sided by two
407:. The proximal phalanges join with the
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1483:, doi: 10.1002/dvg.23076. October 2017
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62:make it understandable to non-experts
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1607:Fedak, Tim J; Hall, Brian K (2004).
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986:Joints of the hand in an X-ray image
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974:Unilateral extra phalangeal crease
429:interphalangeal joints of the foot
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645:. The phalangeal formula in the
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309:The phalanges in a human hand
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1049:American Family Physician
755:Among non-human primates
421:metatarsophalangeal joint
417:metacarpophalangeal joint
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577:The distal phalanges of
167:Anatomical terms of bone
21:Phalanx (disambiguation)
1208:Singh, Vishram (2014).
443:, and two extremities.
1888:inferior nasal conchae
1080:Foot and Ankle Surgery
1010:anatomical terminology
931:interphalangeal joints
878:Terminal phalanx of a
843:Distal phalanges of a
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1334:Gray, Henry (1918).
1242:Gray, Henry (2008).
866:Three-fingered sloth
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600:History of phalanges
457:proximal extremities
19:For other uses, see
2303:accessory navicular
1416:2010PLoSO...511727A
657:in the digits). In
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137:metatarsophalangeal
133:Metacarpophalangeal
2877:Vertebrate anatomy
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1613:Journal of Anatomy
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1008:This article uses
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1187:. p. 147.
1183:(15 ed.).
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1124:Human Osteology
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1740:External links
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1304:(2 ed.).
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1216:. p. 32.
1212:(2 ed.).
1200:
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1127:(3 ed.).
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1710:RadioGraphics
1704:
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1676:(1): e23076.
1675:
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1578:(1): e23076.
1577:
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1539:(2): 113–27.
1538:
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1511:
1507:
1504:(4): 449–59.
1503:
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1459:, p. 784
1458:
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1410:(7): e11727.
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845:Masai giraffe
839:
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827:
822:
821:
812:Other mammals
809:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
778:plesiomorphic
769:
766:
762:
758:
753:
749:
747:
743:
738:
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732:
731:plesiomorphic
728:
724:
723:australopiths
715:
709:
700:
697:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
666:
664:
660:
656:
655:phalanx bones
652:
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624:
617:Other animals
614:
612:
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595:
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584:
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571:
561:
552:
548:
545:This section
543:
540:
536:
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470:
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406:
402:
399:, middle, or
398:
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330:
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316:
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288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
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263:
231:
221:
186:
174:
168:
164:
161:
160:pl. phalanges
156:
154:
150:
145:
142:
138:
134:
131:
129:Articulations
127:
122:
115:
110:
103:
98:
93:
84:
81:
73:
63:
59:
53:
50:This article
48:
39:
38:
33:
29:
22:
2842:intermediate
2828:
2731:Carpal bones
2705:near wrist (
2696:radial notch
2682:near elbow (
2654:near wrist (
2643:near elbow (
2603:
2589:
2575:
2559:
2543:
2524:
2510:
2504:
2473:
2453:supraglenoid
2449:infraglenoid
2444:
2425:
2407:
2286:intermediate
2275:
2031:Appendicular
1812:Neurocranium
1713:
1709:
1673:
1669:
1659:
1616:
1612:
1602:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1501:
1497:
1481:ResearchGate
1480:
1471:
1452:
1407:
1403:
1378:
1371:. Retrieved
1337:
1300:
1293:
1270:
1264:
1244:
1209:
1203:
1179:
1172:
1153:
1147:
1123:
1116:
1083:
1079:
1069:
1052:
1048:
919:
896:
885:ground sloth
879:
786:ichthyosaurs
775:
757:phylogenesis
754:
752:toolmaking.
750:
742:Neanderthals
739:
719:
698:
667:
663:pilot whales
637:. Primitive
620:
608:
590:
576:
558:January 2014
555:
551:adding to it
546:
524:
516:
491:
483:
474:
464:
456:
448:
440:
438:
435:Bone anatomy
394:
373:
335:
229:
184:
182:
157:
95:Phalanx bone
76:
70:January 2014
67:
51:
2656:ulnar notch
2576:epicondyles
2412:subscapular
2271:metatarsals
2137:metacarpals
2107:lunate bone
1373:January 28,
790:plesiosaurs
513:Development
503:aponeurosis
413:metatarsals
409:metacarpals
368:of the foot
358:of the foot
348:of the foot
283:vertebrates
147:Identifiers
2872:Long bones
2866:Categories
2749:triquetral
2684:tuberosity
2649:tuberosity
2515:anatomical
2111:triquetral
1028:References
962:Phalanges.
950:Phalanges.
911:metacarpal
621:Most land
452:downwards.
385:fourth and
295:long bones
32:Phalangism
2829:Phalanges
2764:trapezoid
2759:trapezium
2688:olecranon
2616:olecranon
2566:capitulum
2525:tubercles
2445:tubercles
2298:accessory
2276:phalanges
2259:cuneiform
2254:navicular
2249:anklebone
2142:phalanges
2123:trapezoid
2119:trapezium
1990:vertebrae
1878:zygomatic
1820:occipital
1633:0021-8782
1100:1460-9584
927:vestigial
907:even-toed
899:ungulates
794:mosasaurs
772:Cetaceans
735:hominoids
651:cetaceans
605:Etymology
594:phalanges
579:ungulates
495:epiphysis
301:Structure
185:phalanges
28:Falangism
2837:proximal
2769:capitate
2754:pisiform
2739:scaphoid
2612:coronoid
2571:trochlea
2519:surgical
2482:inferior
2478:superior
2464:acromion
2367:clavicle
2281:proximal
2244:heelbone
2127:capitate
2115:pisiform
2103:scaphoid
2048:clavicle
2040:Shoulder
2000:thoracic
1995:cervical
1965:rib cage
1921:ossicles
1898:mandible
1883:palatine
1873:lacrimal
1840:sphenoid
1835:temporal
1825:parietal
1730:18349453
1692:29068152
1651:15032905
1594:29068152
1518:17657781
1444:20661444
1404:PLOS ONE
1108:23093121
1061:14705761
1004:See also
903:odd-toed
746:hominins
703:Primates
647:flippers
639:reptiles
530:Function
469:condyles
405:knuckles
397:proximal
287:primates
281:of most
2779:hamulus
2627:Forearm
2594:lateral
2580:lateral
2529:greater
2497:Humerus
2486:lateral
2426:notches
2400:Scapula
2353:of the
2239:tarsals
2206:patella
2178:ischium
2099:carpals
2071:humerus
2053:scapula
1960:sternum
1926:malleus
1868:maxilla
1845:ethmoid
1830:frontal
1784:in the
1670:Genesis
1642:1571266
1572:Genesis
1553:9637179
1435:2908684
1412:Bibcode
915:giraffe
727:Miocene
714:Orrorin
623:mammals
381:big toe
273:in the
268:digital
230:phalanx
158:phalanx
124:Details
56:Please
2847:distal
2774:hamate
2744:lunate
2636:Radius
2608:radial
2604:fossae
2598:medial
2584:medial
2533:lesser
2474:angles
2408:fossae
2291:distal
2264:cuboid
2211:fibula
2165:Pelvis
2131:hamate
2081:radius
2017:coccyx
2012:sacrum
2005:lumbar
1952:Thorax
1936:stapes
1728:
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2511:necks
2351:Bones
2216:tibia
2201:femur
2183:pubis
2173:ilium
1931:incus
1903:hyoid
1893:vomer
1863:nasal
1803:Skull
1782:Bones
1185:Mosby
922:sloth
627:hands
587:claws
583:nails
377:thumb
285:. In
275:hands
271:bones
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629:(or
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2150:int
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1970:rib
1913:Ear
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