392:
486:
470:
369:
199:
861:
579:
934:– a grid of occupation detachments intended to protect farms and roads in rural areas. About 12 separate Senegalese units (either three-battalion regiments or single battalions) served in French North Africa between 1954 and 1967, when the last French troops were withdrawn. During 1958–59 the Tirailleur units were in part dissolved, as African personnel transferred to newly formed national armies when the French colonies of West and Central Africa became independent. Substantial numbers of former tirailleurs continued to serve in the French Army but as individual volunteers in integrated Colonial (later Marine) Infantry or Artillery units. The
620:
772:. A large portion of the division became encircled during the course of the action. On the night of 9 June near Erquinvillers the Germans repeated the practice of separating white and black prisoners: “The Europeans . . . had to sit in front of a ravine under the barrels of machine guns while about fifty surviving Tirailleurs were led to a nearby place and shot with a machine gun. We, the officers, were able to confirm this later when we were led onto trucks that drove us toward captivity.” On 9 June, the
673:
681:
967:
31:
47:
457:. Total French casualties in this campaign reached 27,000 but the Senegalese and regular Colonial Infantry were noted for the high morale that they maintained in spite of losses that reached two out of three in some units. The Senegalese tirailleurs particularly distinguished themselves in the attack during the initial French landings on the southern shore of the Dardanelles. After the withdrawal from the Dardanelles and the redeployment to the
959:
844:. Faced with U.S. restrictions on the size of the French forces, de Gaulle chose to incorporate the various partisan groups within the structure of the official army. The complicated process of discharge and repatriation of the Tirailleurs, coupled with the refusal of France to pay wage arrears due to released prisoners of war, led to several incidents of violence. The most notable of these was the
740:, a number of tirailleurs were executed after surrendering. One French officer recounted: “The enemy then appears, furious, beside himself, ready to finish us off all together. An extremely engaged intervention by a German officer prevents the troops from executing the European officers, but there was no indigenous man alive anymore after a few moments.”
658:
Faced with what had become a major war the French increased their forces in
Morocco to approximately 100,000 men. West African tirailleurs continued to play a major part in subsequent operations in both the Spanish Protectorate (until 1926) and Southern Morocco (until 1934). In one of many engagements, the 2nd Battalion of the 1st Regiment of
190:. Recruitment was later extended to other French colonies in Africa. During its early years the corps included some former slaves bought from West African slave-owners as well as prisoners of war. Subsequent recruitment was either by voluntary enlistment or on occasion by an arbitrary form of conscription.
807:
surrendered to the German troops in this area after exhausting their ammunition. Following the surrender, some fifty tirailleurs were separated from their white officers and ordered to stand in an open field, where they were machinegunned by German tanks. The tanks then drove back and forth over the
657:
fighters attacked a line of French outposts recently established in disputed territory north of the
Ouerghala River. The majority of these posts were held by Senegalese and North African tirailleurs. By 27 April 1925 39 out of 66 posts had fallen and their garrisons massacred, or had been abandoned.
815:
German troops were also responsible for non-lethal abuses of
Senegalese tirailleurs. In many cases, German soldiers tortured captured black soldiers, and often refused to bury the bodies of colonial troops. It was common for captured tirailleurs to be denied food, water and medicine by their German
548:
broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and
Burkina Faso. The reasons for the discontent came from the forced military recruitment of soldiers. These regions were subject to significant recruitment of colonial troops to serve on the front lines of the First World War. The last
163:
602:
and France played a major part in this. Between 25,000 and 40,000 colonial soldiers were part of this force. German attempts were made to discredit the use of non-European soldiers by the French during this occupation, as had earlier been the case during World War I. Although no hard evidence was
703:
was permanently deployed in the south of France due to the potential threat from Italy. It was also reasoned the climate was more suitable for
African soldiers. This deployment of Tirailleurs, outside of their regions of recruitment and traditional peacetime service, arose because of the heavy
500:
French military policy towards the use of
African troops in Europe changed in 1915. The French high command realized that the war would last far longer than they had originally imagined. They therefore authorized a major recruitment drive in West Africa. As a result, a further 93 Senegalese
1007:. White trousers were worn in hot weather and a light khaki drill field dress was adopted in 1898. Senegalese units sent to France in 1914 wore a new dark blue uniform, introduced in June that year, beneath the standard medium-blue greatcoats of the French infantry. This changed to
704:
casualties of the First World War. This had affected the number of metropolitan
Frenchmen in the military service age group of twenty to twenty-five by more than half. Up to 200,000 tirailleurs were active during the war, which constituted about nine percent of the French forces.
441:
in the recapture of Fort de
Douaumont in October 1916, during the battle of Chemin des Dames in April 1917 and at the Battle of Reims in 1918. Losses were particularly heavy in Flanders (estimated from 3,200 to 4,800) and Chemin des Mains (7,000 out of 15,500 tirailleurs engaged).
391:
2332::»Von Wilden aller Rassen niedergemetzelt«. Die Diskussion um die Verwendung von Kolonialtruppen in Europa zwischen Rassismus, Kolonial- und Militärpolitik (1914–1930) (= Beiträge zur Kolonial- und Überseegeschichte, Bd. 82). Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001,
526:
was adopted: withdrawing them to the south of France for training and re-equipping each winter. In spite of their heavy losses in almost every major battle of the
Western Front, the discipline and morale of the "Colonial Corps" remained high throughout the war.
711:, the Senegalese and other African tirailleur units served with distinction at Gien, Bourges, and Buzancais. German troops, indoctrinated with Nazi racial doctrines, expressed outrage at having fought against "inferior" opponents. Along with other
2090:
The khaki-coloured cloth was introduced by the decision of 31 August 1915 which reserved one fifth of the monthly supplies of khaki cloth "for the workshops of the depots of the colonial troops in the metropolis (clothing for the
1444:'On 21 November 1917, the 81st, 93rd, 95th and 96th battalions constitute the Groupement des Bataillons Sénégalais de la 17e Division d'Infanterie Coloniale. The Commanding Officer of the 96th Battalion took overall command.' Via
603:
produced, many campaigners claimed that the colonial soldiers – and the
Senegalese in particular – were responsible for a substantial number of rapes and sexual assaults. Children resulting from these unions were stigmatised as "
129:(recruiting 179,000 troops, 40,000 deployed to Western Europe). Other tirailleur regiments were raised in French North Africa from the Arab and Berber populations of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco; collectively they were called
1024:
continued to wear the khaki uniforms described above, in either heavy cloth or light drill according to conditions. In subsequent campaigns they wore the same field uniforms as other French units, usually with the dark blue
182:, because he lacked sufficient French troops to control the territory and meet other requirements of the first phase of colonisation. The formal decree for the formation of this force was signed on 21 July 1857 in
1169:
volunteered to serve during the Algerian War as a junior officer with the Senegalese, whom he described as highly disciplined soldiers with cheerful dispositions, serving in a corps that was full of surprises.
203:
217:, the Senegalese tirailleurs continued to provide the bulk of French garrisons in West and Central Africa. Their overall numbers remained limited. However, in anticipation of the First World War, Colonel
1015:
started to be issued the following year. Throughout these changes the distinctive yellow cuff and collar braiding was retained, together with the fez (worn with a drab cover to reduce visibility).
2293:
Myron Echenberg, "Tragedy at Thiaroye: The Senegalese Soldiers' Uprising of 1944 ", in Peter Gutkind, Robin Cohen and Jean Copans (eds), African Labor History, Beverly Hills, 1978, p. 109-128
373:
360:
paraded their standard at Longchamp, the first occasion upon which Senegalese troops had been seen in metropolitan France. New flags were presented to the 2e, 3e and 4e RTS at the same parade.
827:. The 9th DIC (Colonial Infantry Division) included the 4th, 6th, and 13th Regiments of Senegalese Tirailleurs, and fought from Toulon to the Swiss border between August and November 1944.
780:
to escape. On taking each of the towns, German troops executed captured black soldiers, killing between 150 and 500. On 11 June, roughly 74 Senegalese tirailleurs and white officers of the
645:, who were not affected by the divided loyalties of locally recruited troops and who could be more readily spared from service on the Western Front than French troops. On 13 April 1925 the
104:', was a designation given by the French Army to indigenous infantry recruited in the various colonies and overseas possessions of the French Empire during the 19th and 20th centuries.
560:
made a speech evoking the 72,000 colonial combatants killed during the war, mentioning the 'Moroccan infantry, the tirailleurs from Senegal, Indochina (Annam and Cochinchina), and the
412:
With the outbreak of war 37 battalions of French, North African and Senegalese infantry were transferred from Morocco to France. Five Senegalese battalions were soon serving on the
1536:
485:
244:
took part in the conquest of Madagascar (1895), although the bulk of the non-European troops employed in this campaign were Algerian and Hausa tirailleurs. Regiments of
501:
battalions were raised between 1915 and 1918, of which 42 saw service in France itself. The usual practice was to bring together battalions of white Colonial Infantry (
2500:
2490:
469:
2444:
Rafael Gutierrez and Dario Arce : Le Tata sénégalais de Chasselay : mémoires du 25° RTS" Documentary film, 52', 2007. Productions Chromatiques- TLM, France.
2357:
Les armées françaises dans la Grande guerre. Tome VIII. La campagne d'Orient (Dardanelles et Salonique) Deuxième Volume. (août 1916 jusqu'en avril 1918) [8,2]
1094:
Rafael Gutierrez and Dario Arce : Le Tata sénégalais de Chasselay : mémoires du 25° RTS" Documentary film, 52', 2007. Productions Chromatiques- TLM, France.
940:
lost their distinctive historic identity during this process. As an example, the 1er RTS, raised in 1857, became the 61st Marine Infantry Regiment in December 1958.
286:
raised the possibility of war between France and Britain, tribute was paid to the courage and endurance of Marchand and his Senegalese tirailleurs by both sides.
1377:
852:
had been promised that in recognition of their service they would become equal citizens of France, this pledge was not kept following the end of hostilities.
522:.)The harsh conditions of trench warfare were a particular source of suffering to the un-acclimatized African soldiers and, after 1914/15, the practice of
1458:
Lunn, Joe (October 1999). "'Les Races Guerrieres': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War".
368:
2329:
1087:
549:
resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops.
1143:
that same year. The book centers around Alfa Ndiaye, a Senegalese Tirailleur who loses his close friend Mademba Diop while fighting in World War I.
946:
The last Senegalese Tirailleur to have served in World War I, Abdoulaye Ndiaye, died at the age of 104 in November 1998. He had been wounded in the
2460:
Domesticated or Savage?Thoughts on the representation of the body of the senegalese tirailleurs (1880–1918) by Nicolas Bancel and Pascal Blanchard
2195:
1498:
1083:
378:
1238:
2459:
994:
style uniform with yellow braiding (see first photo above). This was replaced by a loose fitting dark blue tunic and trousers worn with a red
2095:)". Worn by those.. that came as reinforcements during the year 1916, khaki-clad troops appeared during the Battle of the Somme, while the
2053:"Notice descriptive des nouveaux uniformes. (Décision ministérielle du 9 décembre 1914 mise à jour avec le modificatif du 28 janvier 1915)"
1655:
416:, while others formed part of the reduced French garrison in Morocco. The 5th BTS formed part of a French column which was wiped out near
17:
2470:
1555:
2495:
1378:"Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient (C.E.O.): J.M.O. 22 février-5 mai 1915: 26 N 75/10 - Pièces justicatives 3 avril-16 septembre 1915"
1794:
2354:
Lepetit, Vincent; Tournyol du Clos, Alain; Rinieri, Ilario; Cardot, Jean Charles Léonide Philippe; Druène, Bernard, eds. (1933).
1215:
808:
bodies of the dead tirailleurs to ensure there would be no survivors. On the same day, a further 14 tirailleurs were executed at
2412:
179:
834:, the Tirailleurs concluded their service in Europe. They were replaced by newly recruited French volunteers, on the order of
2505:
2441:
Eveline Berruezo and Patrice Robin : Le Tata – paysages de pierres. Documentary film, 60', 1992. Espace Mémoire, France.
2402:
2320:
2284:
1968:
1362:
1282:
303:
and the "marsouins" were no longer under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Navy and Colonies, but were reclassified as
271:
2127:
Officers and Senior NCOs of the Troupes Coloniales are authorized to wear, in France, the khaki uniform used in the colonies
2510:
745:
720:
519:
453:
2515:
2021:
354:
landed at Casablanca to begin nearly twenty years of active service in Morocco by Senegalese units. On 14 July 1913, the
348:
while continuing to provide garrisons for the French possessions in West and Central Africa. In 1908, two battalions of
2454:
1300:
Marc Michel, "Les Africains et la Grande Guerre. L'appel à l'Afrique (1914–1918)", Ed : Karthala, 24 October 2003
198:
2348:
2337:
2301:
2296:
Myron Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Senegalais in French West Africa, 1857–1960. Heinemann (1990),
2265:
2236:
1988:
1629:
1250:
1182:: history of the original French skirmishers of this designation plus the colonial (e.g.: Algerian, Senegalese etc.)
684:
1942, Brazzaville, French Equatorial Africa. A tirailleur who has been awarded the Cross of Liberation by General
202:
Muslim area of the national cemetery in Amiens (Saint-Acheul) – in the foreground is the tomb of a soldier of the
776:
launched a successful counterattack at Erquinvilliers, breaking the German encirclement and allowing part of the
125:(providing around 200,000 troops, more than 135,000 of whom fought in Europe and 30,000 of whom were killed) and
39:
1819:
860:
409:(BTS) in the French Army in August 1914, all serving in either West Africa or on active service in Morocco.
1140:
266:. This "Marchand Mission" took two years to cross hundreds of miles of unexplored bush until they reached
2525:
2343:
Nancy Ellen Lawler. Soldiers of Misfortune: Ivoirien Tirailleurs of World War II. Ohio Univ Press (1992)
1112:
712:
599:
578:
413:
1357:
Eugène-Jean Duval, pag. 165 "Aux sources officielles de la colonisation française-2°période-1870-1940",
1151:
425:
35:
2114:(in French). Paris: Ministère de la Guerre. 18 September 1915. Modifications à la tenue des officiers
1159:
789:
82:
and subsequently throughout Western, Central and Eastern Africa: the main sub-Saharan regions of the
2385:
848:, in 1944, during which the French killed between 35 and 300 (sources vary) Tirailleurs. Though the
628:
2111:
1056:
2073:
639:
During the War the much reduced French garrison in Morocco had consisted largely of battalions of
2520:
396:
296:
2315:]. Officers and Soldiers #12. Translated by McKay, Alan. Paris: Histoire & Collections.
1575:
437:
served with distinction at Ypres and Dixmude during the Battle of Flanders in late 1914, at the
183:
1588:
1210:
1189:
395:
Review of Tirailleurs by General Guillaumat. Photo taken at the village of Vatokhorion, in the
263:
187:
83:
51:
308:
2355:
1960:
1954:
1205:
1132:
424:
on 13 November 1914, with 646 dead. The 10th, 13th, 16th and 21st BTS subsequently saw heavy
300:
235:
should look elsewhere to recruit its armies due to the falling birthrate in mainland France.
107:
Despite recruitment not being limited to Senegal, these infantry units took on the adjective
809:
428:, reinforced by 9,000 additional Senegalese tirailleurs brought up from French West Africa.
113:
since that was where the first black African Tirailleur regiment had been formed. The first
831:
1896:""They Are Just Savages": German Massacres of Black Soldiers from the French Army in 1940"
1849:""They Are Just Savages": German Massacres of Black Soldiers from the French Army in 1940"
1746:""They Are Just Savages": German Massacres of Black Soldiers from the French Army in 1940"
1694:""They Are Just Savages": German Massacres of Black Soldiers from the French Army in 1940"
1136:
728:
were executed by Wehrmacht troops after having held up the German advance for two days at
8:
2413:"81e bataillon de Tirailleurs Sénégalais: J.M.O. 3 juillet 1916-8 mai 1919 – 26 N 872/13"
1166:
1126:
1099:
1061:
325:
was adopted in WW1, an insignia with the anchor behind a flaming grenade was worn by the
214:
207:
2474:
2373:
1923:
1876:
1773:
1721:
1467:
796:
538:
421:
304:
79:
71:
915:
in the French Army, serving in West Africa, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Indochina.
225:
his conception of a greatly expanded French colonial army, whilst Jean Jaurès, in his
2398:
2361:
2344:
2333:
2316:
2297:
2280:
2261:
2232:
2203:
2017:
1984:
1964:
1915:
1868:
1765:
1713:
1625:
1358:
1278:
1246:
906:
845:
835:
824:
795:
One of the best-recorded incidents, photographed by the German perpetrators, was the
737:
685:
604:
567:
513:. (Four such regiments were formed from the seven tirailleurs and five battalions of
1907:
1860:
1757:
1705:
1567:
1270:
1147:
1068:
976:
716:
708:
553:
494:
458:
438:
283:
270:
on the Nile. Here they encountered British and Egyptian troops under Major-General
146:
142:
619:
451:
were amongst the 24 infantry battalions the French sent to the Dardanelles as the
253:
were subsequently recruited in Madagascar, using the Senegalese units as a model.
2169:
2052:
1117:
1073:
820:
719:. The first incident occurred on 24 May 1940, when fifty wounded soldiers of the
175:
63:
30:
715:, German forces massacred captured tirailleurs on multiple occasions during the
2124:
1200:
729:
664:
won 91 citations for bravery during fighting around Ain-Gatar on 22 June 1926.
650:
646:
624:
557:
545:
384:
307:, different from the mainland elements Metropolitan army and separate from the
275:
218:
167:
1927:
1895:
1880:
1848:
1777:
1745:
1725:
1693:
901:
comprised up to 16 percent of the French forces during the Indochina War. The
2484:
2365:
2207:
1919:
1872:
1769:
1717:
1155:
1000:
971:
886:
769:
672:
587:
322:
680:
34:
Yora Comba, 38 years old, lieutenant in the tirailleurs sénégalais, born in
2037:
Delpérier, Louis (September 1984). "Les tirailleurs sénégalais 1857-1914".
1264:
1049:
1008:
919:
341:
126:
101:
2196:"'Frightening' Tale of Senegalese Soldier Wins International Booker Prize"
1274:
966:
909:
against French colonial rule . In 1949 there were still nine regiments of
1179:
947:
785:
765:
761:
583:
232:
122:
958:
697:
were stationed in France in addition to a brigade based in Algeria. The
1026:
1012:
93:
88:
46:
1471:
928:
saw extensive active service from 1954 to 1962, mainly as part of the
461:, further Senegalese battalions were deployed in this theatre of war.
1956:
Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa
1004:
595:
523:
474:
2151:
1044:
632:
541:
hospitals with images of African village life painted on the walls.
537:(wintering) for the Senegalese Tirailleurs. The town also contained
530:
478:
162:
2475:
1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
2465:
Site on the Battle of Flandres, attention to Tirailleurs Sénégalais
1911:
1864:
1761:
1709:
1571:
943:
The last Senegalese unit in the French Army was disbanded in 1964.
733:
582:
Senegalese Tirailleurs amongst the Honour Guard being inspected by
417:
97:
2309:
Officiers et soldats de l'armée française Tome 2 : 1915-1918
2041:(in French). No. 83. Paris: Argout-Editions. pp. 13–19.
1589:
La guerre coloniale du Bani-Volta, 1915-1916 (Burkina Faso, Mali)
1499:"Les tirailleurs « sénégalais » à l'épreuve de l'hiver"
962:
Tirailleurs posing for an autochrome photograph in September 1914
654:
490:
312:
279:
267:
75:
2279:. Men-at-Arms 517. Illustrated by Mark Stacey. London: Osprey.
1795:"Hommage aux tirailleurs sénégalais massacrés au bois d'Eraine"
1197:: French colonial cavalry regiments including Senegalese units.
991:
118:
1656:"Frankreich verriet die SenegalschĂĽtzen nach dem 2. Weltkrieg"
1387:(in French). Ministere De la Defense. images 132 to 136 of 213
383:
decorated with the fourragère, who fought in the recapture of
1556:"Locating Colonial Histories: Between France and West Africa"
1194:
1243:
La Force noire. Gloire et infortunes d'une légende coloniale
2313:
Officers and Soldiers of the French Army Volume II: 1915-18
995:
800:
608:
345:
2464:
2260:(in French) (1st ed.). Limoges: Charles Lavauzelle.
1035:. The red fez survived as a parade item until the 1950s.
889:
between 1946 and 1954. Several independent battalions of
1537:"Fréjus. Un hommage solennel aux tirailleurs sénégalais"
1426:
1402:
823:, Italy, and Corsica. During 1944, they assisted in the
2112:"Bulletin officiel du Ministère de la guerre. Volume 2"
1624:
Alistair Horne, p229 "To Lose a Battle – France 1940",
1336:
74:
in the French Army. They were initially recruited from
2152:"Le Tata Paysages de pierres – Tirailleurs-Sénégalais"
2132:
1820:"Murdered Warriors: The Chasselay Massacre, June 1940"
1503:
Regards sur... la Première Guerre Mondiale 1914 - 1918
1376:
691:
On the eve of the Second World War, five regiments of
1312:
262:
was assembled in Loango (French Congo) under Captain
256:
In 1896, a small expedition consisting mainly of 200
2422:(in French). Ministere De la Defense. image 26 of 39
2420:
Mémoire des hommes: Journaux des Unites (1914–1918)
1993:
1934:
1673:
1517:
1478:
1414:
1131:'Soul brother') is a novel by French author
819:
The Senegalese Tirailleurs saw extensive service in
1603:, Jean-Claude Flament, Société des écrivains, 2014.
1385:
MĂ©moire des hommes: Journaux des Unites (1914-1918)
1372:
1370:
1324:
1135:. First published in French on August 16, 2018, by
2471:Colonial Military Participation in Europe (Africa)
2104:
2045:
1983:Marin Windrow, page 15 "The French Indochina War",
533:in southeastern France became the main centre for
174:The Senegalese Tirailleurs were formed in 1857 by
2501:Military units and formations established in 1857
2491:1857 establishments in the French colonial empire
2482:
2055:(in French). Paris: Ministère de la Guerre. 1915
1367:
1048:(1971) depicts the effects of conscription on a
882:24e Regiment de Marche de Tirailleurs Sénégalais
1653:
321:was worn on the collar from 1914, and when the
2121:– via Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
760:fought a series of battles along the Somme at
676:Senegalese Tirailleurs serving in France, 1940
598:of November 1918 had provision for the allied
573:
552:At the 90th anniversary commemorations of the
147:Vietnamese, Tonkinese or Annamites Tirailleurs
2062:– via Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
1165:The Franco-American journalist and historian
2277:French Naval & Colonial Troops 1872–1914
2066:
1030:
1019:
985:
935:
929:
923:
910:
896:
890:
880:
875:in front of the Dakar train station in 2012.
870:
864:
839:
698:
692:
659:
640:
561:
514:
508:
502:
446:
432:
404:
355:
349:
335:
326:
316:
290:
257:
245:
239:
226:
136:
130:
108:
50:Tirailleurs Sénégalais under the command of
905:also served in the suppression of the 1947
885:, comprising two battalions, served in the
141:. Tirailleur regiments were also raised in
2360:(in French). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale.
1959:. Boydell & Brewer, Limited. pp.
1953:Echenberg, Myron (1990). Heinemann (ed.).
1438:
2411:
2353:
2274:
2036:
1952:
1490:
1445:
1432:
614:
2306:
2193:
2138:
965:
957:
859:
679:
671:
618:
577:
484:
468:
464:
390:
367:
197:
161:
45:
29:
2231:. HarperCollins. pp. 56 & 60.
1216:List of French possessions and colonies
895:fought in the same theatre of war. The
14:
2483:
2392:
2226:
2011:
1893:
1846:
1824:The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
1743:
1691:
1601:14-18 Étions-nous bien défendus ?
1484:
1353:
1351:
799:which took place on 19 June 1940 near
774:24e Régiment de Tirailleurs Sénégalais
607:" and subsequently suffered under the
204:45e régiment de tirailleurs sénégalais
180:Governor-General of French West Africa
2255:
1999:
1940:
1842:
1840:
1789:
1787:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1679:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1523:
1420:
1408:
1342:
1330:
1318:
374:43rd Senegalese Tirailleurs Battalion
357:1e regiment de tirailleurs sénégalais
2162:
2039:Les Armees de l'Histoire – Uniformes
1553:
1457:
1451:
1262:
754:Régiments de Tirailleurs Sénégalais,
631:(Mali), built in the French town of
489:Tirailleurs in the German colony of
27:Colonial infantry in the French Army
2256:Crocé, Eliane; et al. (1986).
1496:
1348:
758:4e Division d'Infanterie Coloniale,
667:
289:By a decree dated July 7, 1900 the
24:
1837:
1784:
1732:
1634:
1245:, Paris, Tallandier, 2006, 223 p.
805:Régiment de Tirailleurs Sénégalais
782:4e Division d'Infanterie Coloniale
736:from 5 June onward. On June 5, at
725:Régiment de Tirailleurs Sénégalais
25:
2537:
2448:
2258:Les Troupes de Marine 1622 - 1984
2014:les Africains et la Grande Guerre
1397:Ordre de bataille 1 juin 1915 K34
1154:. It was published in the UK by
866:Le Place du Tirailleur Sénégalais
700:2e division coloniale sénégalaise
92:, which translates variously as '
2435:
635:for the use of colonial soldiers
493:, which was occupied during the
2496:1850s establishments in Senegal
2397:. Men-at-Arms. London: Osprey.
2249:
2227:Morgan, Ted (31 January 2006).
2220:
2187:
2144:
2030:
2005:
1977:
1946:
1887:
1812:
1685:
1618:
1606:
1594:
1582:
1547:
1529:
1460:Journal of Contemporary History
838:. This process became known as
507:) and African Tirailleurs into
121:in a number of wars, including
117:were formed in 1857 and served
1543:(in French). 1 September 2007.
1303:
1291:
1256:
1228:
1038:
732:. More massacres followed the
454:Corps Expéditionnaire d'Orient
363:
282:army near Khartoum. While the
238:A company-sized detachment of
40:Exposition universelle de 1889
13:
1:
2455:Senegalese Tirailleurs in WWI
2194:Marshall, Alex (2021-06-02).
2074:"Le tirailleur en tenue kaki"
2016:. Paris: Kathala. p. 7.
1900:The Journal of Modern History
1853:The Journal of Modern History
1750:The Journal of Modern History
1698:The Journal of Modern History
1221:
1106:
1103:(2022), by Mathieu Vadepied.
855:
825:liberation of southern France
2506:Colonial regiments of France
1560:The American History Journal
1554:Mann, Gregory (April 2005).
1080:Le Tata, paysages de pierres
734:German crossing of the Somme
445:In 1915 seven battalions of
403:There were 21 battalions of
334:During the early 1900s, the
274:, who had just defeated the
193:
7:
2511:Military history of Senegal
1173:
1146:The English translation by
1113:At Night All Blood Is Black
1060:(1976), by French director
953:
713:war crimes of the Wehrmacht
600:Occupation of the Rhineland
574:Occupation of the Rhineland
399:in Greece, on 7 March 1918.
221:described in his 1910 book
10:
2542:
2516:Military history of France
2080:(in French). 10 March 2010
1614:Militaria No. 358 Mai 2015
1152:International Booker Prize
743:Between 7 and 10 June the
544:In November 1915, a large
510:regiments mixtes coloniaux
340:saw active service in the
315:. The anchor badge of the
157:
152:
132:tirailleurs nord-africains
2156:tirailleurs-senegalais.fr
1160:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
1141:Prix Goncourt des Lycéens
1072:, by Senegalese director
431:On the Western Front the
2307:Jouineau, André (2009).
2275:Chartrand, René (2018).
2099:still wore horizon blue.
1894:Scheck, Raffael (2005).
1847:Scheck, Raffael (2005).
1744:Scheck, Raffael (2005).
1692:Scheck, Raffael (2005).
1057:Black and White in Color
872:Monument Demba et Dupont
213:In the aftermath of the
170:(Mali) (engraving, 1890)
2395:The French Army 1914-18
2176:(in French). 2021-01-18
1801:(in French). 2010-06-17
1241:and Antoine Champeaux,
1018:Until World War II the
397:municipality of Florina
297:Tirailleurs indochinois
1263:Mann, Gregory (2006).
1211:French Colonial Empire
1190:French colonial troops
1121:
1031:
1021:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
1020:
987:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
986:
984:From 1857 to 1889 the
981:
963:
937:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
936:
930:
925:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
924:
912:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
911:
907:uprising in Madagascar
898:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
897:
892:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
891:
881:
876:
871:
865:
850:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
840:
803:. Soldiers of the 25e
790:Bois d’Eraine massacre
699:
694:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
693:
688:
677:
661:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
660:
642:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
641:
636:
629:Great Mosque of Djenné
615:Between the World Wars
591:
562:
515:
509:
503:
497:
482:
448:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
447:
434:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
433:
406:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
405:
400:
388:
356:
351:tirailleurs sénégalais
350:
337:tirailleurs sénégalais
336:
328:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
327:
317:
292:Tirailleurs sénégalais
291:
264:Jean-Baptiste Marchand
259:tirailleurs sénégalais
258:
246:
241:tirailleurs sénégalais
240:
227:
210:
171:
137:
131:
115:Senegalese Tirailleurs
109:
84:French colonial empire
68:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
67:
60:Senegalese Tirailleurs
55:
52:Jean-Baptiste Marchand
43:
18:Tirailleurs Sénégalais
2012:Michel, Marc (2003).
1654:David Signer, Dakar.
1497:Dez, Bastien (2008).
1275:10.1215/9780822387817
1206:French colonial flags
1082:, by French director
969:
961:
863:
683:
675:
622:
581:
520:deployed at Gallipoli
488:
472:
465:New recruitment drive
394:
371:
301:Tirailleurs malgaches
231:, suggested that the
201:
165:
49:
33:
2393:Sumner, Ian (1995).
2229:My Battle of Algiers
1660:Neue ZĂĽrcher Zeitung
1064:, 1 hour 30 minutes
1032:infanterie coloniale
832:Liberation of France
653:when eight thousand
546:anti-French uprising
516:Infanterie Coloniale
247:tirailleurs malgache
184:Plombières-les-Bains
166:Tirailleur from the
1411:, pp. 379–380.
1345:, pp. 289–291.
1062:Jean-Jacques Annaud
974:decorated with the
784:were executed near
426:fighting in Morocco
215:Franco-Prussian War
208:battle of the Somme
145:; they were called
2526:French West Africa
2469:Christian Koller:
2200:The New York Times
1591:, Autrepart, 2003.
1076:, 1987, 153 mins.
982:
980:on 20 January 1916
964:
877:
810:Sillé-le-Guillaume
797:Chasselay massacre
689:
678:
649:spilled over into
637:
605:Rhineland Bastards
592:
498:
483:
422:Battle of El Herri
401:
389:
318:Troupes coloniales
305:Troupes coloniales
211:
172:
80:French West Africa
70:) were a corps of
56:
44:
2404:978-1-85-532516-6
2322:978-2-35250-105-3
2286:978-1-47-282619-0
2170:"2019.David Diop"
1970:978-0-85255-601-6
1363:978-2-296-05430-1
1321:, pp. 208–9.
1284:978-0-8223-3755-3
1158:and in the US by
1137:Éditions du Seuil
1130:
1090:, 1992, 60 mins.
990:wore a dark blue
846:Thiaroye massacre
836:Charles de Gaulle
738:Hangest-sur-Somme
686:Charles de Gaulle
568:troupes de marine
556:, then-president
473:Tirailleurs at a
72:colonial infantry
16:(Redirected from
2533:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2417:
2408:
2389:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2369:
2330:Christian Koller
2326:
2290:
2271:
2243:
2242:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2181:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2120:
2119:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2087:
2085:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1844:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1791:
1782:
1781:
1741:
1730:
1729:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1651:
1632:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1574:. Archived from
1551:
1545:
1544:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1476:
1475:
1455:
1449:
1448:, image 26 of 39
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1392:
1382:
1374:
1365:
1355:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1260:
1254:
1237:
1232:
1148:Anna Moschovakis
1125:
1088:Eveline Berruezo
1069:Camp de Thiaroye
1034:
1023:
989:
977:LĂ©gion d'honneur
939:
933:
927:
914:
900:
894:
884:
874:
868:
843:
709:Battle of France
702:
696:
668:Second World War
663:
644:
565:
554:battle of Verdun
518:
512:
506:
495:Kamerun campaign
459:Macedonian front
450:
439:Battle of Verdun
436:
408:
382:
372:The flag of the
359:
353:
339:
330:
320:
294:
284:Fashoda Incident
261:
249:
243:
230:
228:L'armée nouvelle
140:
134:
112:
21:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2481:
2480:
2451:
2438:
2425:
2423:
2415:
2405:
2381:
2380:
2371:
2370:
2323:
2287:
2268:
2252:
2247:
2246:
2239:
2225:
2221:
2212:
2210:
2192:
2188:
2179:
2177:
2174:Escale du Livre
2168:
2167:
2163:
2150:
2149:
2145:
2137:
2133:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2083:
2081:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2058:
2056:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2023:9-782845-864177
2010:
2006:
2002:, pp. 490.
1998:
1994:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1951:
1947:
1939:
1935:
1892:
1888:
1845:
1838:
1829:
1827:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1804:
1802:
1793:
1792:
1785:
1742:
1733:
1690:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1665:
1663:
1652:
1635:
1623:
1619:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1595:
1587:
1583:
1552:
1548:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1508:
1506:
1495:
1491:
1483:
1479:
1456:
1452:
1443:
1439:
1431:
1427:
1419:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1390:
1388:
1380:
1375:
1368:
1356:
1349:
1341:
1337:
1329:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1285:
1261:
1257:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1176:
1109:
1074:Ousmane Sembene
1041:
956:
858:
670:
617:
576:
467:
387:in October 1916
376:
366:
309:Armée d’Afrique
196:
176:Louis Faidherbe
160:
155:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2539:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2521:French Senegal
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2479:
2478:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2450:
2449:External links
2447:
2446:
2445:
2442:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2409:
2403:
2390:
2351:
2341:
2327:
2321:
2304:
2294:
2291:
2285:
2272:
2266:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2237:
2219:
2186:
2161:
2143:
2131:
2103:
2065:
2044:
2029:
2022:
2004:
1992:
1976:
1969:
1945:
1943:, p. 434.
1933:
1928:10.1086/431817
1912:10.1086/431817
1886:
1881:10.1086/431817
1865:10.1086/431817
1836:
1811:
1783:
1778:10.1086/431817
1762:10.1086/431817
1731:
1726:10.1086/431817
1710:10.1086/431817
1684:
1682:, p. 431.
1672:
1633:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1581:
1578:on 2013-11-21.
1572:10.1086/531320
1566:(5): 409–434.
1546:
1528:
1526:, p. 414.
1516:
1489:
1477:
1466:(4): 517–536.
1450:
1437:
1435:, p. 548.
1425:
1423:, p. 380.
1413:
1401:
1366:
1347:
1335:
1333:, p. 471.
1323:
1311:
1302:
1290:
1283:
1255:
1226:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1201:Pierre Messmer
1198:
1192:
1187:
1175:
1172:
1108:
1105:
1096:
1095:
1040:
1037:
955:
952:
857:
854:
669:
666:
651:French Morocco
616:
613:
575:
572:
558:Jacques Chirac
466:
463:
385:Fort Douaumont
365:
362:
223:La force noire
219:Charles Mangin
206:killed in the
195:
192:
168:Bambara people
159:
156:
154:
151:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2538:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2421:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2400:
2396:
2391:
2387:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2352:
2350:
2349:0-8214-1012-1
2346:
2342:
2339:
2338:3-515-07765-0
2335:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2305:
2303:
2302:0-435-08052-0
2299:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2267:2-7025-0142-7
2263:
2259:
2254:
2253:
2240:
2238:0-06-085224-0
2234:
2230:
2223:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2147:
2141:, p. 62.
2140:
2139:Jouineau 2009
2135:
2128:
2126:
2113:
2107:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2054:
2048:
2040:
2033:
2025:
2019:
2015:
2008:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1989:1-85532-789-9
1986:
1980:
1972:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1957:
1949:
1942:
1937:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1841:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1788:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1688:
1681:
1676:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1631:
1630:0-333-53601-0
1627:
1621:
1615:
1609:
1602:
1597:
1590:
1585:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1542:
1541:Le Télégramme
1538:
1532:
1525:
1520:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1487:, p. 11.
1486:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1447:
1446:WarDiary81BTS
1441:
1434:
1433:AFGG 8,2 1933
1429:
1422:
1417:
1410:
1405:
1398:
1386:
1379:
1373:
1371:
1364:
1360:
1354:
1352:
1344:
1339:
1332:
1327:
1320:
1315:
1306:
1294:
1286:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1259:
1252:
1251:2-84734-339-3
1248:
1244:
1240:
1231:
1227:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1171:
1168:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1156:Pushkin Press
1153:
1150:won the 2021
1149:
1144:
1142:
1139:, it won the
1138:
1134:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1104:
1102:
1101:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1084:Patrice Robin
1081:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1036:
1033:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1003:
1002:
997:
993:
988:
979:
978:
973:
972:Dinah Salifou
968:
960:
951:
949:
944:
941:
938:
932:
926:
921:
916:
913:
908:
904:
899:
893:
888:
887:Indochina War
883:
873:
867:
862:
853:
851:
847:
842:
837:
833:
828:
826:
822:
817:
813:
811:
806:
802:
798:
793:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
770:Erquinvillers
767:
763:
759:
755:
752:
748:
747:
741:
739:
735:
731:
727:
726:
723:
718:
717:1940 campaign
714:
710:
705:
701:
695:
687:
682:
674:
665:
662:
656:
652:
648:
643:
634:
630:
626:
621:
612:
610:
606:
601:
597:
589:
588:Jean Degoutte
585:
580:
571:
569:
564:
559:
555:
550:
547:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
525:
521:
517:
511:
505:
504:les marsouins
496:
492:
487:
481:in March 1916
480:
476:
471:
462:
460:
456:
455:
449:
443:
440:
435:
429:
427:
423:
420:, during the
419:
415:
414:Western Front
410:
407:
398:
393:
386:
380:
375:
370:
361:
358:
352:
347:
343:
338:
332:
329:
324:
323:Adrian helmet
319:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
293:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
260:
254:
252:
248:
242:
236:
234:
229:
224:
220:
216:
209:
205:
200:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
169:
164:
150:
148:
144:
139:
133:
128:
124:
120:
116:
111:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
90:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
53:
48:
41:
37:
32:
19:
2424:. Retrieved
2419:
2394:
2356:
2312:
2308:
2276:
2257:
2250:Bibliography
2228:
2222:
2211:. Retrieved
2199:
2189:
2178:. Retrieved
2173:
2164:
2155:
2146:
2134:
2122:
2116:. Retrieved
2106:
2096:
2092:
2089:
2082:. Retrieved
2077:
2068:
2057:. Retrieved
2047:
2038:
2032:
2013:
2007:
1995:
1979:
1955:
1948:
1936:
1903:
1899:
1889:
1856:
1852:
1828:. Retrieved
1826:. 2020-09-17
1823:
1814:
1803:. Retrieved
1798:
1753:
1749:
1701:
1697:
1687:
1675:
1664:. Retrieved
1659:
1620:
1613:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1584:
1576:the original
1563:
1559:
1549:
1540:
1531:
1519:
1509:19 September
1507:. Retrieved
1502:
1492:
1480:
1463:
1459:
1453:
1440:
1428:
1416:
1404:
1396:
1389:. Retrieved
1384:
1338:
1326:
1314:
1309:Marc Michel,
1305:
1293:
1265:
1258:
1242:
1230:
1183:
1164:
1145:
1111:
1110:
1098:
1097:
1079:
1078:
1067:
1066:
1055:
1054:
1043:
1042:
1017:
1011:in 1915 and
999:
983:
975:
945:
942:
920:Algerian War
917:
902:
878:
849:
829:
818:
814:
804:
794:
781:
777:
773:
766:Lieuvilliers
762:Angivilliers
757:
756:part of the
753:
750:
744:
742:
724:
721:
706:
690:
638:
625:1930 replica
593:
590:8 April 1920
551:
543:
534:
529:
499:
452:
444:
430:
411:
402:
342:French Congo
333:
288:
255:
250:
237:
222:
212:
188:Napoleon III
173:
127:World War II
114:
106:
102:sharpshooter
87:
59:
57:
2436:Filmography
2426:9 September
2382:|work=
1662:(in German)
1505:(in French)
1485:Sumner 1995
1298:(in French)
1266:Native Sons
1236:(in French)
1180:Tirailleurs
1122:Frère d'âme
1100:Tirailleurs
1086:and Author
1039:Filmography
970:The son of
948:Dardanelles
931:quadrillage
918:During the
903:Tirailleurs
841:blanchiment
821:West Africa
786:Cressonsacq
778:4e Division
707:During the
611:race laws.
584:Paul Tirard
377: [
364:World War I
233:French Army
123:World War I
86:. The noun
36:Saint-Louis
2485:Categories
2213:2021-06-04
2180:2021-06-04
2118:2021-08-03
2093:Sénégalais
2078:www.rfi.fr
2059:2021-07-30
2000:Crocé 1986
1941:Crocé 1986
1906:(2): 333.
1859:(2): 333.
1830:2023-08-24
1805:2023-08-28
1756:(2): 331.
1704:(2): 329.
1680:Crocé 1986
1666:2020-05-07
1524:Crocé 1986
1421:Crocé 1986
1409:Crocé 1986
1343:Crocé 1986
1331:Crocé 1986
1319:Crocé 1986
1239:Éric Deroo
1222:References
1184:tirailleur
1167:Ted Morgan
1133:David Diop
1107:Literature
1027:forage cap
1013:dark khaki
856:After 1945
830:After the
539:segregated
110:sénégalais
94:skirmisher
89:tirailleur
2384:ignored (
2374:cite book
2366:491775909
2208:0362-4331
2125:caucasian
2097:marsouins
1920:0022-2801
1873:0022-2801
1770:0022-2801
1718:0022-2801
1612:page 36,
1052:village.
869:with the
816:captors.
596:armistice
563:marsouins
535:hivernage
524:hivernage
475:hivernage
272:Kitchener
194:1870–1914
143:Indochina
2084:3 August
1174:See also
1009:sky-blue
954:Uniforms
477:camp at
418:Khenifra
98:rifleman
1391:29 July
1129:
1029:of the
1001:chechia
788:in the
730:Aubigny
647:Rif War
627:of the
566:of the
491:Kamerun
313:Maghreb
311:of the
280:Dervish
268:Fashoda
158:Origins
153:History
100:', or '
76:Senegal
2473:, in:
2401:
2364:
2347:
2336:
2319:
2300:
2283:
2264:
2235:
2206:
2020:
1987:
1967:
1926:
1918:
1879:
1871:
1776:
1768:
1724:
1716:
1628:
1472:261249
1470:
1361:
1281:
1249:
1118:French
1045:EmitaĂŻ
992:zouave
768:, and
655:Berber
633:Fréjus
531:Fréjus
479:Fréjus
295:, the
138:Turcos
119:France
64:French
54:, 1898
2416:(JPG)
2311:[
1961:98–99
1924:JSTOR
1877:JSTOR
1774:JSTOR
1722:JSTOR
1468:JSTOR
1381:(JPG)
1195:Spahi
1186:units
1050:Diola
381:]
276:Mahdi
2428:2022
2399:ISBN
2386:help
2362:OCLC
2345:ISBN
2334:ISBN
2317:ISBN
2298:ISBN
2281:ISBN
2262:ISBN
2233:ISBN
2204:ISSN
2123:Non-
2086:2021
2018:ISBN
1985:ISBN
1965:ISBN
1916:ISSN
1869:ISSN
1766:ISSN
1714:ISSN
1626:ISBN
1511:2020
1393:2020
1359:ISBN
1279:ISBN
1247:ISBN
1234:Cf.
1127:lit.
998:and
996:sash
922:the
879:The
801:Lyon
749:and
609:Nazi
594:The
586:and
346:Chad
344:and
96:', '
58:The
1908:doi
1861:doi
1799:RFI
1758:doi
1706:doi
1568:doi
1564:110
1271:doi
1005:fez
792:.
751:24e
746:16e
722:24e
570:.'
278:'s
186:by
135:or
2487::
2418:.
2378::
2376:}}
2372:{{
2202:.
2198:.
2172:.
2154:.
2088:.
2076:.
1963:.
1922:.
1914:.
1904:77
1902:.
1898:.
1875:.
1867:.
1857:77
1855:.
1851:.
1839:^
1822:.
1797:.
1786:^
1772:.
1764:.
1754:77
1752:.
1748:.
1734:^
1720:.
1712:.
1702:77
1700:.
1696:.
1658:.
1636:^
1562:.
1558:.
1539:.
1501:.
1464:34
1462:.
1395:.
1383:.
1369:^
1350:^
1277:.
1269:.
1162:.
1124:,
1120::
950:.
812:.
764:,
623:A
379:fr
331:.
299:,
178:,
149:.
78:,
66::
2477:.
2430:.
2407:.
2388:)
2368:.
2340:.
2325:.
2289:.
2270:.
2241:.
2216:.
2183:.
2158:.
2026:.
1973:.
1930:.
1910::
1883:.
1863::
1833:.
1808:.
1780:.
1760::
1728:.
1708::
1669:.
1570::
1513:.
1474:.
1287:.
1273::
1253:.
1116:(
251:s
62:(
42:)
38:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
