515:(ROS), can lead to DNA damage; however, it is yet unclear whether the elevated rate in telomeres is brought about by their inherent susceptibility or a diminished activity of DNA repair systems in these regions. Despite widespread agreement of the findings, widespread flaws regarding measurement and sampling have been pointed out; for example, a suspected species and tissue dependency of oxidative damage to telomeres is said to be insufficiently accounted for. Population-based studies have indicated an interaction between anti-oxidant intake and telomere length. In the Long Island Breast Cancer Study Project (LIBCSP), authors found a moderate increase in breast cancer risk among women with the shortest telomeres and lower dietary intake of beta carotene, vitamin C or E. These results suggest that cancer risk due to telomere shortening may interact with other mechanisms of DNA damage, specifically oxidative stress.
294:). The last primer to be involved in lagging-strand replication sits near the 3'-end of the template (corresponding to the potential 5'-end of the lagging-strand). Originally it was believed that the last primer would sit at the very end of the template, thus, once removed, the DNA-polymerase that substitutes primers with DNA (DNA-Pol δ in eukaryotes) would be unable to synthesize the "replacement DNA" from the 5'-end of the lagging strand so that the template nucleotides previously paired to the last primer would not be replicated. It has since been questioned whether the last lagging strand primer is placed exactly at the 3'-end of the template and it was demonstrated that it is rather synthesized at a distance of about 70–100 nucleotides which is consistent with the finding that DNA in cultured human cell is shortened by 50–100
415:
574:
4979:
5478:
1296:
208:
that determines the number of divisions that a certain cell clone can undergo. Furthermore, it was predicted that a specialized DNA polymerase (originally called a tandem-DNA-polymerase) could extend telomeres in immortal tissues such as germ line, cancer cells and stem cells. It also followed from this hypothesis that organisms with circular genome, such as bacteria, do not have the end replication problem and therefore do not age.
265:
1111:
1273:
across vertebrates. Phylogeny and life history traits such as body size or the pace of life can also affect telomere dynamics. For example, it has been described across species of birds and mammals. In 2019, a meta-analysis confirmed that the exposure to stressors (e.g. pathogen infection, competition, reproductive effort and high activity level) was associated with shorter telomeres across different animal taxa.
1203:
5490:
348:
31:
565:. The literature concerning telomeres as integrative biomarkers of exposure to stress and adversity is dominated by cross-sectional and correlational studies, which makes causal interpretation problematic. A 2020 review argued that the relationship between psychosocial stress and telomere length appears strongest for stress experienced in utero or early life.
1244:(WGS) experiments. Amongst these are TelSeq, Telomerecat and telomereHunter. Length estimation from WGS typically works by differentiating telomere sequencing reads and then inferring the length of telomere that produced that number of reads. These methods have been shown to correlate with preexisting methods of estimation such as PCR and TRF.
601:, that tied telomere shortening with the Hayflick limit. The cloning of the catalytic component of telomerase enabled experiments to test whether the expression of telomerase at levels sufficient to prevent telomere shortening was capable of immortalizing human cells. Telomerase was demonstrated in a 1998 publication in
290:) then being excised and substituted by DNA. The lagging strand, however, is oriented 3'-5' with respect to the replication fork so continuous replication by DNA-polymerase is impossible, which necessitates discontinuous replication involving the repeated synthesis of primers further 5' of the site of initiation (see
625:
A study reported that telomere length of different mammalian species correlates inversely rather than directly with lifespan, and concluded that the contribution of telomere length to lifespan remains controversial. There is little evidence that, in humans, telomere length is a significant biomarker
361:
At the very 3'-end of the telomere there is a 300 base pair overhang which can invade the double-stranded portion of the telomere forming a structure known as a T-loop. This loop is analogous to a knot, which stabilizes the telomere, and prevents the telomere ends from being recognized as breakpoints
1272:
estimates vary greatly within and among species. Age and telomere length often negatively correlate in vertebrates, but this decline is variable among taxa and linked to the method used for estimating telomere length. In contrast, the available information shows no sex differences in telomere length
305:
If coding sequences are degraded in this process, potentially vital genetic code would be lost. Telomeres are non-coding, repetitive sequences located at the termini of linear chromosomes to act as buffers for those coding sequences further behind. They "cap" the end-sequences and are progressively
207:
division, Olovnikov suggested that DNA sequences are lost every time a cell replicates until the loss reaches a critical level, at which point cell division ends. According to his theory of marginotomy, DNA sequences at the ends of telomeres are represented by tandem repeats, which create a buffer
428:
Many organisms have a ribonucleoprotein enzyme called telomerase, which carries out the task of adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of the DNA. Telomerase "replenishes" the telomere "cap" and requires no ATP. In most multicellular eukaryotic organisms, telomerase is active only in
477:
ranging from 75 to 300 bases, which is essential for telomere maintenance and capping. Multiple proteins binding single- and double-stranded telomere DNA have been identified. These function in both telomere maintenance and capping. Telomeres form large loop structures called telomere loops, or
362:
by the DNA repair machinery. Should non-homologous end joining occur at the telomeric ends, chromosomal fusion would result. The T-loop is maintained by several proteins, collectively referred to as the shelterin complex. In humans, the shelterin complex consists of six proteins identified as
482:. At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA, and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a
457:. This is because the telomeres act as a sort of time-delay "fuse", eventually running out after a certain number of cell divisions and resulting in the eventual loss of vital genetic information from the cell's chromosome with future divisions.
184:, working with maize. Muller observed that the ends of irradiated fruit fly chromosomes did not present alterations such as deletions or inversions. He hypothesized the presence of a protective cap, which he coined "telomeres", from the Greek
541:
Telomere shortening is associated with aging, mortality, and aging-related diseases in experimental animals. Although many factors can affect human lifespan, such as smoking, diet, and exercise, as persons approach the upper limit of human
406:) to form such G-quadruplexes that accommodate it, rather than a T-loop. G-quadruplexes present an obstacle for enzymes such as DNA-polymerases and are thus thought to be involved in the regulation of replication and transcription.
398:, a special conformation of DNA involving non-Watson-Crick base pairing. There are different subtypes depending on the involvement of single- or double-stranded DNA, among other things. There is evidence for the 3'-overhang in
1228:
Several techniques are currently employed to assess average telomere length in eukaryotic cells. One method is the
Terminal Restriction Fragment (TRF) southern blot. There is a Web-based Analyser of the Length of Telomeres
285:
to initiate replication. On the leading strand (oriented 5'-3' within the replication fork), DNA-polymerase continuously replicates from the point of initiation all the way to the strand's end with the primer (made of
529:
Although telomeres shorten during the lifetime of an individual, it is telomere shortening-rate rather than telomere length that is associated with the lifespan of a species. Critically short telomeres trigger a
1263:
During the last two decades, eco-evolutionary studies have investigated the relevance of life-history traits and environmental conditions on telomeres of wildlife. Most of these studies have been conducted in
280:
of the parent strands. This is a consequence of its unidirectional mode of DNA synthesis: it can only attach new nucleotides to an existing 3'-end (that is, synthesis progresses 5'-3') and thus it requires a
3451:
Fajkus, Petr; Adámik, Matej; Nelson, Andrew D L; Kilar, Agata M; Franek, Michal; Bubeník, Michal; Frydrychová, Radmila Čapková; Votavová, Alena; Sýkorová, Eva; Fajkus, Jiří; Peška, Vratislav (2023-01-11).
2012:
Lanza RP, Cibelli JB, Blackwell C, Cristofalo VJ, Francis MK, Baerlocher GM, et al. (April 2000). "Extension of cell life-span and telomere length in animals cloned from senescent somatic cells".
1248:
is used to quantify the length of telomeres in human white blood cells. A semi-automated method for measuring the average length of telomeres with Flow FISH was published in Nature
Protocols in 2006.
335:), however, are linear and possess telomeres, which are very different from those of the eukaryotic chromosomes in structure and function. The known structures of bacterial telomeres take the form of
1678:
Olovnikov AM (September 1973). "A theory of marginotomy. The incomplete copying of template margin in enzymic synthesis of polynucleotides and biological significance of the phenomenon".
1251:
While multiple companies offer telomere length measurement services, the utility of these measurements for widespread clinical or personal use has been questioned. Nobel Prize winner
1237:
assay for telomere length involves determining the
Telomere-to-Single Copy Gene (T/S) ratio, which is demonstrated to be proportional to the average telomere length in a cell.
5760:
5463:
3100:
Bodnar AG, Ouellette M, Frolkis M, Holt SE, Chiu CP, Morin GB, et al. (January 1998). "Extension of life-span by introduction of telomerase into normal human cells".
1004:
1280:, and other non-mammalian organisms, show that there is no single universal model of telomere erosion; rather, there is wide variation in relevant dynamics across
725:
3258:
Harris SE, Martin-Ruiz C, von
Zglinicki T, Starr JM, Deary IJ (July 2012). "Telomere length and aging biomarkers in 70-year-olds: the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936".
232:
4902:
1064:
199:
first recognized that chromosomes could not completely replicate their ends; this is known as the "end replication problem". Building on this, and accommodating
581:
is the theoretical limit to the number of times a cell may divide until the telomere becomes so short that division is inhibited and the cell enters senescence.
5817:
5842:
5792:
1511:"A theory of marginotomy: The incomplete copying of template margin in enzymic synthesis of polynucleotides and biological significance of the phenomenon"
5852:
577:
The average cell will divide between 50 and 70 times before cell death. As the cell divides the telomeres on the end of the chromosome get smaller. The
5974:
5892:
2744:
309:
The "end replication problem" is exclusive to linear chromosomes as circular chromosomes do not have ends lying without reach of DNA-polymerases. Most
561:
was associated with a small decrease in telomere length—but that these associations attenuate to no significant association when accounting for
5882:
5797:
1121:
1052:
538:. Mice have much longer telomeres, but a greatly accelerated telomere shortening-rate and greatly reduced lifespan compared to humans and elephants.
4122:
Remot, Florentin; Ronget, Victor; Froy, Hannah; Rey, Benjamin; Gaillard, Jean-Michel; Nussey, Daniel H.; Lemaître, Jean-François (November 2020).
3866:
Baerlocher GM, Vulto I, de Jong G, Lansdorp PM (December 2006). "Flow cytometry and FISH to measure the average length of telomeres (flow FISH)".
3301:
Lyčka, Martin; Bubeník, Michal; Závodník, Michal; Peska, Vratislav; Fajkus, Petr; Demko, Martin; Fajkus, Jiří; Fojtová, Miloslava (2023-08-21).
634:
Experimentally verified and predicted telomere sequence motifs from more than 9000 species are collected in research community curated database
4057:
Remot, Florentin; Ronget, Victor; Froy, Hannah; Rey, Benjamin; Gaillard, Jean-Michel; Nussey, Daniel H.; Lemaitre, Jean-François (2021-09-07).
1622:
Blackburn EH, Gall JG (March 1978). "A tandemly repeated sequence at the termini of the extrachromosomal ribosomal RNA genes in
Tetrahymena".
5802:
4403:
1723:"Early and late steps in telomere overhang processing in normal human cells: the position of the final RNA primer drives telomere shortening"
524:
5528:
2783:"Divergence of sperm and leukocyte age-dependent telomere dynamics: implications for male-driven evolution of telomere length in humans"
5897:
3360:"Characterisation of an unusual telomere motif (TTTTTTAGGG)n in the plant Cestrum elegans (Solanaceae), a species with a large genome"
5862:
5812:
5807:
1217:
3601:
Lyčka, Martin; Peska, Vratislav; Demko, Martin; Spyroglou, Ioannis; Kilar, Agata; Fajkus, Jiří; Fojtová, Miloslava (December 2021).
5837:
5787:
4968:
4800:
3049:
Feng J, Funk WD, Wang SS, Weinrich SL, Avilion AA, Chiu CP, et al. (September 1995). "The RNA component of human telomerase".
2635:"Perceived stress and telomere length: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and methodologic considerations for advancing the field"
3211:"Comparative biology of mammalian telomeres: hypotheses on ancestral states and the roles of telomeres in longevity determination"
2936:
Rentscher KE, Carroll JE, Mitchell C (April 2020). "Psychosocial
Stressors and Telomere Length: A Current Review of the Science".
5832:
5737:
4935:
4855:
4850:
5857:
5144:
1808:
3558:
Rufer N, et al. (August 1998). "Telomere length dynamics in human lymphocyte subpopulations measured by flow cytometry".
4892:
4533:
235:
223:, discovered the unusual nature of telomeres, with their simple repeated DNA sequences composing chromosome ends. Blackburn,
4897:
4655:
4197:"On the comparative biology of mammalian telomeres: Telomere length co-evolves with body mass, lifespan and cancer risk"
614:
demonstrate that the role of telomeres is far from being understood. In 2003, scientists observed that the telomeres of
339:
bound to the ends of linear chromosomes, or hairpin loops of single-stranded DNA at the ends of the linear chromosomes.
5714:
5701:
1182:
474:
277:
607:
to be capable of extending cell lifespan, and now is well-recognized as capable of immortalizing human somatic cells.
6027:
5724:
4396:
1783:
1154:
1140:
4672:
5521:
5453:
5175:
1161:
5494:
5458:
1360:
2332:"Characterization of the yeast telomere nucleoprotein core: Rap1 binds independently to each recognition site"
5755:
5601:
5588:
5302:
5069:
4518:
4083:
2881:"Telomeres as integrative markers of exposure to stress and adversity: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
446:
121:
104:
5506:
4389:
1658:"Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, Jack W. Szostak: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009"
20:
1168:
5292:
4928:
1230:
3760:"Telomerecat: A ploidy-agnostic method for estimating telomere length from whole genome sequencing data"
3401:"Allium telomeres unmasked: the unusual telomeric sequence (CTCGGTTATGGG)n is synthesized by telomerase"
1657:
6022:
5872:
5514:
5149:
1319:
1268:, i.e. birds and mammals. They have provided evidence for the inheritance of telomere length; however,
622:) seem to lengthen with chronological age, the first observed instance of such behaviour of telomeres.
282:
1212:
Preliminary research indicates that disease risk in aging may be associated with telomere shortening,
449:. The steady shortening of telomeres with each replication in somatic (body) cells may have a role in
170:
The existence of a special structure at the ends of chromosomes was independently proposed in 1938 by
4963:
4665:
3603:"WALTER: an easy way to online evaluate telomere lengths from terminal restriction fragment analysis"
1234:
1150:
1129:
972:
24:
5319:
4998:
4958:
4719:
4503:
1350:
1076:
990:
479:
6037:
5566:
5541:
5215:
4993:
2979:
Hayflick L, Moorhead PS (December 1961). "The serial cultivation of human diploid cell strains".
1241:
1125:
615:
512:
176:
3399:
Fajkus P, Peška V, Sitová Z, Fulnečková J, Dvořáčková M, Gogela R, et al. (February 2016).
1255:, who was co-founder of one company, promoted the clinical utility of telomere length measures.
5996:
5924:
5482:
5387:
5372:
5200:
5094:
5074:
4921:
4625:
4598:
2263:
Telomeric 8-oxo-guanine drives rapid premature senescence in the absence of telomere shortening
97:
2279:
Shampay J, Szostak JW, Blackburn EH (1984). "DNA sequences of telomeres maintained in yeast".
2063:
Whittemore, Kurt; Vera, Elsa; Martínez-Nevado, Eva; Sanpera, Carola; Blasco, Maria A. (2019).
4660:
4558:
4059:"Decline in telomere length with increasing age across nonhuman vertebrates: A meta-analysis"
3817:"TelomereHunter–in silico estimation of telomere content and composition from cancer genomes"
2949:
647:
414:
313:, relying on circular chromosomes, accordingly do not possess telomeres. A small fraction of
171:
3209:
Gomes NM, Ryder OA, Houck ML, Charter SJ, Walker W, Forsyth NR, et al. (October 2011).
1928:
Lipps HJ, Rhodes D (August 2009). "G-quadruplex structures: in vivo evidence and function".
6017:
5969:
5683:
5545:
5412:
5275:
5139:
5089:
4880:
4805:
4790:
4620:
4568:
4543:
4483:
4246:"The association between stressors and telomeres in non-human vertebrates: a meta-analysis"
4135:
3771:
3167:
3109:
3058:
2892:
2781:
Aston KI, Hunt SC, Susser E, Kimura M, Factor-Litvak P, Carrell D, Aviv A (November 2012).
2381:
Griffith JD, Comeau L, Rosenfield S, Stansel RM, Bianchi A, Moss H, de Lange T (May 1999).
2288:
2076:
2021:
1882:
1687:
1522:
1334:
1088:
954:
857:
558:
507:
and that oxidative stress-mediated DNA damage has a major influence on telomere shortening
438:
3910:
3358:
Peška V, Fajkus P, Fojtová M, Dvořáčková M, Hapala J, Dvořáček V, et al. (May 2015).
2581:
Shen J, Gammon MD, Terry MB, Wang Q, Bradshaw P, Teitelbaum SL, et al. (April 2009).
473:-rich, six- to eight-base-pair-long repeats. Eukaryotic telomeres normally terminate with
154:
from progressive degradation and ensure the integrity of linear chromosomes by preventing
8:
5747:
5618:
5297:
5280:
5260:
5240:
4548:
4357:
3271:
2693:
1252:
809:
535:
212:
159:
4307:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
4139:
3775:
3511:"Human telomeres contain at least three types of G-rich repeat distributed non-randomly"
3453:
3335:
3171:
3113:
3062:
3014:
Hayflick L (March 1965). "The limited in vitro lifetime of human diploid cell strains".
2896:
2292:
2080:
2025:
1886:
1691:
1526:
6032:
5919:
5827:
5646:
5307:
5053:
4327:
4302:
4283:
4177:
4164:
4104:
4034:
3953:
3891:
3843:
3816:
3792:
3759:
3735:
3710:
3637:
3602:
3583:
3486:
3430:
3283:
3235:
3210:
3191:
3133:
3082:
2961:
2913:
2880:
2856:
2831:
2807:
2782:
2715:
2688:
2659:
2634:
2607:
2582:
2558:
2529:
2505:
2480:
2456:
2431:
2412:
2358:
2331:
2312:
2243:
2189:
2172:
2107:
2064:
2045:
1989:
1964:
1772:
1747:
1722:
1601:
1437:
1040:
785:
593:. Significant discoveries were subsequently made by a group of scientists organized at
181:
4372:
4363:
4360:, which includes a reference to the impact of stress, and pessimism on telomere length
4353:
3686:
3661:
3535:
3510:
3303:"TeloBase: a community-curated database of telomere sequences across the tree of life"
2399:
2382:
1905:
1870:
1510:
1175:
5432:
5427:
5382:
5205:
5079:
4610:
4522:
4332:
4287:
4275:
4267:
4226:
4218:
4181:
4169:
4151:
4108:
4096:
4088:
4039:
4021:
3945:
3883:
3848:
3797:
3740:
3691:
3642:
3624:
3575:
3540:
3491:
3473:
3434:
3422:
3381:
3340:
3322:
3275:
3240:
3226:
3183:
3179:
3125:
3074:
3031:
3027:
2996:
2992:
2965:
2953:
2918:
2861:
2812:
2763:
2720:
2664:
2612:
2563:
2510:
2461:
2404:
2363:
2304:
2262:
2235:
2194:
2153:
2112:
2094:
2037:
1994:
1945:
1910:
1851:
1846:
1829:
1789:
1779:
1752:
1703:
1699:
1639:
1635:
1593:
1585:
1581:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1491:
1483:
1429:
1421:
1329:
925:
702:
603:
594:
483:
3957:
3895:
3587:
3287:
3195:
3152:
3137:
2247:
2049:
1605:
1441:
643:
478:
T-loops. Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle, stabilized by
150:. In most, if not all species possessing them, they protect the terminal regions of
5981:
5911:
5549:
5362:
5329:
5084:
4699:
4578:
4322:
4314:
4257:
4208:
4159:
4143:
4078:
4070:
4029:
4013:
3980:
3937:
3875:
3838:
3828:
3787:
3779:
3730:
3722:
3681:
3673:
3632:
3614:
3567:
3530:
3522:
3481:
3465:
3454:"Telomerase RNA in Hymenoptera (Insecta) switched to plant/ciliate-like biogenesis"
3412:
3371:
3330:
3314:
3267:
3230:
3222:
3175:
3117:
3086:
3066:
3023:
2988:
2945:
2908:
2900:
2851:
2843:
2802:
2794:
2753:
2710:
2702:
2654:
2646:
2602:
2594:
2553:
2545:
2500:
2492:
2451:
2443:
2394:
2353:
2343:
2316:
2296:
2225:
2184:
2143:
2102:
2084:
2029:
1984:
1976:
1937:
1900:
1890:
1841:
1742:
1734:
1695:
1631:
1577:
1530:
1413:
1309:
1028:
1016:
937:
586:
562:
504:
442:
200:
196:
49:
2416:
1136:
445:. Telomerase can be reactivated and telomeres reset back to an embryonic state by
5692:
5664:
5633:
5628:
5195:
5190:
5180:
4692:
4513:
4461:
4124:"No sex differences in adult telomere length across vertebrates: a meta-analysis"
3121:
2330:
Williams TL, Levy DL, Maki-Yonekura S, Yonekura K, Blackburn EH (November 2010).
2033:
869:
598:
543:
259:
216:
2633:
Mathur MB, Epel E, Kind S, Desai M, Parks CG, Sandler DP, Khazeni N (May 2016).
5964:
5822:
5779:
5607:
5597:
5367:
5344:
5250:
5245:
5185:
5170:
5134:
5019:
4583:
4507:
3783:
3619:
2758:
2739:
2706:
1875:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1301:
1213:
684:
590:
578:
291:
273:
220:
3833:
2650:
2496:
1941:
6011:
5929:
5669:
5592:
5583:
5575:
5536:
5265:
5220:
5129:
4944:
4563:
4367:
4271:
4222:
4155:
4092:
4025:
3628:
3526:
3477:
3326:
2267:
2098:
1793:
1589:
1542:
1487:
1472:"[Principle of marginotomy in template synthesis of polynucleotides]"
1425:
896:
748:
554:
325:
299:
224:
4381:
4001:
3677:
3070:
2798:
2348:
2148:
2131:
2089:
1980:
1895:
1401:
626:
of normal aging with respect to important cognitive and physical abilities.
5941:
5417:
5402:
5314:
5255:
5154:
5124:
5033:
4538:
4412:
4376:
4336:
4318:
4279:
4230:
4173:
4100:
4043:
4017:
3949:
3887:
3879:
3852:
3801:
3744:
3695:
3646:
3495:
3469:
3426:
3385:
3344:
3279:
3244:
3187:
3035:
3000:
2957:
2922:
2865:
2816:
2767:
2724:
2668:
2616:
2567:
2549:
2514:
2465:
2408:
2367:
2230:
2213:
2198:
2157:
2116:
2041:
1998:
1949:
1855:
1756:
1738:
1565:
1471:
1433:
1355:
1269:
737:
679:
469:
in yeast to many kilobases in humans, and usually is composed of arrays of
395:
319:
228:
204:
3985:
3972:
3579:
3544:
3318:
3129:
3078:
2847:
2308:
2239:
1914:
1707:
1597:
1550:
1495:
1284:, and even within smaller taxonomic groups these patterns appear diverse.
5936:
5847:
5709:
5407:
5397:
5392:
4757:
4752:
4615:
4593:
4588:
4456:
4123:
3726:
2447:
1871:"Conservation of the human telomere sequence (TTAGGG)n among vertebrates"
1643:
1324:
913:
832:
815:
779:
755:
713:
4978:
4147:
3571:
2904:
2583:"Telomere length, oxidative damage, antioxidants and breast cancer risk"
1417:
238:
for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the
5948:
5765:
5334:
5287:
5210:
5119:
4777:
4767:
4762:
4747:
4687:
4677:
4553:
4527:
4478:
4468:
4416:
4058:
3928:
von
Zglinicki T (March 2012). "Will your telomeres tell your future?".
2481:"The impact of oxidative DNA damage and stress on telomere homeostasis"
1339:
1314:
1240:
Tools have also been developed to estimate the length of telomere from
1139:
if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
892:
839:
797:
670:
639:
531:
465:
Telomere length varies greatly between species, from approximately 300
450:
423:
403:
391:
379:
310:
242:
155:
139:
135:
35:
4262:
4245:
4213:
4196:
4074:
4006:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
4002:"Heritability of telomere variation: it is all about the environment!"
3941:
3417:
3400:
3376:
3359:
3302:
2598:
1402:"2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: telomeres and telomerase"
635:
511:. There is a multitude of ways in which oxidative stress, mediated by
5867:
5558:
4729:
4473:
4451:
4432:
4244:
Chatelain, Marion; Drobniak, Szymon M.; Szulkin, Marta (2019-11-27).
2300:
1345:
1277:
1265:
1245:
948:
761:
573:
466:
434:
430:
356:
295:
147:
146:). Telomeres are a widespread genetic feature most commonly found in
138:
sequences associated with specialized proteins at the ends of linear
127:
110:
2062:
5877:
5641:
5537:
5437:
4499:
3257:
1295:
821:
719:
500:
336:
331:
314:
2132:"Senescence and immortalization: role of telomeres and telomerase"
585:
The phenomenon of limited cellular division was first observed by
5887:
5377:
5270:
5048:
5043:
4885:
4739:
4650:
4645:
2329:
2266:, Nature, June 30, 2022; Nat Struct Mol Biol 29, 639–652 (2022).
1281:
772:
611:
508:
470:
399:
387:
383:
264:
4913:
30:
5986:
5422:
5014:
4795:
4682:
4446:
4442:
4437:
2737:
2380:
2011:
907:
881:
696:
454:
239:
3865:
3557:
3153:"Measuring vertebrate telomeres: applications and limitations"
2740:"Telomerase as a Therapeutic Target in Cardiovascular Disease"
82:
70:
5732:
5464:
List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization
5324:
4860:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4785:
4723:
4303:"Ectothermic telomeres: it's time they came in from the cold"
2686:
984:
966:
851:
675:
371:
367:
363:
158:
systems from mistaking the very ends of the DNA strand for a
3711:"Estimating telomere length from whole genome sequence data"
3357:
5038:
3398:
549:
503:
studies have shown that telomeres accumulate damage due to
375:
347:
88:
64:
58:
3099:
2430:
Burge S, Parkinson GN, Hazel P, Todd AK, Neidle S (2006).
1379:
During replication, multiple DNA-polymerases are involved.
5028:
5024:
3300:
2689:"Telomere dysfunction in ageing and age-related diseases"
1721:
Chow TT, Zhao Y, Mak SS, Shay JW, Wright WE (June 2012).
402:(that possess telomere repeats similar to those found in
351:
Shelterin co-ordinates the T-loop formation of telomeres.
287:
151:
4243:
3600:
2935:
1566:"Telomeres, telomerase, and aging: origin of the theory"
386:. In many species, the sequence repeats are enriched in
16:
Region of repetitive nucleotide sequences on chromosomes
4903:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
4364:
Telomerase and the Consequences of Telomere Dysfunction
4000:
Dugdale, Hannah L.; Richardson, David S. (2018-01-15).
3450:
2429:
2278:
4195:
Pepke, Michael Le; Eisenberg, Dan T. A. (2021-03-16).
3508:
3208:
2478:
2780:
2687:
Rossiello F, Jurk D, Passos JF, di Fagagna F (2022).
2065:"Telomere shortening rate predicts species life span"
1233:), software processing the TRF pictures. A Real-Time
4300:
3150:
3048:
2832:"Telomeres and the natural lifespan limit in humans"
2173:"Telomeres, telomerase, and tumorigenesis--a review"
1291:
546:, longer telomeres may be associated with lifespan.
85:
79:
61:
55:
19:
For the use of "telomere" in insect morphology, see
2878:
2632:
2580:
1965:"Telomerase Repeated Amplification Protocol (TRAP)"
76:
67:
52:
4121:
4056:
3151:Nakagawa S, Gemmell NJ, Burke T (September 2004).
2829:
2745:Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology
2738:Hoffmann J, Richardson G, Spyridopoulos I (2021).
2432:"Quadruplex DNA: sequence, topology and structure"
2056:
1868:
1771:
1769:
4084:20.500.11820/91f3fc9e-4a69-4ac4-a8a0-45c93ccbf3b5
3999:
2628:
2626:
2260:Barnes, R.P., de Rosa, M., Thosar, S.A., et al.,
1869:Meyne J, Ratliff RL, Moyzis RK (September 1989).
6009:
2978:
2383:"Mammalian telomeres end in a large duplex loop"
2682:
2680:
2678:
2069:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1720:
638:. Some of the experimentally verified telomere
4354:Telomeres and Telomerase: The Means to the End
4194:
2879:Pepper GV, Bateson M, Nettle D (August 2018).
2623:
1827:
1135:Please review the contents of the section and
342:
276:cannot replicate the sequences present at the
5522:
4929:
4411:
4397:
4301:Olsson M, Wapstra E, Friesen C (March 2018).
3927:
2527:
1621:
2972:
2823:
2731:
2675:
1821:
1399:
525:Relationship between telomeres and longevity
306:degraded in the process of DNA replication.
3042:
1927:
1862:
1100:
665:Telomeric repeat (5' to 3' toward the end)
5529:
5515:
4936:
4922:
4404:
4390:
3662:"Telomere measurement by quantitative PCR"
3392:
2268:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41594-022-00790-y
2129:
1962:
418:Synthesis of chromosome ends by telomerase
253:
4326:
4261:
4212:
4163:
4082:
4033:
3984:
3842:
3832:
3814:
3791:
3734:
3685:
3636:
3618:
3534:
3485:
3416:
3375:
3351:
3334:
3234:
2912:
2855:
2806:
2757:
2714:
2658:
2606:
2557:
2530:"Does oxidative stress shorten telomeres
2504:
2479:Barnes R, Fouquerel E, Opresko P (2019).
2455:
2398:
2357:
2347:
2229:
2188:
2147:
2106:
2088:
1988:
1904:
1894:
1845:
1746:
1677:
1563:
1508:
1469:
1218:senescence-associated secretory phenotype
654:Some known telomere nucleotide sequences
518:
248:
4969:Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
3970:
3911:"A Blood Test Offers Clues to Longevity"
3013:
2950:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094239
1778:(5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman.
1770:Nelson DL, Lehninger AL, Cox MM (2008).
1400:Varela, E.; Blasco, M. A. (March 2010).
572:
550:Potential effect of psychological stress
499:Apart from the end replication problem,
413:
346:
263:
134: 'part') is a region of repetitive
29:
3908:
3757:
3659:
2211:
1830:"Role of shelterin in cancer and aging"
6010:
3509:Allshire RC, et al. (June 1989).
2830:Steenstrup T, Kark JD, Aviv A (2017).
2214:"Telomeres, telomerase and senescence"
1828:Martínez P, Blasco MA (October 2010).
1454:
215:, working as a postdoctoral fellow at
5510:
4917:
4893:List of organisms by chromosome count
4385:
3446:
3444:
2528:Reichert S, Stier A (December 2017).
1806:
268:Lagging strand during DNA replication
236:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
5489:
3708:
3272:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.11.013
2485:Mechanisms of Ageing and Development
1774:Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry
1617:
1615:
1373:
1104:
195:In the early 1970s, Soviet theorist
2336:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2170:
1963:Mender I, Shay JW (November 2015).
494:
13:
5598:Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite
4294:
3973:"Spit test offers guide to health"
3441:
1956:
38:(grey) capped by telomeres (white)
14:
6049:
4943:
4347:
1612:
996:TGTGGGTGTGGTG (from RNA template)
5488:
5477:
5476:
4977:
3909:Pollack, Andrew (May 18, 2011).
3227:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2011.00718.x
3180:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02291.x
1847:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2010.00596.x
1809:"Bacterial Chromosome Structure"
1294:
1201:
1109:
998:or G(2-3)(TG)(1-6)T (consensus)
589:, and is now referred to as the
394:, which allows the formation of
48:
5454:Index of biotechnology articles
4514:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
4237:
4188:
4115:
4050:
3993:
3964:
3921:
3902:
3859:
3808:
3751:
3702:
3653:
3594:
3551:
3502:
3294:
3251:
3202:
3144:
3093:
3007:
2929:
2872:
2774:
2587:International Journal of Cancer
2574:
2521:
2472:
2423:
2374:
2323:
2272:
2254:
2205:
2164:
2130:Shay JW, Wright WE (May 2005).
2123:
2005:
1921:
1800:
1763:
1714:
1509:Olovnikov, A. M. (1973-09-14).
1459:. Woods Hole. pp. 181–198.
557:found that increased perceived
475:3′ single-stranded-DNA overhang
5602:Trinucleotide repeat disorders
5459:List of biotechnology articles
2938:Annual Review of Public Health
1680:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1671:
1660:. Nobel Foundation. 2009-10-05
1650:
1557:
1515:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1502:
1463:
1448:
1393:
1361:Immortal DNA strand hypothesis
1258:
1223:
1137:add the appropriate references
568:
317:chromosomes (such as those in
143:
1:
5589:Variable number tandem repeat
5303:Genetically modified organism
5070:Biotechnology industrial park
2639:Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
2400:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80760-6
1386:
650:for letter representations).
642:sequences are also listed in
489:
447:somatic cell nuclear transfer
409:
4373:DNA Ends: Just the Beginning
3122:10.1126/science.279.5349.349
3028:10.1016/0014-4827(65)90211-9
2993:10.1016/0014-4827(61)90192-6
2787:Molecular Human Reproduction
2034:10.1126/science.288.5466.665
1700:10.1016/0022-5193(73)90198-7
1636:10.1016/0022-2836(78)90294-2
1624:Journal of Molecular Biology
1582:10.1016/0531-5565(96)00005-8
1535:10.1016/0022-5193(73)90198-7
629:
165:
21:Telomere (insect morphology)
7:
5293:Environmental biotechnology
1457:The Remaking of Chromosomes
1287:
1122:reliable medical references
343:Telomere ends and shelterin
10:
6054:
4554:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
4128:Royal Society Open Science
3784:10.1038/s41598-017-14403-y
3620:10.1186/s12859-021-04064-0
3016:Experimental Cell Research
2981:Experimental Cell Research
2885:Royal Society Open Science
2759:10.1161/ATVBAHA.120.315695
2707:10.1038/s41556-022-00842-x
2212:Greider CW (August 1990).
1476:Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR
1320:DNA damage theory of aging
1094:GGTGTACGGATTTGATTAGGTATGT
1082:GGTGTACGGATTTGATTAGTTATGT
610:Two studies on long-lived
522:
421:
354:
292:lagging strand replication
257:
120:
103:
18:
5957:
5910:
5778:
5746:
5723:
5700:
5691:
5682:
5657:
5617:
5574:
5565:
5556:
5472:
5446:
5353:
5233:
5163:
5112:
5103:
5062:
5007:
4986:
4975:
4964:Timeline of biotechnology
4951:
4898:List of sequenced genomes
4873:
4776:
4738:
4708:
4666:Chromosomal translocation
4636:
4539:A chromosome/B chromosome
4530:(or accessory chromosome)
4492:
4423:
3834:10.1186/s12859-019-2851-0
2651:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.02.002
2497:10.1016/j.mad.2018.03.013
1942:10.1016/j.tcb.2009.05.002
1807:Maloy S (July 12, 2002).
1564:Olovnikov, A. M. (1996).
1470:Olovnikov, A. M. (1971).
1128:or relies too heavily on
982:
973:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
906:
849:
771:
712:
480:telomere-binding proteins
460:
453:and in the prevention of
174:, studying the fruit fly
25:Telomere (disambiguation)
6028:Repetitive DNA sequences
5320:Microbial biodegradation
4999:Industrial biotechnology
4959:History of biotechnology
4720:Telomere-binding protein
4534:Supernumerary chromosome
1570:Experimental Gerontology
1366:
1351:Telomere-binding protein
1101:Research on disease risk
1077:Candida pseudotropicalis
1058:GGTGTACGGATGCAGACTCGCTT
1034:GGTGTACGGATGTCTAACTTCTT
991:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
272:During DNA replication,
117: 'end' and
4994:Colors of biotechnology
3660:Cawthon RM (May 2002).
3071:10.1126/science.7544491
2349:10.1074/jbc.M110.170167
2090:10.1073/pnas.1902452116
1981:10.21769/bioprotoc.1657
1896:10.1073/pnas.86.18.7049
1727:Genes & Development
1242:whole genome sequencing
1046:GGTGTAGGATGTCACGATCATT
1005:Saccharomyces castellii
513:reactive oxygen species
254:End replication problem
177:Drosophila melanogaster
5997:Protein tandem repeats
5925:Tandemly arrayed genes
5388:Biomedical engineering
5095:Pharmaceutical company
5075:Biotechnology products
4656:Structural alterations
4319:10.1098/rstb.2016.0449
4018:10.1098/rstb.2016.0450
3880:10.1038/nprot.2006.263
3715:Nucleic Acids Research
3666:Nucleic Acids Research
3527:10.1093/nar/17.12.4611
3515:Nucleic Acids Research
3458:Nucleic Acids Research
3307:Nucleic Acids Research
2550:10.1098/rsbl.2017.0463
2436:Nucleic Acids Research
2231:10.1002/bies.950120803
1930:Trends in Cell Biology
1739:10.1101/gad.187211.112
582:
519:Association with aging
419:
352:
269:
249:Structure and function
39:
23:. For other uses, see
4673:Numerical alterations
4661:Chromosomal inversion
4559:Homologous chromosome
3986:10.1038/news.2011.330
3678:10.1093/nar/30.10.e47
3260:Neurobiology of Aging
2848:10.18632/aging.101216
2799:10.1093/molehr/gas028
2149:10.1093/carcin/bgh296
1455:Muller, H.J. (1938).
1065:Candida guillermondii
648:nucleic acid notation
620:Oceanodroma leucorhoa
576:
417:
350:
267:
172:Hermann Joseph Muller
33:
5970:Pathogenicity island
5413:Chemical engineering
5276:Reproductive cloning
5140:Hybridoma technology
5090:Human Genome Project
4881:Extrachromosomal DNA
4569:Satellite chromosome
4544:Lampbrush chromosome
4484:Nuclear organization
3815:Feuerbach L (2019).
3560:Nature Biotechnology
3470:10.1093/nar/gkac1202
2171:Wai LK (July 2004).
1335:Rejuvenation (aging)
1089:Kluyveromyces lactis
955:Ascaris lumbricoides
858:Arabidopsis thaliana
616:Leach's storm-petrel
559:psychological stress
439:embryonic stem cells
5298:Genetic engineering
5281:Therapeutic cloning
5261:Bionic architecture
5241:Animal cell culture
5008:Biological concepts
4574:Centromere position
4549:Polytene chromosome
4519:Circular chromosome
4358:Elizabeth Blackburn
4148:10.1098/rsos.200548
4140:2020RSOS....700548R
3971:Marchant J (2011).
3776:2018NatSR...8.1300F
3572:10.1038/nbt0898-743
3319:10.1093/nar/gkad672
3172:2004MolEc..13.2523N
3114:1998Sci...279..349B
3063:1995Sci...269.1236F
2905:10.1098/rsos.180744
2897:2018RSOS....580744P
2694:Nature Cell Biology
2293:1984Natur.310..154S
2081:2019PNAS..11615122W
2075:(30): 15122–15127.
2026:2000Sci...288..665L
1887:1989PNAS...86.7049M
1692:1973JThBi..41..181O
1527:1973JThBi..41..181O
1418:10.1038/onc.2010.15
1253:Elizabeth Blackburn
655:
644:Telomerase Database
597:by Geron's founder
536:cellular senescence
213:Elizabeth Blackburn
203:'s idea of limited
160:double-strand break
5920:Gene amplification
5354:Interdisciplinary
5308:Molecular genetics
5054:Selective breeding
4313:(1741): 20160449.
4012:(1741): 20160450.
3915:The New York Times
3821:BMC Bioinformatics
3764:Scientific Reports
3758:Farmery J (2018).
3727:10.1093/nar/gku181
3607:BMC Bioinformatics
2448:10.1093/nar/gkl655
1342:, biological aging
1041:Candida tropicalis
653:
583:
420:
353:
270:
182:Barbara McClintock
40:
6023:Molecular biology
6005:
6004:
5906:
5905:
5774:
5773:
5678:
5677:
5567:Repeated sequence
5542:repeated sequence
5504:
5503:
5433:Nanobiotechnology
5428:Molecular biology
5229:
5228:
5080:Biotechnology law
4911:
4910:
4869:
4868:
4606:Centromere number
4523:Linear chromosome
4375:Nobel Lecture by
4366:Nobel Lecture by
4356:Nobel Lecture by
4263:10.1111/ele.13426
4214:10.1111/mec.15870
4207:(23): 6286–6296.
4201:Molecular Ecology
4075:10.1111/mec.16145
4069:(23): 5917–5932.
4063:Molecular Ecology
3942:10.1136/bmj.e1727
3418:10.1111/tpj.13115
3405:The Plant Journal
3377:10.1111/tpj.12839
3364:The Plant Journal
3313:(D1): D311–D321.
3160:Molecular Ecology
3057:(5228): 1236–41.
2599:10.1002/ijc.24105
1733:(11): 1167–1178.
1412:(11): 1561–1565.
1330:Maximum life span
1210:
1209:
1186:
1098:
1097:
978:TTAC(A)(C)G(1-8)
926:Bombus terrestris
703:Neurospora crassa
595:Geron Corporation
484:displacement loop
443:white blood cells
390:, e.g. TTAGGG in
231:were awarded the
180:, and in 1939 by
6045:
5982:Low copy repeats
5975:Symbiosis island
5912:Gene duplication
5698:
5697:
5689:
5688:
5572:
5571:
5550:gene duplication
5531:
5524:
5517:
5508:
5507:
5492:
5491:
5480:
5479:
5330:Pharmacogenomics
5110:
5109:
5104:Basic techniques
5085:Green Revolution
5063:General concepts
4981:
4938:
4931:
4924:
4915:
4914:
4736:
4735:
4700:Polyploidization
4528:Extra chromosome
4443:Genetic material
4406:
4399:
4392:
4383:
4382:
4341:
4340:
4330:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4265:
4241:
4235:
4234:
4216:
4192:
4186:
4185:
4167:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4086:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4037:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3925:
3919:
3918:
3906:
3900:
3899:
3868:Nature Protocols
3863:
3857:
3856:
3846:
3836:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3795:
3755:
3749:
3748:
3738:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3689:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3640:
3622:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3555:
3549:
3548:
3538:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3489:
3448:
3439:
3438:
3420:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3379:
3355:
3349:
3348:
3338:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3266:(7): 1486.e3–8.
3255:
3249:
3248:
3238:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3157:
3148:
3142:
3141:
3108:(5349): 349–52.
3097:
3091:
3090:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2916:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2859:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2810:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2761:
2752:(3): 1047–1061.
2735:
2729:
2728:
2718:
2684:
2673:
2672:
2662:
2630:
2621:
2620:
2610:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2561:
2544:(12): 20170463.
2525:
2519:
2518:
2508:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2459:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2402:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2361:
2351:
2342:(46): 35814–24.
2327:
2321:
2320:
2301:10.1038/310154a0
2276:
2270:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2233:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2192:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2151:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2110:
2092:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1992:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1908:
1898:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1849:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1777:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1750:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1619:
1610:
1609:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1482:(6): 1496–1499.
1467:
1461:
1460:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1397:
1380:
1377:
1310:Epigenetic clock
1304:
1299:
1298:
1205:
1204:
1196:
1193:
1187:
1185:
1144:
1113:
1112:
1105:
1029:Candida albicans
1022:GGGGTCTGGGTGCTG
1017:Candida glabrata
938:Vespula vulgaris
656:
652:
587:Leonard Hayflick
563:publication bias
505:oxidative stress
495:Oxidative damage
433:, some types of
201:Leonard Hayflick
197:Alexey Olovnikov
131:
124:
114:
107:
95:
94:
91:
90:
87:
84:
81:
78:
73:
72:
69:
66:
63:
60:
57:
54:
6053:
6052:
6048:
6047:
6046:
6044:
6043:
6042:
6008:
6007:
6006:
6001:
5953:
5902:
5770:
5742:
5719:
5693:Retrotransposon
5674:
5665:Inverted repeat
5653:
5638:DNA transposon
5634:Retrotransposon
5629:Gene conversion
5620:
5613:
5610:
5561:
5552:
5535:
5505:
5500:
5468:
5442:
5383:Biopharmacology
5355:
5349:
5225:
5196:Electrophoresis
5191:Kidney dialysis
5181:Crystallization
5159:
5105:
5099:
5058:
5003:
4982:
4973:
4947:
4942:
4912:
4907:
4865:
4772:
4734:
4704:
4693:Paleopolyploidy
4638:
4632:
4488:
4462:Heterochromatin
4425:
4419:
4410:
4350:
4345:
4344:
4299:
4295:
4250:Ecology Letters
4242:
4238:
4193:
4189:
4120:
4116:
4055:
4051:
3998:
3994:
3969:
3965:
3926:
3922:
3907:
3903:
3864:
3860:
3813:
3809:
3756:
3752:
3709:Ding Z (2014).
3707:
3703:
3658:
3654:
3599:
3595:
3556:
3552:
3521:(12): 4611–27.
3507:
3503:
3449:
3442:
3397:
3393:
3356:
3352:
3299:
3295:
3256:
3252:
3207:
3203:
3155:
3149:
3145:
3098:
3094:
3047:
3043:
3012:
3008:
2977:
2973:
2934:
2930:
2877:
2873:
2842:(4): 130–1142.
2828:
2824:
2779:
2775:
2736:
2732:
2685:
2676:
2631:
2624:
2579:
2575:
2538:Biology Letters
2526:
2522:
2477:
2473:
2442:(19): 5402–15.
2428:
2424:
2379:
2375:
2328:
2324:
2287:(5973): 154–7.
2277:
2273:
2259:
2255:
2210:
2206:
2169:
2165:
2128:
2124:
2061:
2057:
2020:(5466): 665–9.
2010:
2006:
1961:
1957:
1926:
1922:
1881:(18): 7049–53.
1867:
1863:
1826:
1822:
1813:
1811:
1805:
1801:
1786:
1768:
1764:
1719:
1715:
1676:
1672:
1663:
1661:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1620:
1613:
1562:
1558:
1507:
1503:
1468:
1464:
1453:
1449:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1261:
1226:
1214:senescent cells
1206:
1202:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1145:
1134:
1130:primary sources
1114:
1110:
1103:
1053:Candida maltosa
997:
870:Cestrum elegans
632:
599:Michael D. West
571:
552:
544:life expectancy
527:
521:
497:
492:
463:
426:
412:
359:
345:
262:
260:DNA replication
256:
251:
217:Yale University
168:
152:chromosomal DNA
75:
51:
47:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6051:
6041:
6040:
6038:Non-coding DNA
6035:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5978:
5977:
5972:
5965:Genomic island
5961:
5959:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5951:
5946:
5945:
5944:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5922:
5916:
5914:
5908:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5901:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5784:
5782:
5780:DNA transposon
5776:
5775:
5772:
5771:
5769:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5752:
5750:
5744:
5743:
5741:
5740:
5735:
5729:
5727:
5721:
5720:
5718:
5717:
5712:
5706:
5704:
5695:
5686:
5680:
5679:
5676:
5675:
5673:
5672:
5667:
5661:
5659:
5655:
5654:
5652:
5651:
5650:
5649:
5644:
5636:
5631:
5625:
5623:
5615:
5614:
5612:
5611:
5608:Macrosatellite
5605:
5595:
5586:
5580:
5578:
5576:Tandem repeats
5569:
5563:
5562:
5557:
5554:
5553:
5534:
5533:
5526:
5519:
5511:
5502:
5501:
5499:
5498:
5486:
5473:
5470:
5469:
5467:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5450:
5448:
5444:
5443:
5441:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5373:Bioengineering
5370:
5368:Bioelectronics
5365:
5359:
5357:
5351:
5350:
5348:
5347:
5345:Tissue culture
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5311:
5310:
5305:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5278:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5251:Bioinformatics
5248:
5246:Biofabrication
5243:
5237:
5235:
5231:
5230:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5186:Chromatography
5183:
5178:
5173:
5171:Centrifugation
5167:
5165:
5164:Chemical field
5161:
5160:
5158:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5135:Flow cytometry
5132:
5127:
5122:
5116:
5114:
5107:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5059:
5057:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5022:
5017:
5011:
5009:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4996:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4983:
4976:
4974:
4972:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4955:
4953:
4949:
4948:
4941:
4940:
4933:
4926:
4918:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4870:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4782:
4780:
4774:
4773:
4771:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4744:
4742:
4733:
4732:
4727:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4696:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4670:
4669:
4668:
4663:
4653:
4648:
4642:
4640:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4630:
4629:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4584:Submetacentric
4581:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4525:
4516:
4511:
4510:or heterosome)
4504:Sex chromosome
4496:
4494:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4459:
4449:
4440:
4435:
4429:
4427:
4421:
4420:
4409:
4408:
4401:
4394:
4386:
4380:
4379:
4370:
4361:
4349:
4348:External links
4346:
4343:
4342:
4293:
4256:(2): 381–398.
4236:
4187:
4134:(11): 200548.
4114:
4049:
3992:
3963:
3920:
3901:
3874:(5): 2365–76.
3858:
3807:
3750:
3701:
3672:(10): 47e–47.
3652:
3593:
3550:
3501:
3464:(1): 420–433.
3440:
3391:
3350:
3293:
3250:
3201:
3166:(9): 2523–33.
3143:
3092:
3041:
3006:
2987:(3): 585–621.
2971:
2928:
2871:
2822:
2793:(11): 517–22.
2773:
2730:
2701:(2): 135–147.
2674:
2622:
2593:(7): 1637–43.
2573:
2520:
2471:
2422:
2373:
2322:
2271:
2253:
2204:
2163:
2136:Carcinogenesis
2122:
2055:
2004:
1955:
1920:
1861:
1820:
1799:
1784:
1762:
1713:
1670:
1649:
1611:
1576:(4): 443–448.
1556:
1521:(1): 181–190.
1501:
1462:
1447:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1302:Biology portal
1289:
1286:
1260:
1257:
1225:
1222:
1208:
1207:
1200:
1198:
1117:
1115:
1108:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1072:
1071:
1068:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1012:
1011:
1008:
1000:
999:
994:
987:
980:
979:
976:
969:
962:
961:
958:
951:
945:
944:
941:
933:
932:
929:
921:
920:
917:
910:
904:
903:
900:
889:
888:
885:
877:
876:
873:
865:
864:
861:
854:
847:
846:
843:
836:
829:
828:
825:
805:
804:
801:
793:
792:
789:
776:
769:
768:
765:
752:
745:
744:
741:
733:
732:
729:
716:
710:
709:
706:
699:
692:
691:
688:
673:
667:
666:
663:
660:
631:
628:
591:Hayflick limit
579:Hayflick limit
570:
567:
551:
548:
523:Main article:
520:
517:
496:
493:
491:
488:
462:
459:
441:, and certain
422:Main article:
411:
408:
396:G-quadruplexes
355:Main article:
344:
341:
274:DNA polymerase
258:Main article:
255:
252:
250:
247:
221:Joseph G. Gall
211:In 1975–1977,
167:
164:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6050:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6015:
6013:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5967:
5966:
5963:
5962:
5960:
5956:
5950:
5947:
5943:
5940:
5939:
5938:
5935:
5931:
5930:Ribosomal DNA
5928:
5927:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5913:
5909:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5785:
5783:
5781:
5777:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5753:
5751:
5749:
5745:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5730:
5728:
5726:
5722:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5707:
5705:
5703:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5681:
5671:
5670:Direct repeat
5668:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5656:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5626:
5624:
5622:
5616:
5609:
5606:
5603:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5593:Minisatellite
5590:
5587:
5585:
5584:Satellite DNA
5582:
5581:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5532:
5527:
5525:
5520:
5518:
5513:
5512:
5509:
5497:
5496:
5487:
5485:
5484:
5475:
5474:
5471:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5451:
5449:
5445:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5352:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5300:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5266:Cell immunity
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5236:
5232:
5222:
5221:Sedimentation
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5162:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5130:Cultured meat
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5117:
5115:
5113:Biology field
5111:
5108:
5102:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5061:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4989:
4985:
4980:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4945:Biotechnology
4939:
4934:
4932:
4927:
4925:
4920:
4919:
4916:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4872:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4775:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4737:
4731:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4671:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4639:and evolution
4635:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4607:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4564:Isochromosome
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4491:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4428:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4407:
4402:
4400:
4395:
4393:
4388:
4387:
4384:
4378:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4368:Carol Greider
4365:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4338:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4297:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4240:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4191:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4118:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4053:
4045:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3996:
3987:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3967:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3916:
3912:
3905:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3854:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3811:
3803:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3697:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3597:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3554:
3546:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3447:
3445:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3411:(3): 337–47.
3410:
3406:
3402:
3395:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3370:(4): 644–54.
3369:
3365:
3361:
3354:
3346:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3254:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3205:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3147:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3096:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3022:(3): 614–36.
3021:
3017:
3010:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2932:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2891:(8): 180744.
2890:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2818:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2777:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2734:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2627:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2533:
2524:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2393:(4): 503–14.
2392:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2142:(5): 867–74.
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2008:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1975:(22): e1657.
1974:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1936:(8): 414–22.
1935:
1931:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1840:(5): 653–66.
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1810:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1785:9780716771081
1781:
1776:
1775:
1766:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1686:(1): 181–90.
1685:
1681:
1674:
1659:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1616:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1458:
1451:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1392:
1376:
1372:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1292:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1256:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1199:
1195:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1153: –
1152:
1148:
1147:Find sources:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:This section
1116:
1107:
1106:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1085:
1081:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1049:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1033:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1007:
1006:
1002:
1001:
995:
993:
992:
988:
986:
981:
977:
975:
974:
970:
968:
964:
963:
959:
957:
956:
952:
950:
947:
946:
942:
940:
939:
935:
934:
930:
928:
927:
923:
922:
918:
916:
915:
911:
909:
905:
901:
899:
898:
897:Chlamydomonas
894:
891:
890:
887:CTCGGTTATGGG
886:
884:
883:
879:
878:
874:
872:
871:
867:
866:
862:
860:
859:
855:
853:
848:
844:
842:
841:
837:
834:
831:
830:
826:
824:
823:
818:
817:
812:
811:
807:
806:
802:
800:
799:
795:
794:
790:
788:
787:
782:
781:
777:
774:
770:
766:
764:
763:
758:
757:
753:
750:
749:Kinetoplastid
747:
746:
742:
740:
739:
738:Dictyostelium
735:
734:
730:
728:
727:
722:
721:
717:
715:
711:
707:
705:
704:
700:
698:
694:
693:
689:
687:
686:
681:
677:
674:
672:
669:
668:
664:
661:
658:
657:
651:
649:
646:website (see
645:
641:
637:
627:
623:
621:
617:
613:
608:
606:
605:
600:
596:
592:
588:
580:
575:
566:
564:
560:
556:
555:Meta-analyses
547:
545:
539:
537:
534:response and
533:
526:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
487:
485:
481:
476:
472:
468:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
425:
416:
407:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
358:
349:
340:
338:
334:
333:
328:
327:
326:Agrobacterium
322:
321:
316:
312:
307:
303:
301:
300:cell division
297:
293:
289:
284:
279:
275:
266:
261:
246:
244:
241:
237:
234:
230:
226:
225:Carol Greider
222:
218:
214:
209:
206:
202:
198:
193:
191:
187:
183:
179:
178:
173:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
130:
123:
119:
116:
113:
106:
102:
99:
98:Ancient Greek
93:
45:
37:
32:
26:
22:
5991:
5942:Gene cluster
5710:Alu sequence
5619:Interspersed
5493:
5481:
5418:Microbiology
5403:Biochemicals
5339:
5315:Gene therapy
5256:Biosynthesis
5234:Applications
5155:Spectroscopy
5125:Cell culture
5034:Fermentation
4715:
4605:
4573:
4413:Cytogenetics
4377:Jack Szostak
4310:
4306:
4296:
4253:
4249:
4239:
4204:
4200:
4190:
4131:
4127:
4117:
4066:
4062:
4052:
4009:
4005:
3995:
3976:
3966:
3933:
3929:
3923:
3914:
3904:
3871:
3867:
3861:
3824:
3820:
3810:
3767:
3763:
3753:
3718:
3714:
3704:
3669:
3665:
3655:
3610:
3606:
3596:
3566:(8): 743–7.
3563:
3559:
3553:
3518:
3514:
3504:
3461:
3457:
3408:
3404:
3394:
3367:
3363:
3353:
3310:
3306:
3296:
3263:
3259:
3253:
3221:(5): 761–8.
3218:
3214:
3204:
3163:
3159:
3146:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3019:
3015:
3009:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2888:
2884:
2874:
2839:
2835:
2825:
2790:
2786:
2776:
2749:
2743:
2733:
2698:
2692:
2642:
2638:
2590:
2586:
2576:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2523:
2488:
2484:
2474:
2439:
2435:
2425:
2390:
2386:
2376:
2339:
2335:
2325:
2284:
2280:
2274:
2261:
2256:
2224:(8): 363–9.
2221:
2217:
2207:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2072:
2068:
2058:
2017:
2013:
2007:
1972:
1969:Bio-Protocol
1968:
1958:
1933:
1929:
1923:
1878:
1874:
1864:
1837:
1833:
1823:
1812:. Retrieved
1802:
1773:
1765:
1730:
1726:
1716:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1662:. Retrieved
1652:
1630:(1): 33–53.
1627:
1623:
1573:
1569:
1559:
1518:
1514:
1504:
1479:
1475:
1465:
1456:
1450:
1409:
1405:
1395:
1375:
1275:
1270:heritability
1262:
1250:
1239:
1227:
1211:
1189:
1179:
1172:
1165:
1158:
1146:
1126:verification
1119:
1087:
1075:
1063:
1051:
1039:
1027:
1015:
1003:
989:
971:
953:
943:TTGCGTCTGGG
936:
931:TTAGGTTGGGG
924:
912:
895:
880:
868:
856:
845:TTAGGG(T/C)
838:
833:Apicomplexan
820:
814:
808:
796:
784:
778:
760:
754:
736:
724:
718:
714:Slime moulds
701:
695:Filamentous
683:
633:
624:
619:
609:
602:
584:
553:
540:
528:
498:
464:
427:
360:
330:
324:
320:Streptomyces
318:
308:
304:
271:
229:Jack Szostak
210:
205:somatic cell
194:
189:
185:
175:
169:
128:
125:
118:
111:
108:
101:
96:; from
43:
41:
6018:Chromosomes
5937:Gene family
5848:Tc1/mariner
5803:EnSpm/CACTA
5408:Biorobotics
5398:Biomimetics
5393:Biomedicine
4626:Polycentric
4616:Monocentric
4599:Holocentric
4594:Acrocentric
4589:Telocentric
4579:Metacentric
4457:Euchromatin
4417:chromosomes
3770:(1): 1300.
2944:: 223–245.
2645:: 158–169.
2534:? A review"
1325:Immortality
1276:Studies on
1259:In wildlife
1224:Measurement
1216:, or SASP (
1120:needs more
914:Bombyx mori
893:Green algae
875:TTTTTTAGGG
816:Stylonychia
803:TTGGG(T/G)
780:Tetrahymena
756:Trypanosoma
671:Vertebrates
569:Lengthening
486:or D-loop.
404:vertebrates
392:vertebrates
311:prokaryotes
140:chromosomes
36:chromosomes
6012:Categories
5949:Pseudogene
5766:retroposon
5684:Transposon
5546:transposon
5363:Bioeconomy
5335:Stem cells
5288:Embryology
5211:Filtration
5201:Extraction
5120:Bioreactor
4778:Centromere
4709:Structures
4688:Polyploidy
4678:Aneuploidy
4479:Nucleosome
4469:Chromosome
3827:(1): 272.
3721:(9): e75.
3613:(1): 145.
3215:Aging Cell
1834:Aging Cell
1814:2008-06-22
1664:2012-06-12
1387:References
1340:Senescence
1315:Centromere
1278:ectotherms
1266:endotherms
1192:March 2018
1162:newspapers
1151:"Telomere"
949:Roundworms
840:Plasmodium
798:Paramecium
640:nucleotide
532:DNA damage
490:Shortening
467:base pairs
451:senescence
435:stem cells
431:germ cells
424:Telomerase
410:Telomerase
296:base pairs
243:telomerase
188:(end) and
156:DNA repair
148:eukaryotes
136:nucleotide
6033:Telomeres
5868:P element
5818:Harbinger
5559:Repeatome
5206:Fed Batch
5106:and tools
4730:Protamine
4637:Processes
4621:Dicentric
4474:Chromatid
4452:Chromatin
4433:Karyotype
4288:208319503
4272:1461-023X
4223:0962-1083
4182:226291119
4156:2054-5703
4109:237328316
4093:0962-1083
4026:0962-8436
3936:: e1727.
3629:1471-2105
3478:0305-1048
3435:206331112
3327:0305-1048
2966:209748557
2491:: 37–45.
2218:BioEssays
2183:(3): 19.
2177:MedGenMed
2099:0027-8424
1794:191854286
1590:0531-5565
1543:0022-5193
1488:0002-3264
1426:1476-5594
1356:G-quartet
1346:Tankyrase
1246:Flow-FISH
1010:TCTGGGTG
902:TTTTAGGG
835:protozoa
827:TTTTGGGG
810:Oxytricha
775:protozoa
762:Crithidia
751:protozoa
662:Organism
630:Sequences
357:Shelterin
315:bacterial
166:Discovery
144:Sequences
5992:Telomere
5958:See also
5898:Zisupton
5878:Polinton
5873:PiggyBac
5828:Helitron
5647:Helitron
5642:Polinton
5538:Genetics
5483:Category
5438:Virology
5340:Telomere
4987:Branches
4874:See also
4716:Telomere
4683:Euploidy
4611:Acentric
4508:allosome
4500:Autosome
4426:concepts
4337:29335373
4280:31773847
4231:33662151
4174:33391781
4101:34437736
4044:29335377
3958:44594597
3950:22415954
3896:20463557
3888:17406480
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