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biological needs, social co-ordination needs, and needs related to the welfare and survival of groups. Schwartz's results from a series of studies that included surveys of more than 25,000 people in 44 countries with a wide range of different cultural types suggest that there are fifty-six specific universal values and ten types of universal value. Schwartz's ten types of universal value are:
90:'s understanding of the term. According to Berlin, "...universal values....are values that a great many human beings in the vast majority of places and situations, at almost all times, do in fact hold in common, whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in their behaviour..." Second, something could have universal value when all people have
186:
research investigating whether there are universal values, and what those values are. Schwartz defined 'values' as "conceptions of the desirable that influence the way people select action and evaluate events". He hypothesised that universal values would relate to three different types of human need:
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82:
The claim for universal values can be understood in two different ways. First, it could be that something has a universal value when everybody
648:
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). 'Universals in the
Content and Structure of Values: Theory and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries'. In M. Zanna (ed.),
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study of universal value addresses questions such as the meaningfulness of universal value or whether universal values exist.
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55:, though it is clear that certain values are found across a great diversity of human cultures, such as primary attributes of
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122:. The issue of whether anything is of universal value, and, if so, what that thing or those things are, is relevant to
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Schwartz, S. H. (1994). 'Are there
Universal Aspects in the Structure and Contents of Human Values?'.
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668:
Schwartz, S. H. and W. Bilsky (1987). 'Toward a
Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values'.
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if it has the same value or worth for all, or almost all, people. Spheres of human value encompass
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value non-violence. Many different things have been claimed to be of universal value, for example,
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Women and Human
Development; The 5th Annual Hesburgh Lectures on Ethics and Public Policy
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argued that non-violence is a universal value, he was arguing that all people have
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223:. Below are each of the value types, with the specific related values alongside:
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study of universal value addresses how such values are formed in a society.
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404:', but found that it does not seem to be recognised in all cultures.
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182:, along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out
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47:. Whether universal values exist is an unproven conjecture of
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The Common Mind: An Essay on
Psychology, Society, and Politics
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Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value, '
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606:. McArthur & Co. Reprinted 2007, Halban Publishers.
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interprets the term in this way, pointing out that when
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Sen, Amartya (1999). 'Democracy as a
Universal Value'.
388:; stability of social order; reciprocation of favours;
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593:Diamond, Larry Jay, and Marc F. Plattner (2001).
67:. This objection is not limited to aesthetics.
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271:: daring activities; varied life; exciting life
165:Psychology and the search for universal values
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1701:Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel
671:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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16:Value that has the same worth for all people
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580:Bolin, Anne, and Patricia Whelehan (1999).
106:to value non-violence, not that all people
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708:(1999). 'In Defense of Universal Values'
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632:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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358:; devoutness; respect for tradition;
138:Perspectives from various disciplines
699:'Do We Still Have Universal Values'.
643:. New York: Oxford University Press.
595:The Global Divergence of Democracies
1749:Elements of the Philosophy of Right
733:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
714:. Occasional Paper Series, 16:OP:1.
354:: accepting one's portion in life;
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722:'Basic Human Values: An Overview'.
14:
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652:. New York: Academic Press: 1-65.
597:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
244:: success; capability; ambition;
238:; dominance, social power, wealth
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604:Conversations With Isaiah Berlin
729:'Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value'
582:Perspectives on Human Sexuality
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1087:Value monism – Value pluralism
727:Michael J. Zimmerman, (2007).
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602:Jahanbegloo, Ramin, (1991).
171:Theory of Basic Human Values
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400:', or 'the goal of finding
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321:protecting the environment
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735:. (Accessed 13 Nov 2007).
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509:Bolin & Whelehan 1999
293:; choosing your own goals
94:to believe it has value.
1060:Universal prescriptivism
660:Journal of Social Issues
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455:Universal basic services
175:Moral foundations theory
849:Artificial intelligence
724:(Accessed 6 Feb. 2016).
639:Pettit, Philip (1996).
626:Mason, Elinor, (2006).
57:physical attractiveness
450:Universal basic income
415:Christian universalism
134:, among other fields.
86:it valuable. This was
1773:The Methods of Ethics
1011:Divine command theory
1006:Ideal observer theory
319:; unity with nature;
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1890:Political philosophy
681:Journal of Democracy
392:; sense of belonging
61:aesthetic relativism
33:aesthetic preference
1860:Evolutionary ethics
1821:Reasons and Persons
1797:A Theory of Justice
951:Uncertain sentience
384:; family security;
299:: broadmindedness;
1855:Ethics in religion
1850:Descriptive ethics
1685:Nicomachean Ethics
718:Shalom H. Schwartz
628:'Value pluralism'.
440:Unconditional love
435:Moral universalism
420:Cultural universal
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1885:Philosophy of law
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612:1-905559-03-8
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587:
583:
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566:
565:Schwartz 1992
561:
555:
554:Schwartz 1994
550:
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318:
315:; a world of
314:
311:; a world at
310:
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160:
151:
149:
148:Philosophical
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
88:Isaiah Berlin
85:
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1961:Universalism
1914:
1870:Human rights
1813:After Virtue
1539:Schopenhauer
1313:Moral agency
1186:Common sense
1082:Universalism
1050:Expressivism
1030:Intuitionism
1001:Subjectivism
946:Terraforming
921:Professional
732:
711:
680:
669:
658:
649:
640:
631:
603:
594:
581:
560:
549:
537:
526:
515:
504:
492:
480:
465:Value system
460:Universalism
425:Human rights
398:spirituality
395:
377:
364:
351:
326:
297:Universalism
296:
287:independence
274:
268:
258:
254:self-respect
250:intelligence
241:
227:
205:universalism
178:
159:Sociological
157:
146:
107:
103:
91:
83:
81:
77:moral values
45:social order
24:
18:
1688:(c. 322 BC)
1554:Kierkegaard
1373:Stewardship
1150:Rousseauian
1067:Rationalism
979:Cognitivism
926:Programming
901:Meat eating
874:Engineering
382:cleanliness
335:forgiveness
327:Benevolence
269:Stimulation
242:Achievement
209:benevolence
197:stimulation
96:Amartya Sen
1950:Categories
1584:Bonhoeffer
1293:Immorality
1236:Eudaimonia
1196:Conscience
1191:Compassion
1077:Skepticism
1072:Relativism
989:Naturalism
969:Absolutism
941:Technology
791:Deontology
695:Kofi Annan
586:SUNY Press
574:References
520:Mason 2006
365:Conformity
360:moderation
347:friendship
279:creativity
236:leadership
217:conformity
169:See also:
143:Philosophy
132:philosophy
124:psychology
69:Relativism
1845:Casuistry
1757:Either/Or
1664:Korsgaard
1659:Azurmendi
1624:MacIntyre
1564:Nietzsche
1494:Augustine
1489:Confucius
1469:Aristotle
1445:Ethicists
1403:Intrinsic
1368:Suffering
1278:Happiness
1251:Free will
1231:Etiquette
1176:Authority
1120:Epicurean
1115:Confucian
1110:Christian
1045:Emotivism
869:Discourse
806:Pragmatic
778:Normative
373:obedience
352:Tradition
291:curiosity
246:influence
232:authority
213:tradition
184:empirical
154:Sociology
120:democracy
112:fertility
108:currently
1935:Category
1875:Ideology
1840:Axiology
1669:Nussbaum
1619:Frankena
1614:Anscombe
1604:Williams
1559:Sidgwick
1479:Valluvar
1474:Diogenes
1459:Socrates
1383:Theodicy
1378:Sympathy
1343:Pacifism
1333:Morality
1246:Fidelity
1226:Equality
1181:Autonomy
1169:Concepts
1130:Feminist
1105:Buddhist
1035:Nihilism
974:Axiology
931:Research
864:Computer
859:Business
544:, p. 550
531:Sen 1999
497:Sen 1999
408:See also
378:Security
356:humility
309:equality
263:pleasure
259:Hedonism
221:security
193:hedonism
116:pleasure
29:morality
1833:Related
1579:Tillich
1544:Bentham
1519:Spinoza
1514:Aquinas
1499:Mencius
1413:Western
1388:Torture
1353:Precept
1308:Loyalty
1303:Liberty
1298:Justice
1211:Dignity
1201:Consent
1145:Kantian
1135:Islamic
1098:Schools
984:Realism
916:Nursing
911:Medical
896:Machine
836:Applied
499:, p. 12
487:, p. 37
339:loyalty
331:honesty
283:freedom
1824:(1984)
1816:(1981)
1808:(1979)
1800:(1971)
1792:(1903)
1784:(1887)
1776:(1874)
1768:(1861)
1760:(1843)
1752:(1820)
1744:(1788)
1736:(1785)
1728:(1780)
1720:(1759)
1712:(1740)
1704:(1726)
1696:(1677)
1654:Taylor
1639:Parfit
1634:Singer
1609:Mackie
1484:Cicero
1425:Virtue
1358:Rights
1283:Honour
1140:Jewish
936:Sexual
844:Animal
826:Virtue
770:Ethics
618:
610:
390:health
317:beauty
301:wisdom
219:, and
130:, and
118:, and
104:reason
92:reason
43:, and
37:traits
1916:Index
1678:Works
1649:Adams
1644:Nagel
1599:Dewey
1594:Rawls
1574:Barth
1569:Moore
1534:Hegel
1509:Xunzi
1464:Plato
1454:Laozi
1435:Wrong
1408:Japan
1398:Value
1393:Trust
1288:Ideal
1155:Stoic
906:Media
891:Legal
472:Notes
313:peace
228:Power
189:power
84:finds
23:is a
21:value
1629:Hare
1589:Foot
1549:Mill
1529:Kant
1524:Hume
1504:Mozi
1420:Vice
1338:Norm
1266:Evil
1261:Good
1221:Duty
961:Meta
884:Land
811:Role
796:Care
616:ISBN
608:ISBN
173:and
51:and
1430:Vow
1160:Tao
854:Bio
630:In
79:.
1952::
731:,
720:,
710:,
706:,
697:,
614:,
584:.
380::
371:;
367::
345:;
341:;
337:;
333:;
307:;
303:;
289:;
285:;
281:;
277::
261::
252:;
248:;
234:;
230::
215:,
211:,
207:,
203:,
199:,
195:,
126:,
114:,
39:,
35:,
31:,
19:A
762:e
755:t
748:v
588:.
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