3181:
250:
430:
584:
95:
200:
275:
480:
262:", are realistically rendered. One prominent curator, Michael Kan, finds that "their calm, subtle exterior suggests rather than demonstrates emotion". These Type A figures are so similar to one another that it has been suggested that they were the production of a single "school". Types B through E are more abstract, characterized by puffy, slit-like eyes blended into the face, and broad rectangular or triangular heads. These figures are often shown seated or reclining, with shortened bulbous legs quickly tapering to a point.
158:
328:
469:, "The physical similarities between the northern South American and West Mexican tomb types are unmistakable." while art historian George Kubler finds that the western Mexican chambers "resemble the shafted tombs of the upper Cauca river in Colombia". However, others disagree that the similarity of form demonstrates cultural linkages—Karen Olsen Bruhns states that "this sort of contact . . . seems mainly in the (muddled) eye of the synthesizer".
79:, it became apparent in the middle of the 20th century, as a result of further research, that the artifacts and tombs were instead over a thousand years older. Until recently, the looted artifacts were all that was known of the people and culture or cultures that created the shaft tombs. So little was known, in fact, that a major 1998 exhibition highlighting these artifacts was subtitled: "Art and Archaeology of the Unknown Past".
592:
19:
1680:
524:, began her investigations. In the period from 1944 until 1985, Kelly would eventually publish over a dozen scholarly papers on her work in this region. In 1948, she was the first to hypothesize the existence of the "shaft tomb arc", the geographic distribution of shaft tomb sites over western Mexico (see map above).
237:. These abstract figurines have flat, squarish bodies with highly stylized faces complete with nose rings and multiple earrings. Seated figurines have thin rope-like limbs while the standing figurines have short stocky limbs. One of the first styles to be described, noted ethnographer, and caricaturist
401:
and rectangular central plazas, the
Teuchitlán tradition is marked by central circular plazas and unique conical pyramids. This circular architectural style is seemingly mirrored in the many circular shaft tomb tableau scenes. Known primarily from this architecture, the Teuchitlán tradition rises
531:
who firmly declared that Purépecha culture appeared only "after the 10th century". Toscano's and
Covarrubias's views were later upheld by radiocarbon dating of plundered shaft tombs' charcoal and other organic remains salvaged in the 1960s by Diego Delgado and Peter Furst. As the result of these
269:
is also elongated and the large eyes are wide and staring, with pronounced rims created by adding separate strips of clay ("fillets") around the eyes. The wide mouth is closed or slightly opened and the large hands have carefully delineated nails. Kubler detects both an early "sheep-faced" style
707:
says, for example, that "At no time in the pre-Hispanic era did any political or cultural entity impose itself on the whole region, even though certain cultural patterns (such as the building of shaft-and-chamber tombs) have in fact been widely diffused", Michelet p. 328. Beekman (2000, p. 393)
129:
Multiple burials are found in each chamber and evidence indicates that the tombs were used for families or lineages over time. The labor involved in the creation of the shaft tombs along with the number and quality of the grave goods indicate that the tombs were used exclusively by the society's
98:
Western Mexico archaeological sites. The orange circles show archaeological sites. The larger green circles highlight the most important sites. Note that the sites form what has been called the "shaft tomb arc" which extends from northwest
Nayarit through the central Jalisco highlands and down to
258:"Chinesca" or "Chinesco" figurines were named by art dealers after their supposed Chinese-like appearance. An early type, Chinesco is identified with Nayarit and up to five major subgroups have been identified, although there is considerable overlap. Type A figurines, the so-called "
377:, there is a question of whether they were specifically created for a mortuary rite, or whether they were used prior to burial, perhaps by the deceased. While some ceramics do show signs of wear, it is as yet unclear whether this was the exception or the rule.
291:
Other styles include El Arenal, San
Sebastián, and Zacatecas. Although there is general agreement on style names and characteristics, it is not unanimous. Moreover, these styles often overlap to one degree or another, and many figurines defy categorization.
519:
began accumulating many
Western Mexico artifacts for his private collection, a personal interest that sparked a wider public interest in West Mexican grave goods. It was in the late 1930s that one of the most prominent of Western Mexico archaeologists,
402:
at roughly the same time as the shaft tomb tradition, 300 BCE, but lasts until 900 CE, many centuries after the end of the shaft tomb tradition. The
Teuchitlán tradition then appears to be an outgrowth and elaboration of the shaft tomb tradition.
540:
peoples of
Nayarit, Furst proposed that the artifacts were not only mere representations of ancient peoples, but also contained deeper significance. The model houses, for example, showed the living dwelling in context with the dead – a miniature
464:
Shaft tombs also appear in northwestern South
America in a somewhat later timeframe than western Mexico (e.g. 200-300 CE in northern Peru, later in other areas). To Dorothy Hosler, Professor of Archaeology and Ancient Technology at
1030:
The Las
Cebollas tomb contained 125 conch shells (Meighan & Nicholson, p. 39). Beekman (2000) lists conch shell trumpets, along with dogs and horned figures, as three examples of "common symbolic threads" of the shaft tomb
548:
In 1974, Hasso von
Winning published an exhaustive classification of Western Mexico shaft tomb artifacts (including, for example, the Chinesco A through D types mentioned above), a classification still largely in use today.
126:. The base of the shaft opens into one or two (occasionally more) horizontal chambers, perhaps 4 by 4 meters (varying considerably), with a low ceiling. The shaft tombs were often associated with an overlying building.
343:
Ancestor (or marriage) pairs of female and male figurines are common among shaft tomb tradition grave goods. These figurines, perhaps representing ancestors, may be joined or separate and often are executed in the
1058:
Weigand, p. 402. Weigand contends that the structures of the Teuchitlán tradition's ceremonial architecture "are unique in the Mesoamerican architectural repertoire and indeed are not found anywhere else in the
351:
Many shaft tomb figurines, spanning various Western Mexico styles and locations, wear a horn set high on the forehead. Several theories have been advanced for these horns: that they show that the figure is a
340:
cultures to represent soul guides of the dead and several dog ceramics wear human masks. Nonetheless, it should also be noted that dogs were often the major source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica.
595:
A Zacatecas style ceramic figurine showing the distinctive horns (perhaps bundles of hair) found on male figurines. Both male and female figurines display the characteristic flat-top heads and rope-like
115:, which include the archaeological sites of Huitzilapa and Teuchitlan, constitute its "undisputed core". The tradition lasted until at least 300 CE although there is not wide agreement on the end date.
552:
The 1993 discovery of an unlooted shaft tomb at Huitzilapa is the latest major milestone, providing "the most detailed information to date on the funerary customs" associated with shaft tomb tradition.
161:
A Nayarit tableau showing a multi-layered tree with birds. It has been proposed that the birds represent souls who have not yet descended into the underworld, while the central tree may represent the
287:. Colima is particularly known for its wide range of animal, especially dog, figurines. Human subjects within the Colima style are more "mannered and less exuberant" than other shaft tomb figurines.
270:
that seem "eroded or melted in the continuous passages of modelling that unite rather than divide the parts of the body" and a later style which are "more animated and more incisively articulated".
304:
Ceramic tableaus showing several or even several dozen people engaged in various seemingly typical activities. Concentrated in highland Nayarit and adjoining Jalisco, these tableaus present rich
414:, it has long been considered outside the Mesoamerican mainstream and the cultures at this time appear to be particularly insulated from many mainstream Mesoamerican influences. For example, no
111:
has been dated to 1500 BCE but is linked to Central, rather than Western, Mexico. Like much else concerning the tradition, its origins are not well understood, although the valleys around
211:. In fact, these ceramics were apparently the primary outlet for artistic expression for the shaft tomb cultures and there is little to no record of associated monumental architecture,
245:
finds that "the square bodies, grimacing mouths, and staring eyes convey a disturbing expression which is only in part resolved by the animation and plastic energy of the turgid forms".
504:. Along with illustrations of several of the grave goods, the Norwegian explorer described a looted shaft tomb he had visited in 1896. He also visited and described the ruins of
1284:
61:, although there is not wide agreement on this end date. Nearly all of the artifacts associated with this shaft tomb tradition have been discovered by looters and are without
241:
stated that it "reaches the limits of absurd, brutal caricature, a peculiar aesthetic concept that relishes the creation of haunting subhuman monstrosities". Art historian
3161:
103:
The shaft tomb tradition is thought to have developed around 300 BCE. Some shaft tombs predate the tradition by more than 1000 years – for example, the shaft tomb at
1749:
1131:
512:
some 250 kilometres (160 mi) to the east, and was one of the first to incorrectly use the term "Tarascan" (Purépecha) to describe the shaft tomb artifacts.
265:
The Ameca style, associated with Jalisco, is characterized by an elongated face and a high forehead which is often capped by braids or turban-like headgear. The
3156:
654:
1627:
Taylor, R. E. (1970) "The Shaft Tombs of Western Mexico: Problems in the Interpretation of Religious Function in Nonhistoric Archaeological Contexts", in
433:
An Ameca-style figurine from Jalisco. The crest is a not-uncommon feature of many tradition figurines. The ball would appear to link the subject to the
1268:
792:
1684:
472:
However, other linkages between Western Mexico and northwestern South America have been proposed, in particular the development of metallurgy. See
996:
from Flickr for an example of a mask-wearing Colima dog. Another is part of the Stafford Collection at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (see
449:
and other tubers, various grains, and with animal protein from domestic dogs, turkeys, and ducks, and from hunting. They lived in thatched roof
3136:
1782:
3121:
441:
Despite this, the inhabitants of this area lived much like their Mesoamerican counterparts elsewhere. The usual trio of beans, squash, and
1569:
Meighan, Clement W.; H. B. Nicholson (1989) "The Ceramic Mortuary Offerings of Prehistoric West Mexico: an Archaeological Perspective" in
2098:
1721:
456:
Shaft tombs themselves are not encountered elsewhere in Mesoamerica and their nearest counterparts come from northwestern South America.
1519:
611:
527:
In 1946, Salvador Toscano challenged the attribution of shaft tomb artifacts to the Purépechans, a challenge that was echoed in 1957 by
1470:
1276:
747:
give a date of 300 CE. The International Council of Museums, on the other hand, provides a date of 500 CE, while the Smithsonian and
3126:
1345:
3226:
3216:
2130:
27:
3221:
473:
631:
as well as Danien, p. 23. There is some evidence (Meighan & Nicholson, p. 42) that many tombs were looted in ancient times.
234:
1353:
207:
The plentiful ceramic figurines have attracted the most attention, and are among the most dramatic and interesting produced in
2118:
1658:
1593:
1513:
1498:
1420:
672:
466:
324:
Some tableaus are almost photographic in their detail and have even been associated with architecture ruins in the field.
3032:
2147:
86:. Archaeologists, however, still struggle with identifying and naming the ancient western Mexico cultures of this period.
68:
The first major undisturbed shaft tomb associated with the tradition was not discovered until 1993 at Huitzilapa, Jalisco.
1638:, Salvador Toscano, Paul Kirchoff, Daniel Rubin de la Borbolla, eds., Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, pp. 9–33.
1113:
Meighan and Nicholson, p. 50. Meighan and Nicholson state that one other example of a shaft tomb complex, dating from the
487:
as well. It has been proposed that these models show the house of the living above and attached to the house of the dead.
3091:
2142:
122:
are characterized by a vertical or nearly vertical shaft, dug 3 to 20 meters down into what is often underlying volcanic
180:, semi-precious stones, pottery (which often contained food), and other household implements such as spindle whorls and
3146:
2125:
1764:
3085:
2154:
1614:
1578:
1563:
1541:
1449:
899:
Kan, p. 17, who references Peter Furst (1966) "Shaft Tombs, Shell Trumpets and Shamanism", Ph. D. dissertation, UCLA.
249:
196:, shaft tomb artifacts carry little to no iconography and so are seemingly bereft of symbolic or religious meaning.
2906:
2595:
1525:
LĂłpez Mestas C., Lorenza and Jorge Ramos de la Vega (2006) "Some Interpretations of the Huitzilapa Shaft Tomb", in
562:
505:
138:
2976:
2606:
2288:
2103:
1714:
483:
A ceramic house showing the distinctive roof associated not only with the shaft tomb cultures but the subsequent
1019:
3211:
3068:
2911:
1759:
426:
in evidence, although some Mesoamerican cultural markers, particularly the Mesoamerican ballgame, are present.
82:
It is now thought that, although shaft tombs are widely diffused across the area, the region was not a unified
3047:
2323:
1588:, David Carrasco, ed., Catherine Sifel, Marhe Imber, translators, Oxford University Press, pp. 328–333,
3057:
2298:
1802:
785:
3073:
3151:
3079:
3043:
2113:
607:
The International Council of Museum estimates that 90% of the clay figurines come from illegal excavations
423:
188:
trumpets covered with stucco and other appliques. Unlike those of other Mesoamerican cultures such as the
2745:
2617:
2203:
1945:
1754:
1346:"The Correspondence of Regional Patterns and Local Strategies in Formative to Classic Period West Mexico"
316:, architecture (most importantly perishable architecture), and perhaps even religious thought during the
173:
1207:
641:
591:
253:
A Chinesco-style figurine (Type C), showing the archetypal puffy, slit-like eyes and short tapered legs.
3236:
2972:
2856:
2699:
1707:
1694:
1599:
1293:
453:
houses, grew cotton and tobacco, and conducted some long-distance trade in obsidian and other goods.
259:
3231:
2679:
2283:
2208:
2085:
2060:
1774:
429:
2755:
2428:
1925:
1114:
993:
317:
162:
2980:
935:
In discussing ceramic types, Kubler, p. 195, refers to the "fattened and edible dogs of Colima".
743:
The proposed end date of the shaft tomb tradition varies considerably. Williams as well as the
872:
Meighan and Nicholson state that the Chinesco types "merge in a rather complex fashion", p. 58.
763:
718:
658:
628:
583:
521:
419:
2398:
1690:
1621:
945:
94:
2901:
2816:
2750:
2383:
2137:
2108:
1907:
1882:
1847:
1548:
807:
608:
434:
398:
313:
2035:
1668:, Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI), accessed April 2008.
1329:
391:
336:
Ceramic dogs are widely known from looted tombs in Colima. Dogs were generally believed in
3185:
3052:
2916:
2881:
2801:
2490:
2198:
2093:
2075:
1975:
1699:
484:
2378:
1390:
134:, and demonstrate that the shaft tomb cultures were highly stratified at this early date.
8:
3018:
2780:
1812:
1792:
497:
345:
331:
A characteristic circular ceramic tableau showing more than a dozen musicians and dancers
2010:
1532:
Kan, Michael (1989) "The Pre-Columbian Art of West Mexico: Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima" in
283:
Colima ceramics can be identified by their smooth, round forms and their warm brown-red
3141:
3131:
3037:
2861:
2770:
2549:
2293:
2238:
2213:
1877:
1872:
1842:
1837:
1646:
1321:
528:
496:
The first major work to discuss artifacts associated with the shaft tomb tradition was
394:, a complex society that occupies much the same geography as the shaft tomb tradition.
238:
199:
2760:
1277:"Political Boundaries and Political Structure: The Limits of the Teuchitlan Tradition"
203:
An ancestor pair from Nayarit, 100 BCE - 200 CE, executed in the Ixtlán del RĂo style.
3166:
3096:
3062:
2785:
2775:
2485:
2453:
2333:
2263:
1995:
1970:
1902:
1892:
1730:
1654:
1610:
1589:
1574:
1559:
1537:
1509:
1494:
1445:
1416:
1382:
1374:
1325:
1313:
1305:
668:
545:– and the horned warriors (as discussed above) were shaman battling mystical forces.
193:
2363:
2228:
2194:
1665:
479:
360:(a not uncommon shaft tomb relic) and as such, are an emblem of rulership, or are a
2866:
2806:
2790:
2673:
2637:
2544:
2448:
2248:
2065:
2040:
1857:
1852:
1622:"Beyond the Grave: The Twentieth-Century Afterlife of West Mexican Burial Effigies"
1366:
1297:
327:
112:
1478:
721:
and most other sources give the 300 BCE date. For example, Dominique Michelet in
274:
2989:
2668:
2627:
2612:
2575:
2539:
2433:
2328:
2243:
2218:
2179:
2164:
1985:
1822:
1556:
The Art and Architecture of Ancient America: The Mexican, Maya and Andean Peoples
796:
744:
662:
615:
450:
284:
2920:
2886:
2730:
2705:
2662:
2652:
2642:
2632:
2590:
2373:
2184:
2174:
1867:
1827:
1817:
1437:
1362:
692:
571:
509:
361:
38:
3022:
3006:
2826:
1301:
3205:
2876:
2720:
2689:
2657:
2601:
2569:
2408:
2368:
2358:
2353:
2343:
2338:
2273:
2268:
2223:
1787:
1744:
1386:
1378:
1309:
965:
See Taylor for discussion of the religious insight offered by these tableaus.
532:
excavations and his ethnological investigations of the modern-day indigenous
390:
Considerable effort has been made connecting the shaft tomb tradition to the
266:
242:
177:
83:
2967:
2963:
1955:
1950:
1634:
Toscano, Salvador (1946) "El Arte y la Historia del Occidente en Mexico" in
1317:
157:
2959:
2935:
2891:
2841:
2836:
2725:
2710:
2694:
2559:
2510:
2505:
2480:
2458:
2423:
2303:
2005:
1940:
1897:
1650:
1370:
1118:
516:
2443:
108:
72:
2955:
2945:
2564:
2495:
2348:
2318:
2025:
1917:
1797:
695:
talks about "our abysmal ignorance of the prehistory of the area", p. 56.
537:
411:
374:
337:
305:
208:
185:
169:
917:
Covarrubias, p. 91. These "fillets" are often referred to as appliqués.
418:-influenced artifacts have been recovered from shaft tombs, nor are any
104:
2993:
2831:
2811:
2253:
2045:
1807:
219:
119:
62:
58:
54:
23:
2438:
1607:
Born of Clay: Ceramics from the National Museum of the American Indian
1491:
Greater Mesoamerica: The Archaeology of West and Northwest Mesoamerica
3014:
3010:
2985:
2735:
2070:
1960:
542:
222:, analysis has largely focused on the ceramics' styles and subjects.
2519:
2189:
1573:, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, University of New Mexico Press,
1536:, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, University of New Mexico Press,
37:
refers to a set of interlocked cultural traits found in the western
3001:
2851:
2393:
2388:
2278:
2258:
1506:
The Sounds and Colors of Power: The Sacred Metallurgical Technology
2413:
1415:, Cambridge World Archaeology series, Cambridge University Press,
983:
Among many others, see Coe et al., pp. 103–104, or Kubler, p. 195.
2997:
2534:
2418:
2159:
2055:
2030:
2015:
1935:
1930:
1887:
1862:
1832:
533:
309:
146:
46:
42:
2463:
18:
2940:
2930:
2313:
2308:
2233:
2169:
2050:
2000:
1990:
1965:
1679:
567:
446:
353:
181:
142:
76:
50:
2580:
2524:
2515:
2403:
1980:
442:
415:
357:
212:
189:
131:
3162:
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1729:
1428:
Ancient West Mexico: Art and Archaeology of the Unknown Past
664:
Ancient West Mexico: Art and Archaeology of the Unknown Past
587:
An Ameca-style figurine from Jalisco. Height: 22 in (56 cm).
145:
feature some shaft tombs, and are often associated with the
123:
1605:
Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian (2005)
1571:
Sculpture of Ancient West Mexico, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima
1534:
Sculpture of Ancient West Mexico, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima
998:
Sculpture of Ancient West Mexico, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima
1395:
1334:
1455:
Coe, Michael and Dean Snow and Elizabeth Benson (1986)
1343:
1274:
53:
to its south, roughly dating to the period between 300
1666:"Prehispanic West MĂ©xico: A Mesoamerican Culture Area"
1631:, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Apr., 1970), pp. 160–169.
300:
Common subjects of shaft tomb tradition ceramics are:
218:
Since the vast majority of these ceramics are without
3157:
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
789:
Heritage of Power: Ancient Sculpture from West Mexico
1246:
LĂłpez Mestas C. and Jorge Ramos de la Vega, p. 271.
410:Because western Mexico is on the very periphery of
172:within these tombs include hollow ceramic figures,
1558:, Pelican History of Art, Yale University Press,
1549:Art 347L "Mesoamerican Art Syllabus: West Mexico"
373:While these ceramics were obviously recovered as
152:
3203:
1586:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures
974:Foster et al., p. 47 as well as Wiegand, p. 400.
787:, which further cites Butterwick, Kristi (2004)
749:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures
725:says "it probably started earlier" than 200 BCE.
723:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures
705:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures
491:
1602:, Timeline of Art History, accessed April 2008.
1584:Michelet, Dominique (2000) "Western Mexico" in
1237:Among others, see Meighan and Nicholson, p. 58.
653:
3137:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
3122:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
1641:Weigand, Phil (2001) "West Mexico Classic" in
1715:
459:
364:. These theories are not mutually exclusive.
278:A fat, and perhaps fattened, dog from Colima
1426:Christensen, Alexander F. (1999) "Review of
1518:International Council of Museums Red List,
1485:. Vol. 46, no. 1. pp. 22–35.
1269:"Mexican and Central American Virtual Hall"
1722:
1708:
385:
3127:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1636:Arte Precolombino del Occidente de Mexico
1344:Beekman, Christopher S. (December 2000).
1731:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
1464:Indian Art of Mexico and Central America
1179:Meighan and Nicholson, p. 33. Crossley.
590:
582:
574:often portrayed on West Mexico ceramics.
478:
428:
405:
326:
273:
248:
198:
156:
93:
28:National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico.
17:
1161:Hosler's essay focuses on this linkage.
474:Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica
3204:
1476:
1354:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
1703:
1444:, Fourth Edition, Thames and Hudson,
1442:Mexico, from the Olmecs to the Aztecs
689:Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs
1267:American Museum of Natural History,
230:The major stylistic groups include:
2155:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
1471:"Unknown Mexico/MĂ©xico Desconocido"
687:Also, in the fourth edition of his
35:Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition
13:
3147:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
2126:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
1009:Coe (1994), p. 45 and many others.
14:
3248:
2138:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
2109:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
1685:Western Mexico shaft tomb culture
1672:
1434:, Vol 46, No 3, pp. 627–630.
295:
3179:
2131:Archaeological sites in Colombia
2104:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
1678:
1275:Beekman, Christopher S. (1996).
1117:, 1000 years later, is found in
734:Beekman (2000) p. 388 & 394.
563:La Campana (archaeological site)
3227:Archaeological sites in Jalisco
3217:Archaeological sites in Nayarit
2114:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
1249:
1240:
1231:
1222:
1213:
1200:
1191:
1182:
1173:
1164:
1155:
1146:
1137:
1124:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1080:
1071:
1062:
1052:
1043:
1034:
1024:
1012:
1003:
986:
977:
968:
959:
950:
938:
929:
920:
911:
902:
893:
884:
875:
866:
857:
848:
839:
830:
821:
812:
801:
778:
769:
754:
3222:Archaeological sites in Colima
791:, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
737:
728:
711:
698:
681:
647:
634:
621:
601:
445:was supplemented with chiles,
184:. More unusual items include
153:Ceramic figurines and tableaus
89:
75:origin, contemporary with the
1:
3058:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
2119:Archaeological sites in Chile
1261:
1197:Meighan and Nicholson, p. 36.
1104:Meighan and Nicholson, p. 44.
1086:Meighan and Nicholson, p. 60.
836:Meighan and Nicholson, p. 47.
492:History of scholarly research
65:, making dating problematic.
3152:Mesoamerican writing systems
3109:
2148:Archaeological sites in Peru
1529:, vol. 17, pp. 271–281.
1493:, University of Utah Press,
1466:, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
1049:Meighan and Nicholson, p.59.
1018:Metropolitan Museum of Art,
22:Reconstruction of excavated
7:
3048:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán
1462:Covarrubias, Miguel (1957)
1411:Bruhns, Karen Olsen (1994)
944:Metropolitan Museum of Art
556:
49:, and, to a lesser extent,
10:
3253:
3074:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
2977:Uaxaclajuun UbĘĽaah KĘĽawiil
1695:Metropolitan Museum of Art
1643:Encyclopedia of Prehistory
1600:Metropolitan Museum of Art
1520:"Nayarit figures (Mexico)"
1479:"On the Dilemma of a Horn"
1459:; Facts on File, New York.
1294:Cambridge University Press
1292:(1). London and New York:
863:See, e.g., Kubler, p. 194.
460:South American shaft tombs
380:
137:The sites of El Opeño and
71:Originally regarded as of
3175:
3117:
3108:
3028:
2951:
2926:
2897:
2872:
2847:
2822:
2797:
2766:
2741:
2716:
2685:
2648:
2623:
2586:
2555:
2530:
2501:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2477:
2472:
2299:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
2084:
1916:
1773:
1737:
1302:10.1017/S0956536100001346
818:Covarrubias (1957) p. 87.
515:During the 1930s, artist
356:, that they are abstract
225:
3186:Civilizations portal
2143:Cultural periods of Peru
1691:A Chinesco ancestor pair
1477:Danien, C. Elin (2004).
1457:Atlas of Ancient America
1068:Beekman (2000) abstract.
708:makes the same argument.
578:
3080:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
1926:Mesoamerican chronology
1504:Hosler, Dorothy (1995)
1489:Foster, Michael (2000)
1361:(4). Orlando, Florida:
1077:Beekman (1996), p. 138.
659:Anawalt, Patricia Rieff
386:Western Mexico cultures
368:
215:, or other public art.
163:Mesoamerican world tree
1783:Archaeological periods
1554:Kubler, George (1984)
1551:, accessed April 2008.
1522:, accessed April 2008.
1371:10.1006/jaar.1999.0354
1271:, accessed April 2008.
845:Covarrubias, p. 89-90.
775:Beekman (2000) p. 388.
597:
588:
522:Isabel Truesdell Kelly
488:
438:
420:Mesoamerican calendars
332:
279:
254:
204:
166:
100:
30:
3212:Mesoamerican cultures
3086:List of Conquistadors
2973:KĘĽinich JanaabĘĽ Pakal
2384:Quebrada de Humahuaca
1803:Caddoan Mississippian
1473:, accessed June 2008.
1413:Ancient South America
667:. Thames and Hudson.
594:
586:
482:
435:Mesoamerican ballgame
432:
406:Mesoamerican cultures
399:Mesoamerican pyramids
330:
318:late Formative period
314:Mesoamerican ballgame
277:
252:
202:
160:
97:
21:
3053:Francisco de Montejo
2981:Jasaw Chan KĘĽawiil I
2094:Andean civilizations
2021:Shaft tomb tradition
1687:at Wikimedia Commons
1219:Covarrubias, pp. 97.
655:Townsend, Richard F.
485:Teuchitlan tradition
392:Teuchitlán tradition
3019:Manco Inca Yupanqui
2324:Manteño-Huancavilca
1793:Ancestral Puebloans
1624:, the Art Bulletin.
1527:Ancient Mesoamerica
1483:Expedition Magazine
1285:Ancient Mesoamerica
764:Classic period page
760:Coe et al., p. 102.
719:Classic period page
629:Classic period page
498:Carl Sofus Lumholtz
397:Unlike the typical
118:The Western Mexico
3142:Columbian exchange
3132:Portal:Mesoamerica
2284:La Tolita (Tumaco)
2099:Indigenous peoples
1838:Hopewell tradition
1765:Indigenous peoples
1664:Williams, Eduardo
1647:Peter N. Peregrine
1629:American Antiquity
1620:Sund, Judy (2000)
795:2008-09-28 at the
614:2008-05-06 at the
598:
589:
529:Miguel Covarrubias
508:, the seat of the
489:
439:
333:
280:
255:
239:Miguel Covarrubias
205:
167:
101:
31:
3237:Pre-Columbian art
3197:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3167:Pre-Columbian art
3103:
3102:
3097:Francisco Pizarro
3063:Pedro de Alvarado
2379:Pucará de Tilcara
1683:Media related to
1659:978-0-306-46259-7
1609:, NMAI Editions,
1594:978-0-19-514257-0
1547:Kappelman, Julia
1514:978-0-262-08230-3
1508:, The MIT Press,
1499:978-0-87480-655-7
1421:978-0-521-27761-7
1398:online facsimile)
1337:online facsimile)
1095:Michelet, p. 328.
674:978-0-500-05092-7
26:exhibited at the
3244:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3106:
3105:
3092:Spanish Conquest
3069:Spanish Conquest
3044:Spanish Conquest
3033:Spanish Conquest
2475:
2474:
1724:
1717:
1710:
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1700:
1682:
1486:
1469:Crossley, Mimi,
1408:
1406:
1405:
1399:
1389:. Archived from
1350:
1340:
1338:
1328:. Archived from
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260:classic Chinesco
113:Tequila, Jalisco
3252:
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3247:
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3242:
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3232:Capacha culture
3202:
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3198:
3189:
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3113:
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3094:
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3056:
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2990:Quemuenchatocha
2988:
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2962:
2958:
2919:
2788:
2697:
2671:
2660:
2607:Human Sacrifice
2604:
2596:Human Sacrifice
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2567:
2540:Mayan Languages
2468:
2080:
1912:
1769:
1750:Genetic history
1733:
1728:
1675:
1403:
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1393:
1348:
1332:
1279:
1264:
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1236:
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1228:See Coe, p. 58.
1227:
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1201:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1174:
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1156:
1152:Bruhns, p. 368.
1151:
1147:
1143:Kubler, p. 191.
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926:Kubler, p. 193.
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854:Kubler, p. 194.
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797:Wayback Machine
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312:practices, the
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2952:Notable Rulers
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502:Unknown Mexico
500:'s 1902 work,
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2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1908:Weeden Island
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1883:Poverty Point
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1848:Mississippian
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
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1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1775:North America
1772:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1745:Paleo-Indians
1743:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1713:
1711:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1676:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1615:1-933565-01-2
1612:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1579:0-8263-1175-X
1576:
1572:
1568:
1565:
1564:0-300-05325-8
1561:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1542:0-8263-1175-X
1539:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1450:0-500-27722-2
1447:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1400:on 2008-08-29
1397:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1355:
1347:
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1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1286:
1278:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1252:
1243:
1234:
1225:
1216:
1209:
1203:
1194:
1185:
1176:
1167:
1158:
1149:
1140:
1133:
1127:
1120:
1116:
1110:
1101:
1092:
1083:
1074:
1065:
1055:
1046:
1037:
1027:
1020:
1015:
1006:
999:
995:
989:
980:
971:
962:
953:
946:
941:
932:
923:
914:
905:
896:
887:
878:
869:
860:
851:
842:
833:
824:
815:
809:
804:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
772:
765:
757:
750:
746:
740:
731:
724:
720:
714:
706:
701:
694:
690:
684:
676:
670:
666:
665:
660:
656:
650:
643:
637:
630:
624:
617:
613:
610:
604:
600:
593:
585:
573:
569:
566:
564:
561:
560:
554:
550:
546:
544:
539:
535:
530:
525:
523:
518:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
486:
481:
477:
475:
470:
468:
457:
454:
452:
448:
444:
436:
431:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
403:
400:
395:
393:
378:
376:
363:
359:
355:
350:
347:
342:
339:
335:
334:
329:
325:
319:
315:
311:
308:insight into
307:
303:
302:
301:
293:
286:
282:
281:
276:
268:
267:aquiline nose
264:
261:
257:
256:
251:
244:
243:George Kubler
240:
236:
233:
232:
231:
223:
221:
216:
214:
210:
201:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
178:shell jewelry
175:
171:
164:
159:
150:
148:
144:
140:
135:
133:
127:
125:
121:
116:
114:
110:
106:
96:
87:
85:
84:cultural area
80:
78:
74:
69:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
29:
25:
20:
16:
3199:
3177:
3110:
2960:Moctezuma II
2917:Inca history
2842:Andean Music
2786:Architecture
2781:Architecture
2776:Architecture
2771:Architecture
2767:Architecture
2761:Gender Roles
2506:Tenochtitlan
2429:Timoto–Cuica
2424:Tierradentro
2209:Casma–Sechin
2020:
1941:Chalcatzingo
1651:Melvin Ember
1642:
1635:
1628:
1606:
1585:
1570:
1555:
1533:
1526:
1505:
1490:
1482:
1463:
1456:
1441:
1438:Coe, Michael
1432:Ethnohistory
1431:
1427:
1412:
1402:. Retrieved
1391:the original
1358:
1352:
1330:the original
1289:
1283:
1255:Kan, p. 126.
1251:
1242:
1233:
1224:
1215:
1202:
1193:
1184:
1175:
1166:
1157:
1148:
1139:
1126:
1119:Mixteca Alta
1109:
1100:
1091:
1082:
1073:
1064:
1054:
1045:
1036:
1026:
1014:
1005:
997:
994:these photos
988:
979:
970:
961:
952:
940:
931:
922:
913:
904:
895:
886:
877:
868:
859:
850:
841:
832:
827:Christensen.
823:
814:
803:
788:
780:
771:
756:
751:give 600 CE.
748:
739:
730:
722:
713:
704:
700:
688:
683:
663:
649:
636:
623:
603:
551:
547:
526:
517:Diego Rivera
514:
506:Tzintzuntzan
501:
495:
471:
463:
455:
440:
409:
396:
389:
372:
358:conch shells
338:Mesoamerican
323:
306:ethnographic
299:
290:
229:
217:
206:
168:
136:
128:
117:
102:
81:
70:
67:
34:
32:
15:
3023:TĂşpac Amaru
3007:Manco Cápac
2956:Moctezuma I
2867:Agriculture
2862:Agriculture
2857:Agriculture
2848:Agriculture
2791:Road System
2680:Mathematics
2545:Muysc Cubun
2399:San AgustĂn
2349:Monte Verde
2026:Teotihuacan
1918:Mesoamerica
1813:Coles Creek
1798:Anishinaabe
1755:Archaeology
1365:: 385–412.
1296:: 135–147.
1188:Sund, p. 2.
1170:Coe, p. 58.
956:Kan, p. 26.
908:Kan. p. 22.
890:Kan, p. 22.
881:Kan. p. 21.
640:Judy Sund,
570:, mythical
412:Mesoamerica
375:grave goods
209:Mesoamerica
186:conch shell
170:Grave goods
120:shaft tombs
90:Description
3206:Categories
2994:Tisquesusa
2968:Cuauhtémoc
2964:Cuitláhuac
2294:Lauricocha
2264:Gran Chaco
2254:Cupisnique
2239:Chinchorro
2214:Chachapoya
2204:Caral–Supe
2046:Tlaxcaltec
2036:Teuchitlán
1951:ChupĂcuaro
1878:Plum Bayou
1873:Plaquemine
1843:Marksville
1808:Chichimeca
1404:2008-04-18
1262:References
1206:See Sund,
1031:tradition.
762:Williams,
717:Williams,
627:Williams,
220:provenance
139:La Campana
63:provenance
24:shaft tomb
3015:Atahualpa
3011:Pachacuti
2986:Nemequene
2852:Chinampas
2674:Astronomy
2663:Astronomy
2643:Mythology
2638:Mythology
2633:Mythology
2628:Mythology
2624:Mythology
2454:Wankarani
2444:Tuncahuán
2334:Marajoara
2289:Las Vegas
2175:Atacameño
2071:Xochipala
2011:Purépecha
1971:Epi-Olmec
1961:Cuicuilco
1903:Troyville
1893:St. Johns
1645:, Vol 5,
1387:201247825
1379:0278-4165
1326:145100919
1310:0956-5361
808:Kappelman
543:cosmogram
149:culture.
109:Michoacán
73:Purépecha
3111:See also
3029:Conquest
3002:Zoratama
2669:Calendar
2658:Calendar
2653:Calendar
2649:Calendar
2618:Religion
2613:Religion
2602:Religion
2591:Religion
2587:Religion
2576:Numerals
2570:Numerals
2531:Language
2511:Multiple
2449:Valdivia
2434:Tiwanaku
2394:Saladoid
2389:Quimbaya
2279:Kuhikugu
2259:Diaguita
2249:Chorrera
2066:Veraguas
2061:Veracruz
2041:Tlatilco
1853:Mogollon
1760:Cultures
1738:Americas
1318:88113895
1130:Hosler,
793:Archived
661:(1998).
612:Archived
557:See also
310:funerary
192:and the
174:obsidian
105:El Opeño
57:and 400
2998:Tundama
2927:Peoples
2912:History
2907:History
2902:History
2898:History
2892:Cuisine
2887:Cuisine
2882:Cuisine
2877:Cuisine
2873:Cuisine
2731:Warfare
2726:Warfare
2721:Warfare
2717:Warfare
2711:Society
2706:Economy
2695:Society
2690:Society
2686:Society
2556:Writing
2550:Quechua
2535:Nahuatl
2502:Capital
2439:Toyopán
2419:Tairona
2329:Mapuche
2244:Chiripa
2219:Chancay
2190:Cañaris
2165:Amotape
2160:El Abra
2076:Zapotec
2056:Totonac
2031:Tepanec
2016:Quelepa
1986:Mezcala
1976:Huastec
1946:Cholula
1936:Capacha
1931:Acolhua
1888:Sinagua
1863:Patayan
1833:Hohokam
1823:Fremont
1693:at the
1653:(eds),
1440:(1994)
1059:world".
1040:Danien.
568:Naguals
534:Huichol
381:Context
182:metates
147:Capacha
99:Colima.
47:Nayarit
43:Jalisco
2941:Muisca
2936:Mayans
2931:Aztecs
2565:Script
2560:Script
2520:Bacatá
2491:Muisca
2374:Pucará
2369:Piaroa
2364:Paiján
2359:Omagua
2314:Lupaca
2309:Lokono
2274:Kalina
2269:Huetar
2229:ChavĂn
2224:Chango
2199:Nariño
2195:CapulĂ
2185:Calima
2180:Aymara
2170:Arawak
2051:Toltec
2001:Olmecs
1996:Nicoya
1991:Mixtec
1966:Diquis
1868:Picosa
1858:Oshara
1828:Glades
1818:Dorset
1657:
1613:
1592:
1577:
1562:
1540:
1512:
1497:
1448:
1419:
1385:
1377:
1324:
1316:
1308:
784:AMNH,
671:
447:manioc
354:shaman
348:style.
226:Styles
213:stelae
143:Colima
132:elites
77:Aztecs
51:Colima
2946:Incas
2837:Music
2832:Music
2827:Music
2823:Music
2756:Women
2751:Women
2746:Women
2742:Women
2700:Trade
2581:Quipu
2525:Cusco
2516:Hunza
2481:Aztec
2414:TaĂno
2409:Sican
2404:Shuar
2354:Nazca
2344:Mollo
2339:Moche
2319:Luzia
2234:ChimĂş
2006:Pipil
1981:Izapa
1956:Coclé
1898:Thule
1788:Adena
1349:(PDF)
1322:S2CID
1280:(PDF)
1208:p. 32
1132:p. 16
642:p. 13
596:arms.
579:Notes
443:maize
416:Olmec
190:Olmec
2736:Army
2518:and
2496:Inca
2486:Maya
2464:ZenĂş
2459:Wari
2304:Lima
1655:ISBN
1649:and
1611:ISBN
1590:ISBN
1575:ISBN
1560:ISBN
1538:ISBN
1510:ISBN
1495:ISBN
1446:ISBN
1417:ISBN
1383:OCLC
1375:ISSN
1314:OCLC
1306:ISSN
992:See
669:ISBN
609:ICOM
538:Cora
536:and
369:Uses
285:slip
194:Maya
176:and
124:tuff
33:The
2817:Art
2812:Art
2807:Art
2802:Art
2798:Art
1430:",
1396:PDF
1367:doi
1335:PDF
1298:doi
467:MIT
422:or
141:in
107:in
55:BCE
41:of
3208::
3055:)
1481:.
1381:.
1373:.
1359:19
1357:.
1351:.
1320:.
1312:.
1304:.
1288:.
1282:.
1000:).
691:,
657:;
476:.
59:CE
45:,
3099:)
3095:(
3088:)
3084:(
3082:)
3078:(
3076:)
3072:(
3065:)
3061:(
3051:(
3040:)
3036:(
2793:)
2789:(
2702:)
2698:(
2676:)
2672:(
2665:)
2661:(
2609:)
2605:(
2598:)
2594:(
2572:)
2568:(
2197:/
1723:e
1716:t
1709:v
1661:.
1617:.
1596:.
1581:.
1566:.
1544:.
1501:.
1452:.
1423:.
1407:.
1394:(
1369::
1333:(
1300::
1290:7
1210:.
1134:.
1121:.
1021:.
947:.
766:.
677:.
644:.
618:.
437:.
320:.
165:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
