402:. Flight is the most costly type of locomotion exemplified in the natural world. The energy expenditure required for flight increases proportionally with body size, which is often why flightlessness coincides with body mass. By reducing large pectoral muscles that require a significant amount of overall metabolic energy, ratites decrease their basal metabolic rate and conserve energy. A study looking at the basal rates of birds found a significant correlation between low basal rate and pectoral muscle mass in kiwis. On the contrary, flightless penguins exhibit an intermediate basal rate. This is likely because penguins have well-developed pectoral muscles for hunting and diving in the water. For ground-feeding birds, a cursorial lifestyle is more economical and allows for easier access to dietary requirements. Flying birds have different wing and feather structures that make flying easier, while flightless birds' wing structures are well adapted to their environment and activities, such as diving in the ocean.
556:
455:. Ratites and tinamous are monogamous and mate only a limited number of times per year. High parental involvement denotes the necessity for choosing a reliable mate. In a climatically stable habitat providing year-round food supply, a male's claimed territory signals to females the abundance of resources readily available to her and her offspring. Male size also indicates his protective abilities. Similar to the emperor penguin, male ratites incubate and protect their offspring anywhere between 85 and 92 days while females feed. They can go up to a week without eating and survive only off fat stores. The emu has been documented fasting for as long as 56 days. If no continued pressures warrant the energy expenditure to maintain the structures of flight, selection will tend towards these other traits.
351:. Incongruences between ratite phylogeny and Gondwana geological history indicate the presence of ratites in their current locations is the result of a secondary invasion by flying birds. It remains possible that the most recent common ancestor of ratites was flightless and the tinamou regained the ability to fly. However, it is believed that the loss of flight is an easier transition for birds than the loss and regain of flight, which has never been documented in avian history. Moreover, tinamou nesting within flightless ratites indicates ancestral ratites were volant and multiple losses of flight occurred independently throughout the lineage. This indicates that the distinctive flightless nature of ratites is the result of convergent evolution.
58:
2323:
94:
2121:
38:
566:
2476:
1178:
2052:
74:
1499:
1509:
1429:
382:. Their flat sternum is distinct from the typical sternum of flighted birds because it lacks a keel, like a raft. This structure is the place where flight muscles attach and thus allow for powered flight. However, ratite anatomy presents other primitive characters meant for flight, such as the fusion of wing elements, a cerebellar structure, the presence of a
405:
Species with certain characteristics are more likely to evolve flightlessness. For example, species that already have shorter wings are more likely to lose flight ability. Some species will evolve flatter wings so that they move more efficiently underwater at the cost of their flight. Additionally,
445:
for flight was largely absent, the wing structure has not been lost except in the New
Zealand moas. Ostriches are the fastest running birds in the world and emus have been documented running 50 km/h. At these high speeds, wings are necessary for balance and serving as a parachute apparatus to
231:(all extinct) all evolved similar body shapes – long legs, long necks and big heads – but none of them were closely related. Furthermore, they also share traits of being giant, flightless birds with vestigial wings, long legs, and long necks with some of the ratites, although they are not related.
252:
and large vertebrates 66 million years ago. The immediate evacuation of niches following the mass extinction provided opportunities for
Palaeognathes to distribute and occupy novel environments. New ecological influences selectively pressured different taxa to converge on flightless modes of
450:
in early ancestral ratites and were thus maintained. This can be seen today in both the rheas and ostriches. These ratites utilize their wings extensively for courtship and displays to other males. Sexual selection also influences the maintenance of large body size, which discourages flight. The
394:
and were free to increase in abundance until the population was limited by food and territory. A study looking at energy conservation and the evolution of flightlessness hypothesized intraspecific competition selected for a reduced individual energy expenditure, which is achieved by the loss of
294:
arrival or because of competitive exclusion. The first flightless bird to arrive in each environment utilized the large flightless herbivore or omnivore niche, forcing the later arrivals to remain smaller. In environments where flightless birds are not present, it is possible that after the K/T
257:
in
Tertiary ancestors of ratites. Temperate rainforests dried out throughout the Miocene and transformed into semiarid deserts, causing habitats to be widely spread across the growingly disparate landmasses. Cursoriality was an economic means of traveling long distances to acquire food that was
2698:
Harshman, J.; Braun, E. L.; Braun, M. J.; Huddleston, C. J.; Bowie, R. C.; Chojnowski, J. L.; Hackett, S. J.; Han, K. L.; Kimball, R. T.; Marks, B. D.; Miglia, K. J.; Moore, W. S.; Reddy, S.; Sheldon, F. H.; Steadman, D. W.; Steppan, S. J.; Witt, C. C.; Yuri, T. (2 September 2008).
3163:
Harshman, J.; Braun, E. L.; Braun, M. J.; Huddleston, C. J.; Bowie, R. C.; Chojnowski, J. L.; Hackett, S. J.; Han, K. L.; Kimball, R. T.; Marks, B. D.; Miglia, K. J.; Moore, W. S.; Reddy, S.; Sheldon, F. H.; Steadman, D. W.; Steppan, S. J.; Witt, C. C.; Yuri, T. (2008).
433:. All of these birds show adaptations common to flightlessness, and evolved recently from fully flighted ancestors, but have not yet completely given up the ability to fly. They are, however, weak fliers and are incapable of traveling long distances by air.
280:. However, later evidence suggests this hypothesis first proposed by Joel Cracraft in 1974 is incorrect. Rather ratites arrived in their respective locations via a flighted ancestor and lost the ability to fly multiple times within the lineage.
325:) than any other such location. One reason is that until the arrival of humans roughly a thousand years ago, there were no large mammalian land predators in New Zealand; the main predators of flightless birds were larger birds.
2944:
Mitchell, K. J.; Llamas, B.; Soubrier, J.; Rawlence, N. J.; Worthy, T. H.; Wood, J.; Lee, M. S.; Cooper, A. (2014). "Ancient DNA reveals elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird evolution".
347:, and are believed to have evolved flightlessness independently multiple times within their own group. Some birds evolved flightlessness in response to the absence of predators, for example on
366:
Adapting to a cursorial lifestyle causes two inverse morphological changes to occur in the skeleto-muscular system: the pectoral apparatus used to power flight is paedorphically reduced while
462:, wings structure is maintained for use in locomotion underwater. Penguins evolved their wing structure to become more efficient underwater at the cost of their efficiency in the air.
105:'s only mammals were bats and seals, resulting in many bird species evolving to fill the open niches. While many of New Zealand's flightless birds are now extinct, some, such as the
203:
Flightlessness has evolved in many different birds independently, demonstrating repeated convergent evolution. There were families of flightless birds, such as the now-extinct
258:
usually low-lying vegetation, more easily accessed by walking. Traces of these events are reflected in ratite distribution throughout semiarid grasslands and deserts today.
497:(no more than 11,000 years ago). Extinct species are indicated with a cross (†). A number of species suspected, but not confirmed to be flightless, are also included here.
3089:
3771:
Huynen, Leon; Suzuki, Takayuki; Ogura, Toshihiko; Watanabe, Yusuke; Millar, Craig D; Hofreiter, Michael; Smith, Craig; Mirmoeini, Sara; Lambert, David M (December 2014).
272:
predators and competition. However, ratites occupy environments that are mostly occupied by a diverse number of mammals. It is thought that they first originated through
3267:
Nudds, R. L.; Davidson, J. Slove (2010). "A shortening of the manus precedes the attenuation of other wing-bone elements in the evolution of flightlessness in birds".
406:
birds that undergo simultaneous wing molt, in which they replace all of the feathers in their wings at once during the year, are more likely to evolve flight loss.
2008:
1836:
253:
existence by altering them morphologically and behaviorally. The successful acquisition and protection of a claimed territory selected for large size and
322:
169:(length 12.5 cm, weight 34.7 g). The largest (both heaviest and tallest) flightless bird, which is also the largest living bird in general, is the
1796:
2018:
1806:
3116:"Multiple nuclear genes and retroposons support vicariance and dispersal of the palaeognaths, and an Early Cretaceous origin of modern birds"
555:
359:
Two key differences between flying and flightless birds are the smaller wing bones of flightless birds and the absent (or greatly reduced)
3917:
2602:
374:
across ratites suggests these adaptions comprise a more efficient use of energy in adulthood. The name "ratite" comes from the Latin
245:
390:
on the wing. These morphological traits suggest some affinities to volant groups. Palaeognathes were one of the first colonizers of
2759:
3839:
Diamond, Jared (July 1991). "A New
Species of Rail from the Solomon Islands and Convergent Evolution of Insular Flightlessness".
290:, even though they coexisted with the moa and rheas that both exhibit gigantism. This could be the result of different ancestral
3372:
Cubo, Jorge; Arthur, Wallace (2000). "Patterns of correlated character evolution in flightless birds: A phylogenetic approach".
3093:
3712:
Elliott, Kyle H.; Ricklefs, Robert E.; Gaston, Anthony J.; Hatch, Scott A.; Speakman, John R.; Davoren, Gail K. (4 June 2013).
3679:
Ksepka, Daniel T.; Ando, Tatsuro (2011). "Penguins Past, Present, and Future: Trends in the
Evolution of the Sphenisciformes".
3484:
McCall, Robert A.; Nee, Sean; Harvey, Paul H. (July 1998). "The role of wing length in the evolution of avian flightlessness".
3696:
2923:
2612:
2834:"Tinamous and moa flock together: Mitochondrial genome sequence analysis reveals independent losses of flight among ratites"
409:
A number of bird species appear to be in the process of losing their powers of flight to various extents. These include the
3425:
Elliott, Kyle H.; Ricklefs, Robert E.; Gaston, Anthony J.; Hatch, Scott A.; Speakman, John R.; Davoren, Gail K. (2013).
3294:
3652:
Handford, Paul; Mares, Michael A. (1985). "The mating systems of ratites and tinamous: An evolutionary perspective".
3636:
3714:"High flight costs, but low dive costs, in auks support the biomechanical hypothesis for flightlessness in penguins"
3576:
Terrill, Ryan S. (2020-12-01). "Simultaneous Wing Molt as a
Catalyst for the Evolution of Flightlessness in Birds".
3427:"High flight costs, but low dive costs, in auks support the biomechanical hypothesis for flightlessness in penguins"
398:
Some flightless varieties of island birds are closely related to flying varieties, implying flight is a significant
976:
17:
200:; the birds were bred to grow massive breast meat that weighs too much for the bird's wings to support in flight.
3773:"Reconstruction and in vivo analysis of the extinct tbx5 gene from ancient wingless moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes)"
57:
2515:
1315:
465:
The only known species of flightless bird in which wings completely disappeared was the gigantic, herbivorous
2276:
2267:
296:
193:
2906:
Palombo, Maria Rita; Moncunill-Solé, Blanca (2023). "Dwarfing and gigantism in quaternary vertebrates".
2322:
3874:
Hunter, Laurie A. (November 1988). "Status of the
Endemic Atitlan Grebe of Guatemala: Is It Extinct?".
1699:
1390:
341:
3015:"Genomic support for a moa-tinamou clade and adaptive morphological convergence in flightless ratites"
3938:
31:
3394:
2372:
1737:
166:
3628:
958:
569:
3389:
1727:
1517:
1459:
790:
780:
732:
1904:
1337:
2536:
2352:
2258:
1642:
1479:
1295:
1285:
1259:
594:
585:
3620:
3326:
McNab, Brian K. (1994). "Energy
Conservation and the Evolution of Flightlessness in Birds".
3784:
3725:
3493:
3438:
3381:
3177:
2954:
2712:
2641:
2333:
2326:
1951:
1250:
1208:
452:
207:, that evolved to be powerful terrestrial predators. Taking this to a greater extreme, the
192:, respectively, are capable of extended flight. A few particularly bred birds, such as the
184:, have lost the ability to fly for extended periods, although their ancestral species, the
2881:
1816:
8:
2552:
2436:
2221:
2176:
1998:
1960:
1708:
1576:
1449:
1356:
1268:
1147:
986:
967:
938:
929:
920:
713:
691:
643:
501:
360:
3788:
3729:
3621:
3497:
3442:
3385:
3181:
2958:
2716:
2645:
93:
3891:
3856:
3807:
3772:
3748:
3713:
3665:
3601:
3509:
3461:
3426:
3407:
3351:
3343:
3200:
3165:
3140:
3115:
3075:
2988:
2915:
2735:
2700:
2677:
2664:
2629:
2527:
2185:
1894:
1766:
1547:
1402:
1226:
949:
761:
752:
442:
286:
is not a requirement for flightlessness. The kiwi do not exhibit gigantism, along with
197:
89:
are the largest extant flightless birds as well as the largest extant birds in general.
565:
3812:
3753:
3692:
3632:
3605:
3593:
3558:
3550:
3466:
3280:
3249:
3205:
3145:
3036:
2992:
2980:
2919:
2855:
2803:
2740:
2681:
2669:
2608:
2456:
2240:
2203:
2158:
1746:
1586:
1469:
1366:
1305:
872:
525:
371:
264:
and flightlessness in birds are almost exclusively correlated due to islands lacking
224:
3513:
3355:
2149:
3883:
3848:
3802:
3792:
3743:
3733:
3684:
3661:
3585:
3540:
3501:
3456:
3446:
3399:
3335:
3276:
3239:
3195:
3185:
3135:
3127:
3071:
3026:
2970:
2962:
2911:
2845:
2793:
2730:
2720:
2659:
2649:
2630:"Anthropogenic extinctions conceal widespread evolution of flightlessness in birds"
2294:
2194:
2120:
2044:
1979:
1826:
1652:
1604:
1235:
1198:
1188:
840:
830:
820:
772:
548:
447:
261:
177:
3411:
2628:
Sayol, F.; Steinbauer, M. J.; Blackburn, T. M.; Antonelli, A.; Faurby, S. (2020).
2081:
37:
3912:
2505:
2303:
2230:
2212:
2131:
2124:
2113:
2093:
1941:
1856:
1756:
1557:
1382:
741:
723:
681:
612:
478:
474:
399:
391:
249:
1717:
493:; this list shows species that are either still extant or became extinct in the
244:
Divergences and losses of flight within ratite lineage occurred right after the
3170:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2705:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2468:
2428:
2344:
2249:
2167:
2072:
1932:
1923:
1690:
1537:
1349:
1137:
912:
655:
624:
576:
559:
529:
509:
505:
348:
228:
204:
185:
170:
77:
3688:
3505:
3403:
2486:
2479:
2063:
370:
leads to enlargement of the pelvic girdle for running. Repeated selection for
295:
Boundary there were no niches for them to fill. They were pushed out by other
110:
3932:
3829:
Roots, Clive. Flightless Birds. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006. 136-37. Print.
3554:
3298:
3059:
2497:
2448:
2396:
2362:
2285:
1865:
1786:
1421:
1327:
1245:
1217:
1181:
701:
633:
603:
540:
533:
513:
367:
337:
212:
181:
3797:
3738:
3451:
3244:
3227:
3190:
3031:
3014:
2966:
2850:
2833:
2798:
2781:
2725:
2475:
3816:
3757:
3597:
3562:
3470:
3253:
3209:
3149:
3131:
3040:
2984:
2859:
2807:
2744:
2673:
2654:
2416:
2388:
2140:
1875:
1846:
1681:
1671:
1622:
1595:
1410:
1159:
1061:
1052:
1043:
1034:
1025:
1016:
997:
521:
418:
363:
on their breastbone. (The keel anchors muscles needed for wing movement.)
328:
220:
208:
62:
41:
1776:
1664:
1632:
1119:
1099:
1090:
1081:
1072:
900:
850:
810:
473:, hunted to extinction by humans by the 15th century. In moa, the entire
470:
446:
help the bird slow down. Wings are hypothesized to have played a role in
426:
410:
306:
302:
291:
158:
154:
134:
106:
102:
3895:
3860:
3545:
3528:
3347:
2545:
2406:
2343:
2315:
1989:
1969:
1491:
1177:
1127:
1112:
1008:
860:
490:
273:
2975:
3166:"Phylogenomic evidence for multiple losses of flight in ratite birds"
2701:"Phylogenomic evidence for multiple losses of flight in ratite birds"
2577:
2101:
2055:
2051:
1613:
890:
880:
517:
383:
283:
254:
216:
150:
130:
3887:
3852:
1914:
314:
118:
73:
3589:
3339:
3013:
Baker, A. J.; Haddrath, O.; McPherson, J. D.; Cloutier, A. (2014).
2028:
1527:
1279:
1167:
800:
494:
277:
451:
large size of ratites leads to greater access to mates and higher
436:
2627:
1887:
500:
Longer-extinct groups of flightless birds include the Cretaceous
459:
344:
310:
287:
269:
189:
162:
142:
138:
86:
50:
354:
430:
333:
265:
3228:"Ratite nonmonophyly: Independent evidence from 40 novel Loci"
3012:
2943:
2832:
Phillips, M. J.; Gibb, G. C.; Crimp, E. A.; Penny, D. (2010).
2782:"Ratite nonmonophyly: Independent evidence from 40 novel Loci"
2314:
1498:
1508:
422:
387:
137:. There are over 60 extant species, including the well-known
126:
3162:
2908:
Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences
2697:
1567:
1502:
1439:
1432:
414:
379:
318:
114:
3711:
3424:
2092:
3770:
2427:
1428:
672:
663:
466:
146:
98:
2447:
1490:
654:
329:
Independent evolution of flightlessness in Palaeognathes
3062:(2008). "Phylogeny and Evolution of the Ratite Birds".
871:
30:"Flightless" redirects here. For the record label, see
2831:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2817:
1347:
California flightless sea-duck or Law's diving goose,
2905:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3221:
3219:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3008:
3006:
3004:
3002:
2939:
2937:
2935:
1381:
305:
had more species of flightless birds (including the
3226:Smith, J. V.; Braun, E. L.; Kimball, R. T. (2013).
2875:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2814:
2780:Smith, J. V.; Braun, E. L.; Kimball, R. T. (2013).
2760:"Bird evolutionary tree given a shake by DNA study"
276:speciation caused by breakup of the supercontinent
2549:tapaculos (possibly flightless, never seen flying)
3913:TerraNature pages on New Zealand flightless birds
3312:
3225:
3216:
3047:
2999:
2932:
2779:
2496:
1420:
3930:
3529:"Ecomorphological variation of the penguin wing"
2866:
196:, have become totally flightless as a result of
3718:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3483:
3431:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3367:
3365:
2882:"On ratites and their interactions with plants"
1416:(possibly flightless, has not been seen flying)
1401:
547:
437:Continued presence of wings in flightless birds
3924:Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
3651:
3266:
3113:
2112:
355:Morphological changes and energy conservation
53:are a well-known example of flightless birds.
3362:
2043:
239:
2607:. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. XIV.
2467:
1158:
771:
484:
3678:
3371:
1334:† (possibly flightless or very weak flier)
539:
3806:
3796:
3747:
3737:
3654:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
3544:
3460:
3450:
3393:
3243:
3199:
3189:
3139:
3030:
2974:
2849:
2797:
2734:
2724:
2663:
2653:
2594:
1118:
677:Dromaius novaehollandiae novaehollandiae
3058:
2600:
2474:
2321:
2119:
2050:
1507:
1497:
1427:
1176:
911:
564:
554:
92:
72:
56:
36:
3838:
3575:
14:
3931:
3873:
2757:
2387:
532:(mihirungs or "demon ducks"), and the
165:. The smallest flightless bird is the
3618:
3526:
3325:
2879:
2347:(pelicans, herons, ibises and allies)
1976:(adults only; immature birds can fly)
1007:
176:Many domesticated birds, such as the
3627:. Westport, CT: Greenwood. pp.
2775:
2773:
2693:
2691:
706:Dromaius novaehollandiae diemenensis
696:Dromaius novaehollandiae baudinianus
3287:
3114:Haddrath, O.; Baker, A. J. (2012).
2889:Revista Chilena de Historia Natural
1891:crakes from various Pacific islands
24:
3666:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb00387.x
3527:Haidr, Nadia Soledad (June 2023).
3076:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1974.tb07648.x
2916:10.1016/B978-0-323-99931-1.00012-X
1668:rails from various Pacific islands
25:
3950:
3906:
3295:"The Bird Site: Flightless Birds"
2770:
2688:
481:, which is the size of a finger.
121:have survived to the present day.
3281:10.1111/j.1463-6395.2009.00391.x
3120:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
2578:"New Zealand Ecology – Moa"
2534:South Island stout-legged wren,
2525:North Island stout-legged wren,
2318:(boobies, cormorants and allies)
987:South Island little spotted kiwi
977:North Island little spotted kiwi
3867:
3832:
3823:
3764:
3705:
3672:
3645:
3612:
3569:
3520:
3477:
3418:
3260:
3156:
3107:
3090:"New Zealand's Icon:Flightless"
3082:
3019:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1713:Dryolimnas (cuvieri) aldabranus
101:. Until the arrival of humans,
2899:
2751:
2621:
2570:
1316:Maui Nui large-billed moa-nalo
1128:New Caledonian giant scrubfowl
746:Casuarius bennetti westermanni
686:Dromaius novaehollandiae minor
13:
1:
2563:
1709:Aldabra (white-throated) rail
1111:
512:("terror birds") and related
323:several other extinct species
2520:Dendroscansor decurvirostris
2403:spp. † (possibly flightless)
7:
2277:Southern rockhopper penguin
2268:Northern rockhopper penguin
943:Apteryx australis australis
881:Hildebrandt's elephant bird
737:Casuarius bennetti bennetti
194:Broad Breasted White turkey
10:
3955:
2758:Holmes, Bob (2008-06-26).
2373:Hawaiian flightless ibises
1700:New Guinea flightless rail
1629:(flightless, or almost so)
1494:(cranes, rails, and coots)
1395:Aegotheles novaezealandiae
1391:New Zealand owlet-nightjar
766:Casuarius unappendiculatus
608:Struthio camelus massaicus
599:Struthio camelus australis
489:Many flightless birds are
386:for tail feathers, and an
234:
29:
3689:10.1002/9781119990475.ch6
2088:† (reportedly flightless)
1647:Gallirallus dieffenbachii
1581:Gallirallus lafresnayanus
1562:Nesoclopeus poecilopterus
1474:Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos
1104:Rhea pennata tarapacensis
1066:Rhea americana araneipes
1039:Rhea americana intermedia
617:Struthio camelus syriacus
378:, raft, a vessel with no
336:belong to the superorder
240:Origins of flightlessness
211:(and their relatives the
69:), also known as the rowi
32:Flightless (record label)
3777:BMC Evolutionary Biology
2023:Nesotrochis picapicensis
1738:Inaccessible Island rail
1600:Gallirallus calayanensis
1554:(most likely flightless)
1320:Thambetochen chauliodous
1290:Chelychelynechen quassus
1142:Megavitornis altirostris
1132:Sylviornis neocaledoniae
1048:Rhea americana albescens
1030:Rhea americana americana
934:Apteryx australis lawryi
805:Anomalopteryx didiformis
785:Dinornis novaezealandiae
668:Dromaius novaehollandiae
590:Struthio camelus camelus
485:List of flightless birds
167:Inaccessible Island rail
3798:10.1186/1471-2148-14-75
3739:10.1073/pnas.1304838110
3578:The American Naturalist
3506:10.1023/A:1006508826501
3452:10.1073/pnas.1304838110
3404:10.1023/A:1011695406277
3328:The American Naturalist
3191:10.1073/pnas.0803242105
2967:10.1126/science.1251981
2726:10.1073/pnas.0803242105
2451:(falcons and caracaras)
2431:(hornbills and hoopoes)
2423:† (possibly flightless)
2413:† (possibly flightless)
2190:Spheniscus magellanicus
2145:Aptenodytes patagonicus
2096:(shorebirds and allies)
1984:Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi
1885:numerous other unnamed
1662:numerous other unnamed
1564:† (probably flightless)
1484:Gallicolumba leonpascoi
1273:Tachyeres leucocephalus
1199:Bermuda flightless duck
1057:Rhea americana nobilis
981:Apteryx owenii iredalei
959:North Island brown kiwi
835:Pachyornis elephantopus
570:North Island brown kiwi
477:is reduced to a paired
46:Aptenodytes patagonicus
3132:10.1098/rspb.2012.1630
2655:10.1126/sciadv.abb6095
2482:
2417:Andros Island barn owl
2367:Xenicibis xymphithecus
2329:
2245:Eudyptes pachyrhynchus
2127:
2059:
2013:Nesotrochis steganinos
1994:Capellirallus karamu †
1919:Porphyrio hochstetteri
1771:Porzana astrictocarpus
1730:or Cheke's wood rail,
1591:Gallirallus sylvestris
1518:Cuban flightless crane
1513:
1505:
1460:Viti Levu giant pigeon
1435:
1264:Tachyeres brachypterus
1184:
930:Stewart Island tokoeka
885:Aepyornis hildebrandti
791:South Island giant moa
781:North Island giant moa
742:Papuan dwarf cassowary
658:(cassowaries and emus)
629:Struthio molybdophanes
572:
562:
173:(2.7 m, 156 kg).
133:, lost the ability to
122:
90:
70:
54:
3619:Roots, Clive (2006).
3533:Journal of Morphology
3245:10.1093/sysbio/sys067
3032:10.1093/molbev/msu153
2880:Noble, J. C. (1991).
2851:10.1093/sysbio/syp079
2799:10.1093/sysbio/sys067
2537:Pachyplichas yaldwyni
2478:
2353:Ascension night heron
2325:
2299:Eudyptes chrysolophus
2259:Erect-crested penguin
2208:Spheniscus mendiculus
2163:Pygoscelis antarctica
2123:
2068:Podiceps taczanowskii
2054:
2009:Hispaniolan cave rail
1791:Porzana sandwichensis
1637:Gallirallus pacificus
1572:Gallirallus australis
1552:Nesoclopeus woodfordi
1542:Erythromachus leguati
1511:
1501:
1480:Henderson ground dove
1431:
1296:Small-billed moa-nalo
1286:Turtle-jawed moa-nalo
1260:Falkland steamer duck
1180:
1095:Rhea pennata garleppi
991:Apteryx owenii owenii
845:Pachyornis geranoides
595:South African ostrich
586:North African ostrich
568:
558:
309:, several species of
246:K-Pg extinction event
96:
76:
60:
40:
27:Birds that cannot fly
3683:. pp. 155–186.
3486:Evolutionary Ecology
3374:Evolutionary Ecology
2491:Strigops habroptilus
2334:Flightless cormorant
2327:Flightless cormorant
2226:Megadyptes antipodes
2199:Spheniscus humboldti
2136:Aptenodytes forsteri
2077:Rollandia microptera
2033:Aptornis otidiformis
1961:Tasmanian native hen
1952:Gough Island moorhen
1937:Gallinula silvestris
1657:Gallirallus wakensis
1627:Gallirallus rovianae
1609:Gallirallus insignis
1532:Aphanapteryx bonasia
1251:Fuegian steamer duck
1209:Auckland Island teal
1086:Rhea pennata pennata
1082:Darwin's lesser rhea
905:Mullerornis modestus
901:Lesser elephant bird
865:Megalapteryx didinus
855:Pachyornis australis
453:reproductive success
340:, which include the
3789:2014BMCEE..14...75H
3730:2013PNAS..110.9380E
3498:1998EvEco..12..569M
3443:2013PNAS..110.9380E
3386:2000EvEco..14..693C
3182:2008PNAS..10513462H
2959:2014Sci...344..898M
2717:2008PNAS..10513462H
2711:(36): 13462–13467.
2646:2020SciA....6.6095S
2553:Long-legged bunting
2461:Caracara tellustris
2437:Saint Helena hoopoe
2338:Nannopterum harrisi
2281:Eudyptes chrysocome
2222:Yellow-eyed penguin
2217:Spheniscus demersus
2177:Little blue penguin
2003:Nesotrochis debooyi
1999:Antillean cave rail
1905:North Island takahē
1751:Aphanocrex podarces
1728:Sauzier's wood rail
1695:Habroptila wallacii
1686:Aramidopsis plateni
1618:Gallirallus owstoni
1577:New Caledonian rail
1464:Natunaornis gigoura
1454:Pezophaps solitaria
1450:Rodrigues solitaire
1414:Mesitornis unicolor
1371:Cnemiornis gracilis
1338:Giant Hawaiʻi goose
1332:Branta hylobadistes
1310:Thambetochen xanion
1269:Chubut steamer duck
1171:, Genyornis newtoni
1148:Viti Levu scrubfowl
968:Little spotted kiwi
921:Southern brown kiwi
891:Giant elephant bird
757:Casuarius casuarius
733:Bennett's cassowary
718:Casuarius lydekkeri
692:Kangaroo Island emu
648:Struthio anderssoni
502:patagopterygiformes
297:herbivorous mammals
250:non-avian dinosaurs
3546:10.1002/jmor.21588
3232:Systematic Biology
2838:Systematic Biology
2786:Systematic Biology
2528:Pachyplichas jagmi
2483:
2330:
2290:Eudyptes schlegeli
2235:Megadyptes waitaha
2186:Magellanic penguin
2154:Pygoscelis adeliae
2128:
2106:Pinguinus impennis
2060:
1965:Tribonyx mortierii
1946:Gallinula nesiotis
1928:Gallinula pacifica
1909:Porphyrio mantelli
1895:Lord Howe swamphen
1801:Porzana keplerorum
1767:Saint Helena crake
1742:Atlantisia rogersi
1722:Dryolimnas augusti
1643:Dieffenbach's rail
1514:
1506:
1436:
1403:Mesitornithiformes
1255:Tachyeres pteneres
1240:Chenonetta finschi
1185:
1152:Megapodius amissus
950:Great spotted kiwi
875:(elephant birds) †
825:Euryapteryx curtus
762:Northern cassowary
753:Southern cassowary
728:Casuarius bennetti
644:East Asian ostrich
638:Struthio asiaticus
573:
563:
443:selection pressure
198:selective breeding
123:
91:
71:
55:
3724:(23): 9380–9384.
3698:978-0-470-65666-2
3437:(23): 9380–9384.
3126:(1747): 4617–25.
2953:(6186): 898–900.
2925:978-0-12-409548-9
2614:978-0-313-33545-7
2601:Roots C. (2006).
2557:Emberiza alcoveri
2457:Jamaican caracara
2357:Nycticorax olsoni
2272:Eudyptes moseleyi
2263:Eudyptes sclateri
2254:Eudyptes robustus
2241:Fiordland penguin
2204:Galapagos penguin
2159:Chinstrap penguin
1837:Small Oʻahu crake
1821:Porzana ralphorum
1817:Great Oʻahu crake
1747:Saint Helena rail
1732:Dryolimnas chekei
1587:Lord Howe woodhen
1470:Saint Helena dove
1444:Raphus cucullatus
1385:(owlet-nightjars)
1367:New Zealand goose
1035:Intermediate rhea
939:Fiordland tokoeka
925:Apteryx australis
895:Aepyornis maximus
873:Aepyornithiformes
795:Dinornis robustus
16:(Redirected from
3946:
3939:Flightless birds
3900:
3899:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3836:
3830:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3810:
3800:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3751:
3741:
3709:
3703:
3702:
3681:Living Dinosaurs
3676:
3670:
3669:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3626:
3623:Flightless Birds
3616:
3610:
3609:
3573:
3567:
3566:
3548:
3524:
3518:
3517:
3481:
3475:
3474:
3464:
3454:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3397:
3369:
3360:
3359:
3323:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3297:. Archived from
3291:
3285:
3284:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3247:
3223:
3214:
3213:
3203:
3193:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3143:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3092:. Archived from
3086:
3080:
3079:
3056:
3045:
3044:
3034:
3010:
2997:
2996:
2978:
2941:
2930:
2929:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2886:
2877:
2864:
2863:
2853:
2829:
2812:
2811:
2801:
2777:
2768:
2767:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2738:
2728:
2695:
2686:
2685:
2667:
2657:
2634:Science Advances
2625:
2619:
2618:
2604:Flightless Birds
2598:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2574:
2516:Long-billed wren
2500:(perching birds)
2411:Athene cretensis
2377:Apteribis glenos
2308:Eudyptes warhami
2295:Macaroni penguin
2195:Humboldt penguin
2172:Pygoscelis papua
2086:Podilymbus gigas
2045:Podicipediformes
1956:Gallinula comeri
1841:Porzana ziegleri
1831:Porzana severnsi
1827:Great Maui crake
1811:Porzana menehune
1797:Small Maui crake
1676:Cabalus modestus
1653:Wake Island rail
1605:Pink-legged rail
1424:(pigeons, doves)
1357:Kaua'i mole duck
1213:Anas aucklandica
1203:Anas pachyscelus
1189:Amsterdam wigeon
963:Apteryx mantelli
831:Heavy-footed moa
821:Broad-billed moa
773:Dinornithiformes
581:Struthio camelus
549:Struthioniformes
526:gastornithiforms
516:, the unrelated
448:sexual selection
372:cursorial traits
225:gastornithiforms
178:domestic chicken
82:Struthio camelus
21:
18:Flightless birds
3954:
3953:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3929:
3928:
3909:
3904:
3903:
3888:10.2307/1368847
3872:
3868:
3853:10.2307/4088088
3837:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3769:
3765:
3710:
3706:
3699:
3677:
3673:
3650:
3646:
3639:
3617:
3613:
3574:
3570:
3525:
3521:
3482:
3478:
3423:
3419:
3395:10.1.1.115.1294
3370:
3363:
3324:
3313:
3304:
3302:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3265:
3261:
3224:
3217:
3176:(36): 13462–7.
3161:
3157:
3112:
3108:
3099:
3097:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3057:
3048:
3011:
3000:
2942:
2933:
2926:
2904:
2900:
2884:
2878:
2867:
2830:
2815:
2778:
2771:
2756:
2752:
2696:
2689:
2626:
2622:
2615:
2599:
2595:
2586:
2584:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2566:
2502:
2473:
2453:
2433:
2397:Cuban giant owl
2393:
2349:
2320:
2304:Chatham penguin
2231:Waitaha penguin
2213:African penguin
2181:Eudyptula minor
2132:Emperor penguin
2125:Emperor penguin
2118:
2114:Sphenisciformes
2098:
2094:Charadriiformes
2049:
2019:Cuban cave rail
1974:Fulica gigantea
1942:Tristan moorhen
1899:Porphyrio albus
1857:Henderson crake
1781:Porzana palmeri
1757:Ascension crake
1704:Megacrex inepta
1558:Bar-winged rail
1548:Woodford's rail
1496:
1426:
1407:
1387:
1383:Aegotheliformes
1227:Eaton's pintail
1164:
1124:
1116:
1062:Brodkorb's rhea
1053:Paraguayan rhea
1013:
954:Apteryx haastii
917:
877:
777:
724:Dwarf cassowary
714:Pygmy cassowary
682:King Island emu
660:
613:Arabian ostrich
553:
545:
508:, the Cenozoic
506:hesperornithids
487:
479:scapulocoracoid
475:pectoral girdle
439:
400:biological cost
357:
349:oceanic islands
331:
321:, the moa, and
242:
237:
85:
49:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3952:
3942:
3941:
3927:
3926:
3915:
3908:
3907:External links
3905:
3902:
3901:
3882:(4): 906–912.
3866:
3847:(3): 461–470.
3831:
3822:
3763:
3704:
3697:
3671:
3644:
3637:
3611:
3590:10.1086/711416
3584:(6): 775–784.
3568:
3519:
3492:(5): 569–580.
3476:
3417:
3380:(8): 693–702.
3361:
3340:10.1086/285697
3334:(4): 628–642.
3311:
3286:
3269:Acta Zoologica
3259:
3215:
3155:
3106:
3081:
3070:(4): 494–521.
3060:Cracraft, Joel
3046:
3025:(7): 1686–96.
2998:
2931:
2924:
2898:
2865:
2813:
2769:
2750:
2687:
2620:
2613:
2593:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2550:
2541:
2532:
2523:
2513:
2510:Xenicus lyalli
2501:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2472:
2469:Psittaciformes
2466:
2465:
2464:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2432:
2429:Bucerotiformes
2426:
2425:
2424:
2414:
2404:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2370:
2360:
2348:
2345:Pelecaniformes
2342:
2341:
2340:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2301:
2292:
2283:
2274:
2265:
2256:
2250:Snares penguin
2247:
2238:
2228:
2219:
2210:
2201:
2192:
2183:
2174:
2168:Gentoo penguin
2165:
2156:
2150:Adélie penguin
2147:
2138:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2079:
2073:Titicaca grebe
2070:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2026:
2016:
2006:
1996:
1987:
1977:
1967:
1958:
1949:
1939:
1933:Makira woodhen
1930:
1924:Samoan woodhen
1921:
1912:
1902:
1892:
1883:
1873:
1863:
1854:
1851:Porzana monasa
1844:
1834:
1824:
1814:
1804:
1794:
1784:
1774:
1764:
1761:Mundia elpenor
1754:
1744:
1735:
1725:
1715:
1706:
1697:
1691:Invisible rail
1688:
1679:
1669:
1660:
1650:
1640:
1630:
1620:
1611:
1602:
1593:
1584:
1574:
1565:
1555:
1545:
1538:Rodrigues rail
1535:
1525:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1477:
1467:
1457:
1447:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1364:
1361:Talpanas lippa
1354:
1350:Chendytes lawi
1345:
1335:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1313:
1306:O'ahu moa-nalo
1303:
1293:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1266:
1257:
1243:
1233:
1224:
1215:
1206:
1196:
1175:
1174:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1145:
1138:Noble megapode
1135:
1123:
1117:
1115:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1097:
1091:Garlepp's rhea
1088:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1059:
1050:
1044:Argentine rhea
1041:
1032:
1021:Rhea americana
1012:
1006:
1005:
1004:
995:
994:
993:
984:
972:Apteryx owenii
965:
956:
947:
946:
945:
936:
916:
913:Apterygiformes
910:
909:
908:
898:
888:
876:
870:
869:
868:
858:
848:
838:
828:
818:
808:
798:
788:
776:
770:
769:
768:
759:
750:
749:
748:
739:
721:
711:
710:
709:
699:
689:
679:
659:
656:Casuariiformes
653:
652:
651:
641:
631:
625:Somali ostrich
622:
621:
620:
610:
601:
592:
577:Common ostrich
560:Common ostrich
552:
546:
544:
538:
486:
483:
438:
435:
356:
353:
330:
327:
292:flighted birds
248:wiped out all
241:
238:
236:
233:
205:Phorusrhacidae
186:red junglefowl
171:common ostrich
129:have, through
78:Common ostrich
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3951:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3925:
3921:
3920:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3835:
3826:
3818:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3708:
3700:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3675:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3648:
3640:
3638:9780313335457
3634:
3630:
3625:
3624:
3615:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3572:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3539:(6): e21588.
3538:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3480:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3368:
3366:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3301:on 2007-07-13
3300:
3296:
3290:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3263:
3255:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3220:
3211:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3159:
3151:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3110:
3096:on 2007-08-18
3095:
3091:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3007:
3005:
3003:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2927:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2861:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2844:(1): 90–107.
2843:
2839:
2835:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2774:
2765:
2764:New Scientist
2761:
2754:
2746:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2694:
2692:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2616:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2597:
2583:
2579:
2573:
2569:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2498:Passeriformes
2492:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2449:Falconiformes
2442:
2441:Upupa antaios
2438:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2401:Ornimegalonyx
2398:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2363:Jamaican ibis
2361:
2358:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2286:Royal penguin
2284:
2282:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2087:
2083:
2082:Atitlán grebe
2080:
2078:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1980:Hawkins' rail
1978:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1881:
1880:Porzana nigra
1877:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1866:Mangaia crake
1864:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1807:Liliput crake
1805:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1787:Hawaiian rail
1785:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1522:Grus cubensis
1519:
1516:
1515:
1512:Takahē stride
1510:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1422:Columbiformes
1415:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1376:
1375:C. calcitrans
1372:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1300:Ptaiochen pau
1297:
1294:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1246:Steamer ducks
1244:
1241:
1237:
1236:Finsch's duck
1234:
1232:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1222:Anas nesiotis
1219:
1218:Campbell teal
1216:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1193:Anas marecula
1190:
1187:
1186:
1183:
1182:Campbell teal
1179:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1026:American rhea
1024:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1010:
1003:
999:
996:
992:
988:
985:
982:
978:
975:
974:
973:
969:
966:
964:
960:
957:
955:
951:
948:
944:
940:
937:
935:
931:
928:
927:
926:
922:
919:
918:
914:
906:
902:
899:
896:
892:
889:
886:
882:
879:
878:
874:
866:
862:
859:
856:
852:
849:
846:
842:
841:Mantell's moa
839:
836:
832:
829:
826:
822:
819:
816:
815:Emeus crassus
812:
809:
806:
802:
799:
796:
792:
789:
786:
782:
779:
778:
774:
767:
763:
760:
758:
754:
751:
747:
743:
740:
738:
734:
731:
730:
729:
725:
722:
719:
715:
712:
707:
703:
702:Tasmanian emu
700:
697:
693:
690:
687:
683:
680:
678:
674:
671:
670:
669:
665:
662:
661:
657:
649:
645:
642:
639:
635:
634:Asian ostrich
632:
630:
626:
623:
618:
614:
611:
609:
605:
604:Masai ostrich
602:
600:
596:
593:
591:
587:
584:
583:
582:
578:
575:
574:
571:
567:
561:
557:
550:
542:
541:Palaeognathae
537:
535:
531:
530:dromornithids
527:
523:
519:
515:
514:bathornithids
511:
510:phorusrhacids
507:
503:
498:
496:
492:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
463:
461:
456:
454:
449:
444:
434:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
407:
403:
401:
396:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
368:peramorphosis
364:
362:
352:
350:
346:
343:
339:
338:Palaeognathae
335:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
298:
293:
289:
285:
281:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
256:
251:
247:
232:
230:
229:dromornithids
226:
222:
218:
214:
213:bathornithids
210:
206:
201:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
182:domestic duck
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
95:
88:
83:
79:
75:
68:
64:
59:
52:
47:
43:
42:King penguins
39:
33:
19:
3923:
3918:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3825:
3780:
3776:
3766:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3680:
3674:
3657:
3653:
3647:
3622:
3614:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3536:
3532:
3522:
3489:
3485:
3479:
3434:
3430:
3420:
3377:
3373:
3331:
3327:
3303:. Retrieved
3299:the original
3289:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3238:(1): 35–49.
3235:
3231:
3173:
3169:
3158:
3123:
3119:
3109:
3098:. Retrieved
3094:the original
3084:
3067:
3063:
3022:
3018:
2950:
2946:
2907:
2901:
2892:
2888:
2841:
2837:
2792:(1): 35–49.
2789:
2785:
2763:
2753:
2708:
2704:
2637:
2633:
2623:
2603:
2596:
2585:. Retrieved
2581:
2572:
2556:
2544:
2535:
2526:
2519:
2509:
2506:Lyall's wren
2490:
2460:
2440:
2421:Tyto pollens
2420:
2410:
2400:
2389:Strigiformes
2380:
2376:
2366:
2356:
2337:
2307:
2298:
2289:
2280:
2271:
2262:
2253:
2244:
2234:
2225:
2216:
2207:
2198:
2189:
2180:
2171:
2162:
2153:
2144:
2141:King penguin
2135:
2105:
2085:
2076:
2067:
2036:
2032:
2022:
2012:
2002:
1993:
1983:
1973:
1964:
1955:
1945:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1908:
1898:
1886:
1879:
1876:Tahiti crake
1869:
1861:Porzana atra
1860:
1850:
1847:Kosrae crake
1840:
1830:
1820:
1810:
1800:
1790:
1780:
1770:
1760:
1750:
1741:
1731:
1721:
1718:Réunion rail
1712:
1703:
1694:
1685:
1682:Snoring rail
1675:
1672:Chatham rail
1663:
1656:
1646:
1636:
1626:
1623:Roviana rail
1617:
1608:
1599:
1596:Calayan rail
1590:
1580:
1571:
1561:
1551:
1541:
1531:
1521:
1483:
1473:
1463:
1453:
1443:
1413:
1411:Brown mesite
1394:
1374:
1370:
1360:
1348:
1342:Branta rhuax
1341:
1331:
1319:
1309:
1299:
1289:
1272:
1263:
1254:
1239:
1230:
1221:
1212:
1202:
1192:
1170:
1160:Anseriformes
1151:
1141:
1131:
1103:
1094:
1085:
1077:Rhea pennata
1076:
1065:
1056:
1047:
1038:
1029:
1020:
1017:Greater rhea
1002:Apteryx rowi
1001:
998:Okarito kiwi
990:
980:
971:
962:
953:
942:
933:
924:
904:
894:
884:
864:
854:
844:
834:
824:
814:
804:
794:
784:
765:
756:
745:
736:
727:
717:
705:
695:
685:
676:
673:Mainland emu
667:
647:
637:
628:
616:
607:
598:
589:
580:
534:plotopterids
499:
488:
464:
457:
440:
419:Okinawa rail
408:
404:
397:
392:novel niches
375:
365:
358:
332:
301:
282:
260:
255:cursoriality
243:
209:terror birds
202:
175:
124:
81:
67:Apteryx rowi
66:
63:Okarito kiwi
45:
3275:: 115–122.
2582:TerraNature
2064:Junín grebe
2037:A. defossor
1870:Porzana rua
1777:Laysan rail
1665:Gallirallus
1633:Tahiti rail
1231:Anas eatoni
1162:(waterfowl)
1120:Galliformes
1073:Lesser rhea
851:Crested moa
811:Eastern moa
551:(ostriches)
522:geranoidids
471:New Zealand
427:Laysan duck
411:Zapata rail
303:New Zealand
221:geranoidids
151:cassowaries
125:Flightless
103:New Zealand
97:An extinct
3876:The Condor
3660:: 77–104.
3305:2007-08-27
3100:2007-08-27
2976:2328/35953
2587:2007-08-27
2564:References
2546:Scytalopus
2407:Cretan owl
2316:Suliformes
2116:(penguins)
1990:Snipe-rail
1970:Giant coot
1583:(likely †)
1492:Gruiformes
1122:(landfowl)
1113:Neognathae
1009:Rheiformes
861:Upland moa
664:Common emu
425:, and the
274:allopatric
3783:(1): 75.
3606:225249314
3555:0362-2525
3390:CiteSeerX
2993:206555952
2895:: 85–118.
2682:227261010
2471:(parrots)
2381:A. brevis
2102:Great auk
2056:Great auk
2029:Adzebills
1614:Guam rail
1405:(mesites)
1100:Puna Rhea
543:(ratites)
441:Although
384:pygostyle
284:Gigantism
270:reptilian
266:mammalian
262:Gigantism
143:ostriches
131:evolution
87:Ostriches
3933:Category
3817:24885927
3758:23690614
3598:33211563
3563:37183492
3514:37855732
3471:23690614
3356:86511951
3254:22831877
3210:18765814
3150:22977150
3041:24825849
2985:24855267
2860:20525622
2808:22831877
2745:18765814
2674:33268368
2047:(grebes)
1528:Red rail
1328:Nēnē-nui
1280:Moa-nalo
1168:Mihirung
801:Bush moa
518:eogruids
495:Holocene
460:penguins
395:flight.
311:penguins
288:tinamous
278:Gondwana
217:eogruids
163:penguins
51:Penguins
3896:1368847
3861:4088088
3841:The Auk
3808:4101845
3785:Bibcode
3749:3677478
3726:Bibcode
3494:Bibcode
3462:3677478
3439:Bibcode
3382:Bibcode
3348:2462941
3201:2533212
3178:Bibcode
3141:3479725
2955:Bibcode
2947:Science
2736:2533212
2713:Bibcode
2665:7710364
2642:Bibcode
1888:Porzana
1011:(rheas)
775:(moa) †
491:extinct
345:tinamou
334:Ratites
235:History
190:mallard
139:ratites
3894:
3859:
3815:
3805:
3756:
3746:
3695:
3635:
3604:
3596:
3561:
3553:
3512:
3469:
3459:
3412:951896
3410:
3392:
3354:
3346:
3252:
3208:
3198:
3148:
3138:
3039:
2991:
2983:
2922:
2858:
2806:
2743:
2733:
2680:
2672:
2662:
2640:(49).
2611:
2487:Kākāpō
2480:Kākāpō
2391:(owls)
1915:Takahē
915:(kiwi)
528:, and
431:Hawaii
417:, the
342:volant
317:, the
315:takahē
313:, the
227:, and
161:) and
157:, and
119:takahē
117:, and
111:kākāpō
3892:JSTOR
3857:JSTOR
3631:–37.
3602:S2CID
3510:S2CID
3408:S2CID
3352:S2CID
3344:JSTOR
2989:S2CID
2885:(PDF)
2678:S2CID
2543:some
423:Japan
388:alula
376:ratis
159:kiwis
155:rheas
127:birds
3919:Kiwi
3813:PMID
3754:PMID
3693:ISBN
3633:ISBN
3594:PMID
3559:PMID
3551:ISSN
3467:PMID
3250:PMID
3206:PMID
3146:PMID
3064:Ibis
3037:PMID
2981:PMID
2920:ISBN
2856:PMID
2804:PMID
2741:PMID
2670:PMID
2609:ISBN
2379:and
2035:and
1568:Weka
1503:Weka
1440:Dodo
1433:Dodo
1373:and
415:Cuba
380:keel
361:keel
319:weka
307:kiwi
188:and
180:and
147:emus
115:weka
107:kiwi
3922:in
3884:doi
3849:doi
3845:108
3803:PMC
3793:doi
3744:PMC
3734:doi
3722:110
3685:doi
3662:doi
3629:136
3586:doi
3582:196
3541:doi
3537:284
3502:doi
3457:PMC
3447:doi
3435:110
3400:doi
3336:doi
3332:144
3277:doi
3240:doi
3196:PMC
3186:doi
3174:105
3136:PMC
3128:doi
3124:279
3072:doi
3068:116
3027:doi
2971:hdl
2963:doi
2951:344
2912:doi
2846:doi
2794:doi
2731:PMC
2721:doi
2709:105
2660:PMC
2650:doi
469:of
467:moa
458:In
429:of
421:of
413:of
268:or
215:),
135:fly
99:moa
61:An
3935::
3890:.
3880:90
3878:.
3855:.
3843:.
3811:.
3801:.
3791:.
3781:14
3779:.
3775:.
3752:.
3742:.
3732:.
3720:.
3716:.
3691:.
3658:25
3656:.
3600:.
3592:.
3580:.
3557:.
3549:.
3535:.
3531:.
3508:.
3500:.
3490:12
3488:.
3465:.
3455:.
3445:.
3433:.
3429:.
3406:.
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