Penal transportation

1558:(specialized train cars) are very poor. In many cases, the Russian penitentiary system utilizes special cars. These cars contain five large compartments and three smaller compartments. The larger car is 3.5 meters squared. The size of the larger car is approximately the same as normal Russian railcar spaces. The larger compartments have six and a half individual sleeping spaces. There are three bunks on each wall and a half bunk that goes between the two middle bunks. The half bunk is not full sized and prevents prisoners from standing up in the car. For food, prisoners are given dehydrated food three times a day and limited amounts of hot water to rehydrate their meals. Bedding is not provided nor are mattresses. During transit, prisoners do not have access to proper medical treatment. The medication that a prisoner would normally take is carried by guards. Transportation routes are often cyclical and prisoners do not know where they are going. This sense of unease and unknowing has been known to increase feelings of isolation. This process can take 3–5 hours which further prolongs travel time. Prisoners have very limited access to toilets while on the trains, about every five to six hours. While the trains are stationary they have no access at all. This can be very difficult as trains often are kept at stations or 316: 47: 267:, it was equally unreasonable for them to escape punishment entirely. With the development of colonies, transportation was introduced as an alternative punishment, although legally it was considered a condition of a pardon, rather than a sentence in itself. Convicts who represented a menace to the community were sent away to distant lands. A secondary aim was to discourage crime for fear of being transported. Transportation continued to be described as a public exhibition of the king's mercy. It was a solution to a real problem in the domestic penal system. There was also the hope that transported convicts could be rehabilitated and reformed by starting a new life in the colonies. In 1615, in the reign of 764: 660: 524: 923: 898:. c. 47) officially enacted the previous orders in council into law, stating "his Majesty hath declared and appointed... that the eastern coast of New South Wales, and the islands thereunto adjacent, should be the place or places beyond the seas to which certain felons, and other offenders, should be conveyed and transported ... or other places". The act also gave "authority to remit or shorten the time or term" of the sentence "in cases where it shall appear that such felons, or other offenders, are proper objects of the royal mercy" 339:. The payment they received also covered the jail fees, the fees for granting the pardon, the clerk's fees, and everything necessary to authorise the transportation. These arrangements for transportation continued until the end of the 17th century and beyond, but they diminished in 1670 due to certain complications. The colonial opposition was one of the main obstacles: colonies were unwilling to collaborate in accepting prisoners: the convicts represented a danger to the colony and were unwelcome. 1838: 1129: 1852: 234: 307:, was a fundamental feature of the penal system, but to prevent its abuse, this pardoning process was used more strictly. Prisoners were carefully selected for transportation based on information about their character and previous criminal record. It was arranged that they fail the reading test, but they were then reprieved and held in jail, without bail, to allow time for a royal pardon (subject to transportation) to be organised. 890:, within their overall plans to populate and colonise the continent, would differentiate it from America, where the use of convicts was only a minor adjunct to its overall policy. In 1787, when transportation resumed to the chosen Australian colonies, the far greater distance added to the terrible experience of exile, and it was considered more severe than the methods of imprisonment employed for the previous decade. The 627:(1775–1783) halted transportation to America. Parliament claimed that "the transportation of convicts to his Majesty's colonies and plantations in America ... is found to be attended with various inconveniences, particularly by depriving this kingdom of many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community, and who, by proper care and correction, might be reclaimed from their evil course"; they then passed the 496:

advantage of this sentence was that they could be discharged thanks to benefit of clergy while men were whipped. Women with young children were also supported since transportation unavoidably separated them. The facts and numbers revealed how transportation was less frequently applied to women and children because they were usually guilty of minor crimes and they were considered a minimal threat to the community.

2215:, Vol. X, No. 2, August, 1901. "There was a popular prejudice against subjecting Christians into slavery or selling them into foreign parts, but Cromwell did not draw any such distinctions. Not only did his agents systematically capture Irish youths and girls for export to the West Indies, but all the garrison who were not killed in the Drogheda Massacre were shipped as slaves to the Barbadoes." 271:, a committee of the council had already obtained the power to choose from the prisoners those that deserved pardon and, consequently, transportation to the colonies. Convicts were chosen carefully: the Acts of the Privy Council showed that prisoners "for strength of bodie or other abilities shall be thought fit to be employed in foreign discoveries or other services beyond the Seas". 1163: 1308:

convicted and transported to Australia. Most were guilty of relatively minor crimes like theft of food/clothes/small items, but some were convicted of serious crimes like rape or murder. Convict status was not inherited by children, and convicts were generally freed after serving their sentence, although many died during transportation or during their sentence.

1064:, usually for a number of years. The American Revolution brought transportation to the North American mainland to an end. The remaining British colonies (in what is now Canada) were regarded as unsuitable for various reasons, including the possibility that transportation might increase dissatisfaction with British rule among settlers and/or the possibility of 1826:(1966), in which convicts and political dissidents are transported to lunar colonies in order to grow food for Earth. In Heinlein's book, a sentence of lunar transportation is necessarily permanent, as the long-term physiological effects of the moon's weak surface gravity (about one-sixth that of Earth) leave "loonies" unable to return safely to Earth. 1669:, episode 6 season 14, "The Ministry of Virtue," Murdoch must investigate the death of a woman who was sentenced to a bridal version of the punishment. Namely, Murdoch learns of "Virtue Girls," British female convicts who have accepted the alternative of agreeing to marry bachelors in Canada instead of being sentenced to prison. 433:, a London merchant, for the transportation to the colonies. The business was entrusted to Forward in 1718: for each prisoner transported overseas, he was paid £3 (equivalent to £590 in 2023), rising to £5 in 1727 (equivalent to £940 in 2023). The Treasury also paid for the transportation of prisoners from the 875:. c. 46) also resulted to help alleviate overcrowding. Both acts empowered the Crown to appoint certain places within his dominions, or outside them, as the destination for transported criminals; the acts would move convicts around the country as needed for labour, or where they could be utilized and accommodated. 1999:

The Parliament of England taking into their care the maintenance and advance of the Traffick Trade, and several Manufactures of this Nation; and being desirous to improve and multiply the same for the best advantage and benefit thereof, to the end that ye poore people of this Land may be set on work,

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All these factors meant that most women and children were simply left in jail. Some magistrates supported a proposal to release women who could not be transported, but this solution was considered absurd: this caused the Lords Justices to order that no distinction be made between men and women. Women

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One reason for the success of this Act was that transportation was financially costly. The system of sponsorship by merchants had to be improved. Initially the government rejected Thomson's proposal to pay merchants to transport convicts, but three months after the first transportation sentences were

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to allow the transporting of felons, and was followed by another bill presented to the Lords to allow the transportation of criminals convicted of felony within clergy or petty larceny. These bills failed, but it was clear that change was needed. Transportation was not a sentence in itself, but could

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While traveling to and from train stations, prisoners are transported in vans. While the time spent in vans is usually shorter than the time spent in trains, the conditions are still quite bad. The vans normally have two larger compartments that can fit 10 prisoners. Within the compartments there is

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c. 3) ended the sentence of transportation in virtually all cases, with the terms of sentence initially being of the same duration as transportation. While transport was greatly reduced following enactment of the 1857 act, the last convicts sentenced to transportation arrived in Western Australia in

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convicts usually destined for public whipping) were directly sentenced to transportation to the American colonies for seven years. A sentence of fourteen years was imposed on prisoners guilty of capital offences pardoned by the king. Returning from the colonies before the stated period was a capital

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was deemed too severe. By 1670, as new felonies were defined, the option of being sentenced to transportation was allowed. Depending on the crime, the sentence was imposed for life or for a set period of years. If imposed for a period of years, the offender was permitted to return home after serving

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At the beginning of the 19th century, transportation for life became the maximum penalty for several offences which had previously been punishable by death. With complaints starting in the 1830s, sentences of transportation became less common in 1840 since the system was perceived to be a failure:

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An Act for further continuing, for a limited Time, an Act made in the Sixteenth Year of the Reign of His present Majesty, intituled, "An Act to authorize, for a limited Time, the Punishment, by hard Labour, of Offenders, who for certain Crimes are or shall become liable to be transported to any of

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were punished by transportation (seven years), and the sentence for any non-capital offence was at the judge's discretion. In 1723 an Act was presented in Virginia to discourage transportation by establishing complex rules for the reception of prisoners, but the reluctance of colonies did not stop

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The penal system was also influenced by economics: the profits obtained from convicts' labour boosted the economy of the colonies and, consequently, of England. Nevertheless, it could be argued that transportation was economically deleterious because the aim was to enlarge population, not diminish

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In addition to poor transit conditions, prisoners are severely limited in their communication with the outside world. Prisoners are denied the right to communicate with their lawyers and families. This can be difficult for their families because they do not know where the prisoner is or what has

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c. 99), long titled "An Act to substitute, in certain Cases, other Punishment in lieu of Transportation," enacted that with judicial discretion, lesser felonies, those subject to transportation for less than 14 years, could be sentenced to imprisonment with labour for a specific term. To provide

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Convicts were generally treated harshly, forced to work against their will, often doing hard physical labour and dangerous jobs. In some cases they were cuffed and chained in work gangs. The majority of convicts were men, although a significant portion were women. Some were as young as 10 when

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In a few cases before 1734, the court changed sentences of transportation to sentences of branding on the thumb or whipping, by convicting the accused for lesser crimes than those of which they were accused. This manipulation phase came to an end in 1734. With the exception of those years, the

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brigands on the Scottish border, offenders had their benefit of clergy taken away, or otherwise at the judge's discretion, were to be transported to America, "there to remaine and not to returne". There were various influential agents of change: judges' discretionary powers influenced the law

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But most Loonies never tried to leave The Rock – too risky for any bloke who'd been in Luna more than weeks. Computermen sent up to install Mike were on short-term bonus contracts – get job done fast before irreversible physiological change marooned them four hundred thousand kilometers from

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Thanks to transportation, the number of men whipped and released diminished, but whipping and discharge were chosen more often for women. The reverse was true when women were sentenced for a capital offence, but actually served a lesser sentence due to a manipulation of the penal system: one

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An Act to continue an Act made in the Sixteenth Year of His present Majesty, intituled, "An Act to authorize, for a limited Time, the Punishment by hard Labour of Offenders who, for certain Crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of His Majesty's Colonies and

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Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland ended at different times in different colonies, with the last being in 1868, although it had become uncommon several years earlier thanks to the loosening of laws in Britain, changing sentiment in Australia, and groups such as the

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populations. The transportations had a twofold objective: to remove potential liabilities from the warfront, and to provide human capital for the settlement and industrialization of the largely underpopulated eastern regions. The policy continued until February 1956, when

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In 2015, an estimated 20% of the Australian population had convict ancestry. In 2013, an estimated 30% of the Australian population (about 7 million) had Irish ancestry – the highest percentage outside of Ireland – thanks partially to historical convict transportation.

1393:. Surviving prisoners were repatriated in 1937. The penal settlement was shut down in 1945. An estimated 80,000 political prisoners were transported to the Cellular Jail which became known for its harsh conditions, including forced labor; prisoners who went on 1510:, the Soviet Union transported up to 1.9 million people from its western republics to Siberia and the Central Asian republics of the Union. Most were persons accused of treasonous collaboration with Nazi Germany, or of Anti-Soviet rebellion. Following 3034: 1703:. While so exiled, he earned the fortune that he later would use to help Pip. Further, it was Magwitch's desire to see the "gentleman" that Pip had become that motivated him to illegally return to England, which ultimately led to his arrest and death. 334:

Transportation became a business: merchants chose from among the prisoners on the basis of the demand for labour and their likely profits. They obtained a contract from the sheriffs, and after the voyage to the colonies they sold the convicts as

254:. This was due to both the particularly large number of offences which were punishable by execution (usually by hanging), and to the limited choice of sentences available to judges for convicted criminals. With modifications to the traditional 1186:. The First Fleet included boats containing food and animals from London. The ships and boats of the fleet would explore the coast of Australia by sailing all around it looking for suitable farming land and resources. The fleet arrived at 454:

Transportation Act led to a decrease in whipping of convicts, thus avoiding potentially inflammatory public displays. Clergyable discharge continued to be used when the accused could not be transported for reasons of age or infirmity.

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1868. During the 80 years of its use to Australia, the number of transported convicts totalled about 162,000 men and women. Over time the alternative terms of imprisonment would be somewhat reduced from their terms of transportation.

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by which many common offenders of "clergyable" offences were extended the privilege to avoid execution. Many offenders were pardoned as it was considered unreasonable to execute them for relatively minor offences, but under the

371:(1714–27), transportation was not easily arranged, but imprisonment was not considered enough to punish hardened criminals or those who had committed capital offences, so transportation was the preferred punishment. 2773:"An act for enabling his Majesty to authorize his governor or lieutenant governor of such places beyond the seas, to which felons and others offenders may be transported, to remit the sentences of such offenders" 471:

were the offences most often punishable with transportation for men. In those years, five of the nine women who were transported after being sentenced to death were guilty of simple larceny, an offence for which

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The "Felons' Act" (as the Transportation Act was called) was printed and distributed in 1718, and in April twenty-seven men and women were sentenced to transportation. The Act led to significant changes: both

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30 July 1649 Act empowering the Lord Mayor, Justices of Gaol delivery for Newgate, to transport threescore prisoners convicted of Felony and other heinous crimes, unto the Summer Islands or other new English

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crime continued at high levels, people were not dissuaded from committing felonies, and the conditions of convicts in the colonies were inhumane. Although a concerted programme of prison building ensued, the

363:(1701–14) adversely affected merchant shipping and hence transportation. In the post-war period there was more crime and hence potentially more executions, and something needed to be done. In the reigns of 286:, the penal transportation system and the number of people subjected to it, started to change inexorably between 1660 and 1720, with transportation replacing the simple discharge of clergyable felons after 541:

An Act to authorize, for a limited Time, the Punishment, by hard Labour, of Offenders who, for certain Crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of His Majesty’s Colonies and Plantations.

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Penal transportation was not limited to men or even to adults. Men, women, and children were sentenced to transportation, but its implementation varied by sex and age. From 1660 to 1670, highway robbery,

635:. c. 43) "An act to authorize ... the punishment by hard labour of offenders who, for certain crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of his Majesty's colonies and plantations." 3081:

With the American War of Independence all but lost and hope of restarting the transportation of convicts to the Americas dwindling fast, Britain had begun sneakily banishing its criminals to West Africa

1749:"), published in 1919, was set in an unidentified penal settlement where condemned prisoners were executed by a brutal machine. The work was later adapted for several other media, including an opera by 397:. But the punishments that then applied were not enough of a disincentive to commit crime: another solution was needed. The Transportation Act was introduced into the House of Commons in 1717 under the 982:

The system of criminal punishment by transportation, as it had developed over nearly 150 years, was officially ended in Britain in the 1850s, when that sentence was substituted by imprisonment with

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For the ensuing decade, men were instead sentenced to hard labour and women were imprisoned. Finding alternative locations to send convicts was not easy, and the act was extended twice by the

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principles. Whilst the policy itself was rescinded, the transported populations did not begin to return to their original metropoles until after the collapse of the Soviet Union, in 1991.

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overcame the popular prejudice against subjecting Christians to slavery or selling them into foreign parts, and initiated group transportation of military and civilian prisoners. With the

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their time, but had to make their own way back. Many offenders thus stayed in the colony as free persons, and might obtain employment as jailers or other servants of the penal colony.

2126:"An act for the effectual transportation of felons, and other offenders, in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, and to authorize the removal of prisoners in certain places." 1695:

helps him in the opening pages of the novel. Magwitch, who had been apprehended shortly after the young Pip had helped him, was thereafter sentenced to transportation for life to

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of London and became a judge in 1729. He was a prominent sentencing officer at the Old Bailey and the man who gave important information about capital offenders to the cabinet.

198: 886:, on land previously claimed for Britain in 1770, but as yet not settled by Britain or any other European power. The British policy toward Australia, specifically for use as a 3576: 174:. c. 43). The practice was mandated in Scotland by an act of 1785, but was less used there than in England. Transportation on a large scale resumed with the departure of the 2631:"An act for the effectual transportation of felons and other offenders; and to authorize the removal of prisoners in certain cases; and for other purposes therein mentioned" 118:. For example, from the earliest days of English colonial schemes, new settlements beyond the seas were seen as a way to alleviate domestic social problems of criminals and 2863: 1071:

After the termination of transportation to North America, British prisons became overcrowded, and dilapidated ships moored in various ports were pressed into service as

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and their Families preserved from Beggary and Ruine, and that the Commonwealth might be enriched thereby, and no occasion left either for Idleness or Poverty:...

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has proposed 120,000. Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province. Many prisoners were taken in battle from Ireland or Scotland and sold into

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on the frontier were sometimes the victims of indigenous attacks, while convicts and ex-convicts also attacked indigenous people in some instances, such as the

1982: 1866: 3839: 3611: 1389:, also called Kālā Pānī or Kalapani (Hindi for black waters), was constructed between 1896 and 1906 as a high-security prison with 698 individual cells for 3269: 3165: 1435:(16 November 1906 – 29 July 1973) was a French writer, convicted in 1931 as a murderer by the French courts and pardoned in 1970. He wrote the novel 1003:

c. 121), long titled "An Act for providing Places of Confinement in England or Wales for Female Offenders under Sentence or Order of Transportation." The

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became a French penal colony from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897; about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners (most notably

46: 3849: 3339: 3135: 2836: 3470:(1/2, The Long Eighteenth Century). Centre for Arts, Humanities and Sciences (CAHS), acting on behalf of the University of Debrecen CAHS: 93–103. 2751: 3844: 3183: 1293:

but both were abandoned shortly after. Later, a free settlement was established and this settlement later accepted some convict transportation.

2776: 2634: 2587: 2089: 2807: 220:. This enabled some convicts to resume a more normal life, to marry and raise a family, and to contribute to the development of the colony. 3874: 1532: 2038:"Charles II, 1670 & 1671: An Act to prevent the malitious burning of Houses, Stackes of Corne and Hay and killing or maiming of Catle" 3545: 476:

was not available for women until 1692. Also, merchants preferred young and able-bodied men for whom there was a demand in the colonies.

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Pardons & Punishments: Judges Reports on Criminals, 1783 to 1830: HO (Home Office) 47 Volumes 304 and 305, List and Index Society

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specifically extended the usage of transportation to Scotland. It remained little used under Scots Law until the early 19th century.

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of 1776, the British colonies in North America received transported British criminals. Destinations were the island colonies of the

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This resulted in a 1779 inquiry by a parliamentary committee on the entire subject of transportation and punishment; initially the

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There were several obstacles to the use of transportation. In 1706 the reading test for claiming benefit of clergy was abolished (

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allowed courts to sentence convicts to seven years' transportation to America. In 1720, an extension authorized payments by

2604: 1254:, east of the Australian mainland, was a convict penal settlement from 1788 to 1794, and again from 1824 to 1847. In 1803, 1203: 3031: 1271: 183: 3255: 3399: 3062: 1906: 150:

England transported an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts and political prisoners, as well as prisoners of war from

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and the colonists began only months after the First Fleet landed, lasting over a century. Convicts forced to work in

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to merchants contracted to take the convicts to America. The Transportation Act made returning from transportation a

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Rouse, Andrew C. (Spring–Fall 2007). "The Transportation Ballad: A Song Type Rooted in Eighteenth-Century England".

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were set there, although he "ignored the brutal punishments and painted a pleasant picture of the infamous colony."

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significantly, but the king's and Privy Council's opinions were decisive in granting a royal pardon from execution.

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to prisons that echo those of the Soviet Union. The journey to these prisons and labor camps is long and arduous.

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of the 1850s, free settlers had been outnumbered by penal convicts and their descendants. However, compared to the

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Cunningham. Growth of Eng. Industry and Com. in Mod. Times; 109, Cambridge, 1892. Cited in Karl Frederick Geiser,

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The system changed one step at a time: in February 1663, after that first experiment, a bill was proposed to the

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may have been released once the sentences were served, they generally did not have the resources to return home.

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and other defence works, including at the East End of the archipelago, where they were accommodated aboard the

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a smaller compartment that is used to keep "at risk" prisoners safe. The smaller compartment is known as a

1363: 1259: 364: 3331: 2253: 2125: 2110: 3889: 3127: 2024: 1278:(Western Australia) accepted transportation from England and Ireland in 1851, to resolve a long-standing 1202:) and established the first permanent European settlement in Australia. This marked the beginning of the 1040:

In the 17th century transportation was carried out at the expense of the convicts or the shipowners. The

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and etching printed in dark blue ink. Australian print in the tradition of British decorative production.

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Transportation removed the offender from society, mostly permanently, but was seen as more merciful than

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Before 1776, all convicts sentenced to transportation were sent to North America and the West Indies

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government. It legitimised transportation as a direct sentence, thus simplifying the penal process.

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Unlike normal penal transportation, many Soviet people were transported as criminals in forms of

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This article is about relocation as a punishment. For prisoner relocation for other reasons, see

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Prosecution and Punishment. Petty crime and the law in London and rural Middlesex, c. 1660–1725

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lists seven other laws relating to penal transportation in the first half of the 19th century.

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The overcrowding situation and the resumption of transportation would be initially resolved by

421:, who was "the architect of the transportation policy". Thomson, a supporter of the Whigs, was 3529: 2772: 2630: 2584: 2571: 2085: 1075:

known as "hulks". Following an 18th-century experiment in transporting convicted prisoners to

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enacted laws to prohibit transportation in 1670, and the king was persuaded to respect these.

258:, which originally exempted only clergymen from the general criminal law, it developed into a 3894: 3736:

Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2010). "Convict Transportation from Britain and Ireland 1615–1870".

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pronounced at the Old Bailey, his suggestion was proposed again, and the Treasury contracted

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from a polity or society has been used as a punishment since at least the 5th century BCE in

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confinement facilities, the general change in sentencing was passed in conjunction with the

111:. This method was used for criminals, debtors, military prisoners, and political prisoners. 3884: 1771: 1766:, a French man convicted of murder in 1931 and exiled to the French Guiana penal colony on 1390: 1386: 1290: 1221: 213: 1591:, a new type of folk song that developed in eighteenth-century England. A number of these 1162: 8: 1786: 1746: 1708: 1656:

is playing Essie that is transported twice in her life, bringing with her in America the

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were established as "free settlements", as non-convict colonies were known. However, the

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Women in Plymouth, England, parting from their lovers who are about to be transported to

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In England in the 17th and 18th centuries criminal justice was severe, later termed the

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as well as to increase the colonial labour force, for the overall benefit of the realm.

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Donnachie, Ian (1984), "Scottish Criminals and Transportation to Australia 1786–1852",

1961:"Topics: Transportation of Irish convicts to Australia (1791-1853) : Introduction" 1683: 1548: 1465: 1311: 1061: 1049: 864: 852:

was passed, introducing a policy of state prisons as a measure to reform the system of

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http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/89220?rskey=416nHV&result=3&isAdvanced=false#eid

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in the 19th and early-to-mid 20th centuries. Devil's Island, a French penal colony in

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set several stories in the French Caribbean penal colonies. In 1935 he had stayed at

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The most significant individual transported prisoner is probably French army officer

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Bound for America. The transportation of British convicts to the colonies, 1718–1775

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Redemptioners and indentured servants in the colony and commonwealth of Pennsylvania

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departed from England to establish the first colonial settlement in Australia, as a

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The Fatal Shore: A History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia 1787–1868

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criminals, or other persons regarded as undesirable, to a distant place, often a

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Penal transportation, typically to other planets, sometimes appears in works of

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similarly accepted convicts but not "women, children nor other infirm persons".

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that had developed, but no prisons were ever built as a result of the act. The

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it; but the character of an individual convict was likely to harm the economy.

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Sixth session Proceedings of the Old Bailey 10 July 1805 t18050710-23

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In Australia, a convict who had served part of his time might apply for a

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A Merciless Place: The Lost Story of Britain's Convict Disaster in Africa

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refused to welcome a group of prisoners because most of them were women;

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The residence of Edward Riley Esquire, Wooloomooloo, Near Sydney N. S. W.

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in 1776, when transportation to America was temporarily suspended by the

135: 3475: 1623:

is set in 1780s in the first Australian penal colony. In the 1988 play,

1083:(Senegal) in West Africa, British authorities turned their attention to 2993: 2955: 2067: 1857: 1657: 1493: 1426: 1382: 1370:. A penal colony was established there in 1857 with prisoners from the 1267: 1237: 1187: 1111: 1052:. The number of convicts transported to North America is not verified: 89: 51: 3316: 2714:

s:Page:History of New South Wales from the records, Volume 1.djvu/575

2062:

James Davie Butler, "British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies,"

1700: 1286: 1045: 895: 872: 842: 834: 792: 688: 632: 551: 390: 202: 179: 171: 97: 3569:"Is The Moon is a Harsh Mistress Heinlein's All-Time Greatest Work?" 3365:"Russia behind bars: the peculiarities of the Russian prison system" 3230:"Stain or badge of honour? Convict heritage inspires mixed feelings" 2985: 2969: 1851: 2691:. Sydney: National Library of Australia. 14 April 1865. p. 8. 2254:

Statutes at Large, Volume 24, Index for acts passed before 1 Geo. 3

1891: 1536: 1519: 1359: 1263: 1255: 1245: 1217: 950: 882:

on 6 December 1786, by the decision to establish a penal colony in

489: 464: 389:

c. 9). This allowed judges to sentence "clergyable" offenders to a

344: 340: 327: 151: 78: 3409: 1170:

warns that damage to the bridge can be punished by transportation.

1080: 3492:

Trusting Performance: A Cognitive Approach to Embodiment in Drama

1514:, most of them were rehabilitated. Populations targeted included 1457: 1355: 1351: 1141: 1095: 485: 303:

be arranged by indirect means. The reading test, crucial for the

155: 100:. The practice of penal transportation reached its height in the 66: 1595:

have been collected from traditional singers. Examples include "

3435:"Prisoner Transportation in Russia: Traveling into the Unknown" 3057:. Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2011). p. 5. 1896: 1241: 1191: 1167: 724: 596: 386: 228: 139: 70: 3207:

A History of English Prison Administration: Volume I 1750–1877

2894: 2657:"Sentenced beyond the Seas: Australia's early convict records" 2198:

Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial), vol. I, pp. 310, 314–315

940:

An act for the Transportation of Offenders from Great Britain.

405: 310: 93: 1547:

The Russian government today still sends their convicts and

3258:. 28 July 2013. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. 3162:

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts

1233: 138:, transportation was an alternative sentence imposed for a 2271: 1090:

From the 1820s until the 1860s, convicts were sent to the

3464:

Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies (HJEAS)

2554: 2552: 2467: 2465: 2356: 2354: 2341: 2339: 2302: 2300: 2298: 3030:

Oxford English Dictionary online, "Hulk" n. 2, sense 3b

73:, for a specified term; later, specifically established 1285:

Two penal settlements were established near modern-day

125: 2549: 2537: 2525: 2513: 2501: 2489: 2477: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2426: 2414: 2402: 2390: 2378: 2366: 2351: 2336: 2324: 2312: 2295: 2283: 2259: 2180: 2168: 2156: 1928: 1731:'s memoir of his imprisonment, is set in the British 197:

specifically excluded its use in Scotland. Under the

3222: 3180:"Convict Assignment – National Library of Australia" 2585:

Crime, Policing and Punishment in England, 1660–1914

1833: 1337: 27:

Relocation of convicted criminals to a distant place

2740: 2738: 2736: 2734: 1924: 1922: 1739:. Savarkar was imprisoned there from 1911 to 1921. 1502:being proclaimed as enemies of people in a form of 1464:. He was sent to Devil's Island. The case became a 290:. Alternatively, under the second act dealing with 189:Transportation was not used by Scotland before the 3715: 3693: 3012: 1639:. Convicts and guards interact as they rehearse a 1535:", condemned the transportation as a violation of 1304:, Australia received a larger number of convicts. 1296:Until the massive influx of immigrants during the 1020: 142:. It was typically imposed for offences for which 114:Penal transportation was also used as a method of 3780:. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. 3330:Scott-Clark, Cathy; Levy, Adrian (22 June 2001). 3256:"Department of Foreign Affairs – Emigrant Grants" 3209:, London: Boston & Henley, pp. 381–385, 2014:Colonial Series, Vol. I, 1613–1680, p. 12. (1908) 1981:. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. 1911. 1979:Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642–1660 1421:, was used for transportation from 1852 to 1953. 3861: 3268:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 2731: 1919: 408:usually destined for branding on the thumb, and 322:, an artist transported for forging bank notes, 3735: 3329: 2970:"British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies" 1929:Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish; Watkins, Emma (n.d.). 2861:Convicts and the British colonies in Australia 2121: 2119: 1652:, episode 7 season 1, for one of a side story 1248:nations in their fight against the colonists. 1151: 3392:The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953 3309:"Hundred years of the Andamans Cellular Jail" 3092: 1460:in a trial in 1894, held in an atmosphere of 3495:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 87. 2139:Journal Scottish Economic and Social History 1533:On the Personality Cult and Its Consequences 1472:, and Dreyfus was fully exonerated in 1906. 499: 229:Trend towards more flexibility of sentencing 84: 3674:Policing and Punishment in London 1660–1750 3303: 3301: 3050: 2116: 1721:is convicted and transported to Australia. 1318:, and can be compared with the practice of 1015: 3716:Hitchcock, Tim; Shoemaker, Robert (2006). 3359: 3357: 3204: 2726:A short history of British colonial policy 2025:A short history of British colonial policy 1587:Penal transportation is a feature of many 1037:that became the United States of America. 374: 311:Transportation as a commercial transaction 3813: 3654:Crime and the Courts in England 1660–1800 3647:, The [British] National Archives 3488: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2564: 2136: 2083: 3597: 3389: 3298: 3158:"Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site" 2572:"Asylum for Mankind": America, 1607–1800 2235:Statutes of the Realm: Volume 5, 1628–80 2074:, Random House Publishing, Sydney, 2005. 1570:and is smaller than 0.5 meter squared. 1161: 1127: 782:His Majesty's Colonies and Plantations." 314: 232: 223: 45: 3797:Crime in early modern England 1550–1750 3671: 3651: 3354: 3323: 2683:"Australian Discovery and Colonisation" 2558: 2543: 2531: 2519: 2507: 2495: 2483: 2471: 2456: 2444: 2432: 2420: 2408: 2396: 2384: 2372: 2360: 2345: 2330: 2318: 2306: 2289: 2277: 2265: 2186: 2174: 2162: 1482:Population transfer in the Soviet Union 1228:, a group of Irish convicts joined the 14: 3862: 3794: 3775: 3691: 3527: 3150: 3018: 2967: 2900: 2791: 2718: 1985:from the original on 19 September 2018 3566: 3461: 3429: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3419: 2754:from the original on 12 December 2018 1577: 1102:) to work on the construction of the 616:Text of statute as originally enacted 457: 160:its overseas colonies in the Americas 3342:from the original on 5 February 2020 3071:from the original on 8 February 2020 3000:from the original on 4 February 2021 2779:from the original on 10 January 2020 2012:Acts of the Privy Council of England 413:offence. The bill was introduced by 126:Great Britain and the British Empire 104:during the 18th and 19th centuries. 77:became their destination. While the 3875:History of immigration to Australia 3845:Convict life – State Library of NSW 3700:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3676:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3656:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3288:This is about Andaman Cellular Jail 3276: 2663:from the original on 14 August 2020 2637:from the original on 7 January 2020 1941:from the original on 8 January 2019 1475: 1212:on the Australian frontier between 246:that brought prisoners to Australia 24: 3579:from the original on 12 April 2020 3416: 3315:. 21 December 2005. Archived from 3284:"History of Andaman Cellular Jail" 3120: 2924:from the original on 21 March 2020 2879:Transportation and Penal Servitude 2810:from the original on 21 March 2017 2611:from the original on 8 August 2016 2092:from the original on 29 March 2018 1907:Category:Australian penal colonies 1582: 1204:European colonisation of Australia 1194:on 18 January 1788, then moved to 1087:(in what would become Australia). 162:from the 1610s until early in the 25: 3906: 3833: 3778:The Convict Settlers of Australia 3232:. The Conversation. 8 June 2015. 3182:. National Library of Australia. 3168:from the original on 5 June 2013. 3138:from the original on 5 March 2019 2750:, Old Bailey Proceedings Online, 2044:from the original on 7 March 2017 1745:'s story "In der Strafkolonie" (" 1711:in 1860–1861. In Dickens's novel 1338:Transportation from British India 404:Non-capital convicts (clergyable 3850:Convict Transportation Registers 3750:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00722.x 3617:from the original on 11 May 2020 3548:from the original on 26 May 2020 3509:from the original on 26 May 2020 2842:from the original on 11 May 2020 2695:from the original on 26 May 2020 1995:Institute of Historical Research 1850: 1836: 1803:and two short stories in 1940's 1542: 1366:were penally transported to the 928:Parliament of the United Kingdom 921: 762: 658: 522: 3758:"Punishments at the Old Bailey" 3591: 3567:Brown, Alan (31 January 2019). 3560: 3521: 3482: 3455: 3394:. Manchester University Press. 3383: 3248: 3236:from the original on 7 May 2021 3198: 3186:from the original on 7 May 2021 3172: 3086: 3044: 3024: 2961: 2939: 2906: 2872: 2854: 2822: 2765: 2707: 2675: 2649: 2623: 2597: 2577: 2247: 2228: 2218: 2201: 2192: 2130: 1562:for extended periods of time. 1409:France transported convicts to 1066:annexation by the United States 1025:From the early 1600s until the 1021:Transportation to North America 39:Transportation (disambiguation) 3534:. Vintage Books. p. 218. 3369:OSW Centre for Eastern Studies 2974:The American Historical Review 2104: 2077: 2056: 2030: 2017: 2005: 1967: 1953: 1937:. Digital Panopticon Project. 1429:) were sent to New Caledonia. 986:, and intended to punish. The 13: 1: 3814:Shoemaker, Robert B. (1999). 3762:Old Bailey Proceedings Online 3637: 3102:. London: Pan Books. p. 2747:Punishments at the Old Bailey 1877:Guantanamo Bay detention camp 1677:One of the key characters in 1672: 1364:Indian independence activists 869:Transportation, etc. Act 1785 861:Transportation, etc. Act 1784 730:Statute Law Revision Act 1871 602:Statute Law Revision Act 1871 361:War of the Spanish Succession 216:, permitting some prescribed 199:Transportation, etc. Act 1785 182:in 1787, and continued there 3718:Tales From the Hanging Court 3604:The Moon is a Harsh Mistress 3132:National Museum of Australia 2968:Butler, James Davie (1896). 1819:The Moon is a Harsh Mistress 1346:– including the province of 7: 2072:The Commonwealth of Thieves 1829: 1774:was made in 1973, starring 1772:film adaptation of the book 1166:This notice on a bridge in 1152:Transportation to Australia 1117:at an area still known as " 769:Parliament of Great Britain 665:Parliament of Great Britain 529:Parliament of Great Britain 207:Parliament of Great Britain 18:Transportation (punishment) 10: 3911: 3818:. Harlow, Essex: Longman. 3799:. Harlow, Essex: Longman. 3051:Christopher, Emma (2010). 2830:"Penal Servitude Act 1857" 2064:American Historical Review 1725:My Transportation for Life 1479: 1328:Anti-Transportation League 1226:Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars 1155: 1056:has estimated 50,000, and 903:United Kingdom legislation 744:United Kingdom legislation 640:United Kingdom legislation 625:American Revolutionary War 504:United Kingdom legislation 378: 132:royal prerogative of mercy 36: 29: 3692:Ekirch, A. Roger (1987). 3489:Rokotnitz, Naomi (2011). 3205:McConville, Sean (1981), 2914:"Criminal transportation" 2084:Pickering, Danby (1775). 1727:, Indian freedom fighter 1404: 1302:British American colonies 962: 957: 944: 934: 920: 915: 908: 819: 814: 804: 799: 786: 775: 761: 756: 749: 735: 723: 715: 710: 700: 695: 682: 671: 657: 652: 645: 614: 607: 595: 578: 573: 563: 558: 545: 535: 521: 516: 509: 500:The end of transportation 355:(1688–1697) (part of the 85:Origin and implementation 3531:Somerset Maugham: A Life 3528:Meyers, Jeffrey (2005). 2903:, pp. 112, 114–115. 2605:"Penitentiary Act, 1779" 2151:10.3366/sesh.1984.4.4.21 1912: 1372:Indian Rebellion of 1857 1016:Transportation locations 1005:Penal Servitude Act 1857 997:Convict Prisons Act 1853 988:Penal Servitude Act 1853 65:) was the relocation of 3880:Convictism in Australia 3672:Beattie, J. M. (2001). 3652:Beattie, J. M. (1986). 3390:Mawdsley, Evan (1998). 3332:"Survivors of our hell" 2804:"Short Titles Act 1896" 2590:21 January 2020 at the 2111:Transportation Act 1717 1816:. A classic example is 1791:Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni 1687:is an escaped convict, 1605:The Peeler and the Goat 1456:, wrongly convicted of 1079:(modern Ghana) and the 1042:Transportation Act 1717 910:Transportation Act 1824 892:Transportation Act 1790 381:Transportation Act 1717 375:Transportation Act 1717 195:Transportation Act 1717 193:; following union, the 130:Initially based on the 3795:Sharpe, J. A. (1999). 3776:Robson, L. L. (1965). 3720:. London: Bloomsbury. 3128:"Myall Creek massacre" 2890:Mountjoy Prison Museum 2866:1 January 2016 at the 1615:Timberlake Wertenbaker 1593:transportation ballads 1512:death of Joseph Stalin 1322:in the United States. 1298:Australian gold rushes 1260:Moreton Bay Settlement 1214:indigenous Australians 1171: 1148: 331: 326:, 1825, hand-coloured 247: 55: 3855:Convict Queenslanders 3442:Amnesty International 3319:on 30 September 2007. 2918:The National Archives 2724:Hugh Edward Egerton, 2066:(1896) 2#1 pp. 12–33 2023:Egerton, Hugh Edward, 1806:The Mixture as Before 1609:The Fields of Athenry 1601:The Black Velvet Band 1504:collective punishment 1270:) in 1824. The other 1165: 1158:Convicts in Australia 1131: 1100:British North America 977:Short Titles Act 1896 850:Penitentiary Act 1779 839:Criminal Law Act 1779 831:Criminal Law Act 1778 823:Criminal Law Act 1776 751:Criminal Law Act 1779 719:Criminal Law Act 1776 647:Criminal Law Act 1778 629:Criminal Law Act 1776 588:Criminal Law Act 1779 585:Criminal Law Act 1778 511:Criminal Law Act 1776 318: 236: 224:Historical background 168:Criminal Law Act 1776 49: 3840:UK National archives 2728:, pp. 262–269 (1897) 2570:Marilyn C. Baseler, 2240:29 July 2018 at the 2211:, Supplement to the 1391:solitary confinement 1387:South Andaman Island 1230:Aboriginal coalition 1222:Myall Creek Massacre 1104:Royal Naval Dockyard 1062:indentured servitude 623:The outbreak of the 59:Penal transportation 37:For other uses, see 3599:Heinlein, Robert A. 3294:on 18 January 2007. 3041:Accessed 2017/06/26 3037:26 May 2020 at the 2958: 10 July 1805). 2884:7 June 2019 at the 2659:. 15 January 2016. 2280:, pp. 471–472. 2113:, Section 8, p. 475 2070:; Thomas Keneally, 1787:W. Somerset Maugham 1785:The British author 1762:tells the story of 1747:In the Penal Colony 1549:political prisoners 1272:Australian colonies 1027:American Revolution 395:house of correction 337:indentured servants 164:American Revolution 3890:Crime in Australia 1935:Digital Panopticon 1705:Great Expectations 1684:Great Expectations 1641:theatre production 1620:Our Country's Good 1578:In popular culture 1574:happened to them. 1554:Conditions on the 1354:) and the port of 1312:Convict assignment 1172: 1149: 865:24 Geo. 3. Sess. 2 458:Women and children 353:King William's War 332: 288:branding the thumb 248: 134:, and later under 109:capital punishment 56: 32:Prisoner transport 3825:978-0-582-23889-3 3806:978-0-582-23889-3 3744:(11): 1221–1242. 3727:978-0-340-91375-8 3502:978-1-349-59433-7 3371:. 7 February 2019 3113:978-0-330-29892-6 1867:Bound for America 1800:Christmas Holiday 1797:. His 1939 novel 1707:was published in 1666:Murdoch Mysteries 1597:Van Diemen's Land 1529:Nikita Khrushchev 1316:Western Australia 1276:Swan River Colony 1256:Van Diemen's Land 1092:Imperial fortress 1077:Cape Coast Castle 1054:John Dunmore Lang 1035:mainland colonies 1009:20 & 21 Vict. 1001:16 & 17 Vict. 992:16 & 17 Vict. 972: 971: 916:Act of Parliament 880:Orders in Council 867:. c. 56) and the 837:. c. 62) and the 827: 826: 815:Other legislation 757:Act of Parliament 742: 741: 711:Other legislation 653:Act of Parliament 621: 620: 574:Other legislation 517:Act of Parliament 480:were sent to the 474:benefit of clergy 419:Solicitor General 305:benefit of clergy 256:benefit of clergy 242:, a 19th-century 191:Act of Union 1707 16:(Redirected from 3902: 3870:Forced migration 3829: 3810: 3791: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3753: 3731: 3711: 3699: 3687: 3667: 3648: 3631: 3630: 3624: 3622: 3616: 3609: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3586: 3584: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3525: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3439: 3431: 3414: 3413: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3361: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3305: 3296: 3295: 3290:. 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Roger Ekirch 1856: 1849: 1842: 1835: 1832: 1824:Robert Heinlein 1814:science fiction 1764:Henri Charrière 1737:Andaman Islands 1697:New South Wales 1679:Charles Dickens 1675: 1646:In the TV show 1637:New South Wales 1585: 1583:Performing arts 1580: 1545: 1496: 1486:101st kilometre 1480:Main articles: 1478: 1433:Henri Charrière 1407: 1368:Andaman Islands 1340: 1320:convict leasing 1280:labour shortage 1160: 1154: 1085:New South Wales 1058:Thomas Keneally 1050:capital offence 1023: 1018: 984:penal servitude 930: 922: 909: 904: 884:New South Wales 771: 763: 750: 745: 738: 667: 659: 646: 641: 610: 591: 531: 523: 510: 505: 502: 482:Leeward Islands 460: 415:William Thomson 383: 377: 357:Nine Years' War 313: 280:Oliver Cromwell 231: 226: 214:ticket of leave 128: 87: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3908: 3898: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3858: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3835: 3834:External links 3832: 3831: 3830: 3824: 3811: 3805: 3792: 3786: 3773: 3754: 3733: 3726: 3713: 3706: 3689: 3682: 3669: 3662: 3649: 3639: 3636: 3633: 3632: 3590: 3559: 3540: 3520: 3501: 3481: 3454: 3415: 3401:978-0719046001 3400: 3382: 3353: 3322: 3297: 3275: 3247: 3221: 3215: 3197: 3171: 3149: 3119: 3112: 3085: 3064:978-0191623523 3063: 3043: 3023: 3011: 2960: 2954:, p. 401 ( 2938: 2905: 2893: 2871: 2853: 2821: 2790: 2764: 2730: 2717: 2706: 2674: 2648: 2622: 2596: 2583:Drew D. 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