43:
250:, namely the invasion of Julius Caesar's army. Given the cultural, economic and political advantages that came with being a Latin speaker, the Gauls eventually abandoned their language in favor of the language brought to them by the Romans, which evolved in this region, until eventually it took the form of the French language that is known today. The Gaulish speech disappeared in the late Roman era, but remnants of its vocabulary survive in some French words, approximately 200, as well as place-names of Gaulish origin.
615:
134:. Whether the superstratum case (the local language persists and the intrusive language disappears) or the substratum one (the local language disappears and the intrusive language persists) applies will normally only be evident after several generations, during which the intrusive language exists within a
212:
In a typical case of substrate interference, a
Language A occupies a given territory and another Language B arrives in the same territory, brought, for example, with migrations of population. Language B then begins to supplant language A: the speakers of Language A abandon their own language in favor
483:
Although the influence of the prior language when a community speaks, and adopts, a new one may have been informally acknowledged beforehand, the concept was formalized and popularized initially in the late 19th century. As historical phonology emerged as a discipline, the initial dominant viewpoint
373:
suggest that many languages have formerly existed that have since then been replaced under expansive language families, such as Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Uralic or Bantu. However, it is not a given that such expansive languages would have acquired substratum influence from the languages they have
525:
was used to counter
Mueller's view. In modern historical linguistics, debate persists on the details of how language contact may induce structural changes. The respective extremes of "all change is contact" and "there are no structural changes ever" have largely been abandoned in favor of a set of
466:
So can their meaning: words referring to the natural landscape, in particular indigenous fauna and flora, have often been found especially likely to derive from substrate languages. None of these conditions, is sufficient by itself to claim any one word as originating from an unknown substratum.
726:
The term adstratum is also used to identify systematic influences or a layer of borrowings in a given language from another language, independently of whether the two languages continue coexisting as separate entities. Many modern languages have an appreciable adstratum from
English, due to the
196:
A substratum (plural: substrata) or substrate is a language that an intrusive language influences, which may or may not ultimately change it to become a new language. The term is also used of substrate interference, i.e. the influence the substratum language exerts on the replacing language.
526:
conventions on how to demonstrate contact induced structural changes. These include adequate knowledge of the two languages in question, a historical explanation, and evidence that the contact-induced phenomenon did not exist in the recipient language before contact, among other guidelines.
213:
of the other language, generally because they believe that it will help them achieve certain goals within government, the workplace, and in social settings. During the language shift, the receding language A still influences language B, for example, through the transfer of
534:
A superstratum (plural: superstrata) or superstrate offers the counterpart to a substratum. When a different language influences a base language to result in a new language, linguists label the influencing language a superstratum and the influenced language a substratum.
455:, which lack a clear etymology. Such words can in principle still be native inheritance, lost everywhere else in the language family, but they might in principle also originate from a substrate. The sound structure of words of unknown origin — their
356:
In the absence of all three lines of evidence mentioned above, linguistic substrata may be difficult to detect. Substantial indirect evidence is needed to infer the former existence of a substrate. The nonexistence of a substrate is
424:, which hypothesize large families of substrate languages across western Europe. Some smaller-scale unattested substrates that remain under debate involve alleged extinct branches of the Indo-European family, such as "
467:
Occasionally words that have been proposed to be of substrate origin will be found out to have cognates in more distantly related languages after all, and therefore likely native: an example is Proto-Indo-European
690:
The phenomenon is less common today in standardized linguistic varieties and more common in colloquial forms of speech since modern nations tend to favour one single linguistic variety, often corresponding to the
2474:
550:
coinages from Greek and Latin roots adopted by
European languages (and subsequently by other languages) to describe scientific topics (sociology, zoology, philosophy, botany, medicine, all "
735:. The Greek and Latin coinages adopted by European languages, including English and now languages worldwide, to describe scientific topics, sociology, medicine, anatomy, biology, all the '-
675:
An adstratum (plural: adstrata) or adstrate is a language that influences another language by virtue of geographic proximity, not by virtue of its relative prestige. For example, early in
275:
with the same semantic construction as modern French) with other Celtic calques possibly including "oui", the word for yes, while syntactic and morphological effects are also posited.
188:
in France, who eventually abandoned their
Germanic dialects in favor of other Indo-European languages of the Romance branch, profoundly influencing the local speech in the process.
224:
In most cases, the ability to identify substrate influence in a language requires knowledge of the structure of the substrate language. This can be acquired in numerous ways:
723:
languages have roughly the same status, and could justifiably be called adstrates to each other having each one provided a large set of lexical specifications to the other.
409:" (Merya, Muromian, and Meshcheran): while unattested, their existence has been noted in medieval chronicles, and one or more of them have left substantial influence in the
209:, which refers to the influence a socially dominating language has on another, receding language that might eventually be relegated to the status of a substratum language.
488:
on phonology and grammar should be assumed to be marginal, and an internal explanation should always be favored if possible. As articulated by Max
Mueller in 1870,
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2392:
2715:
2328:
253:
It is posited that some structural changes in French were shaped at least in part by
Gaulish influence including diachronic sound changes and
2365:
2295:
Etymology and the
European Lexicon: Proceedings of the 14th Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012, Copenhagen
234:
The substrate language itself may be unknown entirely, but it may have surviving close relatives that can be used as a base of comparison.
130:
Both concepts apply to a situation where an intrusive language establishes itself in the territory of another, typically as the result of
849:
180:
case refers to elite invading populations that eventually adopt the language of the native lower classes. An example would be the
857:
727:
cultural influence and economic preponderance of the United States on international markets and previously colonization by the
636:
2732:
2182:
2159:
471:'sea', found widely in the northern and western Indo-European languages, but in more eastern Indo-European languages only in
443:
When a substrate language or its close relatives cannot be directly studied, their investigation is rooted in the study of
2313:
Schrijver, Peter (1997). "Animal, vegetable and mineral: some
Western European substratum words". In Lubotsky, A. (ed.).
547:
385:, purportedly the source of about one quarter of the most ancient Germanic vocabulary. There are similar arguments for a
440:
is an abbreviation of "tenuis, media, media aspirata, tenuis", referencing a sound shift presumed common to the group.
2546:
2499:
2402:
2375:
2200:. Bonn: Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. Page 106.
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662:
498:"). In the 1880s, dissent began to crystallize against this viewpoint. Within Romance language linguistics, the 1881
86:
64:
644:
57:
1982:
1943:
238:
One of the first-identified cases of substrate influence is an example of a substrate language of the second type:
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703:, where dozens of languages are widespread, many languages could be said to share an adstratal relationship, but
2692:
Vovin, Alexander (1994). "Long-distance relationships, reconstruction methodology and the origins of
Japanese".
2066:
1990:
1540:
1319:
640:
127:(1829–1907), and became known in the English-speaking world through the work of two different authors in 1932.
770:, which were linked geographically to Yiddish-speaking villages in Eastern Europe for centuries up until the
382:
205:, which involves no language replacement but rather mutual borrowing between languages of equal "value", and
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1862:
853:
597:. In this case, however, the superstratum refers to influence, not language succession. Other views detect
377:
Several examples of this type of substratum have still been claimed. For example, the earliest form of the
362:
2070:
514:
was shaped by the retention by Celts of their "oral dispositions" even after they had switched to Latin.
149:
or immigrate in significant numbers relative to the local population, i.e., the intrusion qualifies as an
1870:
594:
386:
370:
17:
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2523:
417:
558:" might be a better designation (despite the prestige of science and of its language). In the case of
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1674:
1238:
923:
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410:
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The substrate language, or some later descendant of it, still survives in a part of its former range;
2018:
1939:
1934:
1813:
625:
460:
279:
51:
31:
2417:
Benedict (1990), Lewin (1976), Matsumoto (1975), Miller (1967), Murayama (1976), Shibatani (1990).
1243:
1210:
1198:
971:
629:
511:
170:
2343:
2028:
1986:
1822:
1101:
889:
503:
421:
124:
68:
2196:
Matasović, Ranko. 2007. “Insular Celtic as a Language Area”. In Tristam, Hildegard L.C. 2007,
1952:
1267:
586:
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after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when use of the English language carried low prestige. The
398:
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must lie on the side of the scholar claiming the influence of a substrate. The principle of
2083:
Substrata Uralica: Studies on Finno-Ugrian substrate influence in Northern Russian dialects
1838:
1435:
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1166:
1129:
1066:
880:
590:
589:
substratum. Some scholars also argue for the existence of Altaic superstrate influences on
330:
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A superstrate may also represent an imposed linguistic element akin to what occurred with
348:
have multiple substrata, with the actual influence of such languages being indeterminate.
8:
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phenomena due to the retention of Gaulish phonetic patterns after the adoption of Latin,
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1960:
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1386:
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680:
378:
338:
2625:
Matsumoto, Katsumi (1975). "Kodai nihongoboin soshikikõ: naiteki saiken no kokoromi".
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dialects, often exhibit significant substrata from other regional Semitic (especially
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2587:
2552:
2542:
2505:
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2398:
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Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania
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case, the immigrant population will either need to take the position of a political
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Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars
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Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars
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in the lexical slot of a transitive verb for "to take", though archaic forms of
2427:
McWhorter, John (2007). "Mandarin Chinese: "Altaicization" or Simplification?".
554:" words, etc.) can also be termed a superstratum, although for this last case, "
2584:, ed. by R. E. Asher et al. Vol. 1, pp. 4396–4398. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
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2008:
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Leschber, Corinna (2016). "On the stratification of substratum languages".
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Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii
1755:
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Other examples of substrate languages are the influence of the now extinct
247:
206:
158:
154:
2616:"Japanese and Korean: The Problems and History of a Linguistic Comparison"
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1843:
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1702:
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820:
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lived in the modern French-speaking territory before the arrival of the
2057:"Why Don't the English Speak Welsh?" Hildegard Tristram, chapter 15 in
1866:
1782:
1740:
976:
832:
231:
Written records of the substrate language may exist to various degrees;
218:
2682:
2649:
2615:
428:" substrate in the Germanic languages, and a "Temematic" substrate in
197:
According to some classifications, this is one of three main types of
2683:
The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis
2394:
The Study of Language and the Politics of Community in Global Context
2112:, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.
2099:, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.
1606:
1330:
1184:
1180:
1161:
771:
555:
456:
444:
202:
123:. The notion of "strata" was first developed by the Italian linguist
27:
Language that influences, or is influenced by another through contact
2702:
Réponses au Questionnaire du Ve Congrès international des Linguistes
1586:
1228:
who annexed it to the Roman Empire (1st century BC-7th century AD),
614:
2609:
La teorĂa del substrato y los dialectos Hispano-romances y gascones
1573:
1548:
1477:
1407:
1364:
1233:
1109:
1051:
991:
956:
451:. The study of unattested substrata often begins from the study of
214:
150:
135:
116:
30:
This article is about the term in linguistics. For other uses, see
1929:
1925:
1909:
1787:
1767:
1639:
1610:
1509:
1481:
1473:
1315:
1257:
1172:
1137:
1082:
1020:
987:
961:
930:
815:
750:, which contain a heavy Semitic, particularly Arabic, adstratum.
712:
692:
676:
322:
166:
711:. A different example would be the sociolinguistic situation in
683:
served as an adstrate, contributing to the lexical structure of
1848:
1798:
1735:
1664:
1581:
1552:
1536:
1491:
1463:
1430:
1305:
1205:
860:), between the first millennium BC and the first millennium AD
811:
778:
Notable examples of possible substrate or superstrate influence
258:
254:
185:
2472:
The Genesis and Development of Brazilian Vernacular Portuguese
2226:. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Pages 77-82
2364:
Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufmann, Terrence (12 February 1992).
2125:, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
1881:
1833:
1343:
1250:
896:
885:
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704:
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that influences or is influenced by another language through
108:
2222:
Filppula, Markku, Klemola, Juhani and Paulasto, Heli. 2008.
2121:
Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in
1659:
Assimilation of East Balts by East Slavs in the Middle Ages
2668:"The influence of African languages on pidgins and creoles"
2594:, eds John McCoy & Timothy Light, 76–97. Leiden: Brill.
1759:
1698:
736:
2650:"The Malayo-Polynesian Component in the Japanese Language"
2494:. Borg, Karl. Valletta, Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin. 1998.
270:
1297:
during the incorporation of the Canary Islands into the
2367:
Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics
739:' words, etc., are also justifiably called adstrata.
1710:
782:
2441:
Hashimoto (1986), Janhunen (1996), McWhorter (2007).
141:
In order for the intrusive language to persist, the
2344:"Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages"
2672:Current Approaches to African Linguistics (vol. 2)
2536:
1486:the Portuguese during the colonial rule in Africa
506:argued that the early phonological development of
2590:(1986). "The Altaicization of Northern Chinese".
2743:
2370:. University of California Press. pp. 1–3.
2363:
2085:(Ph.D.). University of Helsinki. pp. 12–14.
1959:, and later individual Slavic languages such as
463:— can often suggest hints in either direction.
242:, from the ancient Celtic people the Gauls. The
2265:"The Linguistic Diversity of Aboriginal Europe"
383:been influenced by a non-Indo-European language
2308:
2306:
2304:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2110:Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics
2108:Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in
2097:Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics
2095:Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in
1539:in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who
2288:
2286:
2061:, N. J. Higham (ed.), The Boydell Press 2007
1634:Italian immigration to Uruguay and Argentina
766:, mostly in the sphere of religion, and with
699:and other important regions, over others. In
265:("blind", literally without eyes, from Latin
2582:The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
2248:(2014). "Substratum words in Balto-Slavic".
489:
416:By contrast, more contentious cases are the
361:, and to avoid digressing into speculation,
201:: substratum interference differs from both
2725:Languages in contact: findings and problems
2390:
2301:
2229:
2192:
2190:
1865:, and the Arabic and Mozarabic speakers in
643:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2714:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2627:Bulletin of the Faculty of Law and Letters
2541:. Malta: Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza.
2327:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2283:
2722:
2580:Cravens, Thomas D. (1994). "Substratum".
2426:
2312:
2244:
2080:
1329:
1323:
1065:
975:
970:
884:
879:
663:Learn how and when to remove this message
269:, which was a calque on the Gaulish word
87:Learn how and when to remove this message
2699:
2292:
2213:. Paris: La Différence. Pages 26, 294-5.
2187:
1873:and other Christian kingdoms during the
50:This article includes a list of general
2645:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2391:Hoyt, David L.; Ostlund, Karen (2006).
351:
221:, or grammatical patterns from A to B.
14:
2744:
2341:
2317:. Amsterdam/Atlanta. pp. 293–316.
858:Southward expansion of the Han dynasty
2592:Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies
2262:
850:Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes
1601:Union with Danish crown, 1380–1814.
707:is certainly a dominant adstrate in
641:adding citations to reliable sources
608:
397:. Relatively clear examples are the
36:
1920:on the islands in the 16th century
548:international scientific vocabulary
521:'s related but distinct concept of
24:
2567:
2138:(Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
2059:The Britons in Anglo-Saxon England
1711:Superstrate influence on substrate
783:Substrate influence on superstrate
478:
325:), Iranian, and Berber languages.
56:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
2773:
2604:. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society.
1150:of transported enslaved Africans
1045:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
393:, and a substrate underlying the
2629:(Kanazawa University) 22.83–152.
2397:. Lexington Books. p. 103.
1983:Slavic migrations to the Balkans
1155:British colonial rule in Jamaica
613:
41:
2727:. New York: Mouton Publishers.
2638:. USA: Oxford University Press.
2607:Jungemann, Frédéric H. (1955).
2530:
2484:
2465:
2444:
2435:
2420:
2411:
2384:
2357:
2335:
2256:
2216:
2203:
2198:The Celtic Languages in Contact
585:superstratum projected onto an
529:
2681:Singler, John Victor (1988). "
2164:
2154:(Paris: Errance, 1994), 46-7.
2141:
2128:
2115:
2102:
2089:
2074:
2051:
1916:control, establishment of the
1320:indigenous languages of Mexico
369:and results from the study of
13:
1:
2700:Wartburg, Walter von (1939).
2666:Singler, John Victor (1983).
2659:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).
2539:Il-Malti, elf sena ta' storja
2297:. Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag.
2224:English and Celtic in Contact
2211:Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois
2177:(Paris: Errance, 1994), 158.
2044:
191:
2602:Manchuria: An Ethnic History
1521:and languages spoken by Jews
1171:Southern Chinese varieties:
854:Han campaigns against Minyue
742:Another example is found in
731:which made English a global
604:
573:Some linguists contend that
7:
2654:Journal of Japanese Studies
2648:Murayama, Shichiro (1976).
2641:Miller, Roy Andrew (1967).
2620:Journal of Japanese Studies
2537:Brincat, Joseph M. (2000).
2209:Savignac, Jean-Paul. 2004.
2002:
1541:modernized and reintroduced
754:is a linguistic variety of
581:in general) consists of an
10:
2778:
2723:Weinreich, Uriel (1979) .
2663:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
2573:Benedict, Paul K. (1990).
2431:. Oxford University Press.
1825:and during the subsequent
1730:Superstrate introduced by
1455:the Portuguese during the
967:Central Cushitic languages
802:Superstrate introduced by
491:Es gibt keine Mischsprache
418:Vasconic substratum theory
309:dialects, most especially
165:outside Italy, displacing
157:. An example would be the
29:
2263:Ringe, Don (2009-01-06).
2081:Saarikivi, Janne (2006).
1448:
1242:
1237:
1224:
1219:
1043:
484:was that influences from
411:Northern Russian dialects
115:is a historical layer of
2632:McWhorter, John (2007).
2342:Witzel, Michael (1999).
2019:Trans-cultural diffusion
1524:Hebrew constructed from
1014:North Cushitic languages
32:Stratum (disambiguation)
1869:who were absorbed into
1543:Hebrew as a vernacular
1244:Paleohispanic languages
1199:Speak Mandarin Campaign
972:South Semitic languages
566:is the superstrate and
512:Gallo-Romance languages
271:
199:linguistic interference
171:Indo-European languages
71:more precise citations.
2762:Historical linguistics
2661:The languages of Japan
2522:: CS1 maint: others (
2029:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
1823:Fall of Constantinople
1102:Plantations of Ireland
504:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
490:
422:Old European hydronymy
125:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
2643:The Japanese language
2614:Lewin, Bruno (1976).
2588:Hashimoto, Mantaro J.
2315:Sound Law and Analogy
500:Lettere glottologiche
399:Finno-Ugric languages
297:islands. In the Arab
2577:. Ann Arbor: Karoma.
2492:Lıngwa u lıngwıstıka
2462:survived in England.
1863:conquest of Hispania
1839:Early Modern Spanish
1827:occupation of Greece
1576:in the 15th century
1517:dialects, and other
1436:Brazilian Portuguese
1338:of the 15th century
1327:of the 15th century
1195:Singapore Government
1167:Singaporean Mandarin
1132:in the 16th century
1130:Scottish Reformation
1104:in the 16th century
1067:Early Modern English
1040:Ingvaeonic languages
881:Pre-classical Arabic
637:improve this section
591:varieties of Chinese
352:Unattested substrata
331:Modern South Arabian
2678:, 65–77. Dordrecht.
2575:Japanese/Austro-Tai
2171:Pierre-Yves Lambert
2148:Pierre-Yves Lambert
2024:Pre-Greek substrate
1957:Old Church Slavonic
1918:Knights of St. John
1721:Resultant language
1616:Rioplatense Spanish
1452:of the 15th century
1153:the English during
1128:the English during
919:Mesopotamian Arabic
793:Resultant language
758:with adstrata from
449:linguistic typology
2477:2017-10-10 at the
2175:La Langue gauloise
2152:La Langue gauloise
1469:Angolan Portuguese
1370:Paraguayan Spanish
1290:Andalusian Spanish
387:Sanskrit substrate
379:Germanic languages
2752:Linguistic strata
2734:978-90-279-2689-0
2674:, ed. by J. Kaye
2454:replaced earlier
2183:978-2-87772-224-7
2160:978-2-87772-224-7
2134:Eugeen Roegiest,
2014:Language transfer
2000:
1999:
1991:Polish-Lithuanian
1905:Romance languages
1708:
1707:
1625:Italian Languages
1537:Jewish immigrants
1358:Aymaran languages
1190:Standard Mandarin
1148:African languages
839:Old Yue languages
673:
672:
665:
579:Japonic languages
367:uniformitarianism
359:difficult to show
335:Old South Arabian
163:Romance languages
97:
96:
89:
16:(Redirected from
2769:
2757:Language contact
2738:
2719:
2713:
2705:
2561:
2560:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2521:
2513:
2488:
2482:
2469:
2463:
2448:
2442:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2348:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2326:
2318:
2310:
2299:
2298:
2290:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2277:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2246:Matasović, Ranko
2242:
2227:
2220:
2214:
2207:
2201:
2194:
2185:
2168:
2162:
2145:
2139:
2132:
2126:
2119:
2113:
2106:
2100:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2078:
2072:
2055:
1949:Slavic languages
1715:
1714:
1650:Baltic languages
1519:Jewish languages
1335:Spanish Conquest
1299:Crown of Castile
1280:Canarian Spanish
1115:Scottish English
1031:Common Brittonic
1010:Central Cushitic
942:Berber languages
890:Muslim conquests
871:Levantine Arabic
787:
786:
768:Slavic languages
668:
661:
657:
654:
648:
617:
609:
601:strate effects.
523:creole languages
493:
486:language contact
346:Creole languages
289:dialects of the
274:
111:for "layer") or
92:
85:
81:
78:
72:
67:this article by
58:inline citations
45:
44:
37:
21:
2777:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2742:
2741:
2735:
2707:
2706:
2570:
2568:Further reading
2565:
2564:
2549:
2535:
2531:
2515:
2514:
2502:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2479:Wayback Machine
2470:
2466:
2449:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2425:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2362:
2358:
2346:
2340:
2336:
2320:
2319:
2311:
2302:
2291:
2284:
2275:
2273:
2261:
2257:
2243:
2230:
2221:
2217:
2208:
2204:
2195:
2188:
2169:
2165:
2146:
2142:
2133:
2129:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2103:
2094:
2090:
2079:
2075:
2069:, pp. 192–214.
2056:
2052:
2047:
2034:Creole language
2005:
1995:Russian Empires
1940:Common Romanian
1935:Modern Romanian
1814:Ottoman Turkish
1792:Norman conquest
1758:' dominance of
1713:
1655:Old East Slavic
1572:Acquisition by
1513:
1457:colonial period
1445:Bantu languages
1337:
1311:Mexican Spanish
1263:Common Romanian
1143:Jamaican Patois
1124:Scottish Gaelic
1057:Cornish English
937:Maghrebi Arabic
924:Eastern Aramaic
902:Egyptian Arabic
876:Western Aramaic
785:
780:
669:
658:
652:
649:
634:
618:
607:
570:the substrate.
562:, for example,
532:
519:Hugo Schuchardt
496:mixed languages
494:("there are no
481:
479:Concept history
453:substrate words
363:burden of proof
354:
194:
169:and many other
161:giving rise to
93:
82:
76:
73:
63:Please help to
62:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2775:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2740:
2739:
2733:
2720:
2697:
2690:
2679:
2664:
2657:
2646:
2639:
2630:
2623:
2612:
2605:
2598:Janhunen, Juha
2595:
2585:
2578:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2547:
2529:
2500:
2483:
2464:
2443:
2434:
2419:
2410:
2403:
2383:
2376:
2356:
2334:
2300:
2282:
2255:
2228:
2215:
2202:
2186:
2163:
2140:
2127:
2114:
2101:
2088:
2073:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2039:Relexification
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2009:Language shift
2004:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1985:, rule by the
1980:
1946:
1937:
1932:
1922:
1921:
1907:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1856:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1821:following the
1816:
1811:
1809:Medieval Greek
1806:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1773:Middle English
1770:
1764:
1763:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1692:
1687:
1677:
1672:
1661:
1660:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1632:
1627:
1618:
1613:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1545:
1544:
1533:
1522:
1499:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1438:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1389:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1351:
1349:Andean Spanish
1346:
1340:
1339:
1328:
1322:
1313:
1308:
1302:
1301:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1275:Canary Islands
1271:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1192:
1187:
1169:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1126:
1117:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:Cornish people
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1028:
1023:
1017:
1016:
1007:
994:
984:
983:
974:
969:
964:
959:
953:
952:
939:
934:
933:(North Africa)
927:
926:
921:
916:
910:
909:
904:
899:
893:
892:
883:
878:
873:
868:
862:
861:
848:Sinicisation (
846:
841:
835:
818:
804:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
784:
781:
779:
776:
729:British Empire
671:
670:
621:
619:
612:
606:
603:
595:Northern China
531:
528:
480:
477:
432:, proposed by
395:Sami languages
371:human genetics
353:
350:
280:North Germanic
236:
235:
232:
229:
193:
190:
95:
94:
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2774:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2736:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2711:
2703:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2571:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2548:99909-41-68-8
2544:
2540:
2533:
2525:
2519:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2501:99909-75-42-6
2497:
2493:
2487:
2481:Page 246, etc
2480:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2450:For example,
2447:
2438:
2430:
2423:
2414:
2406:
2404:9780739109557
2400:
2396:
2395:
2387:
2379:
2377:9780520912793
2373:
2369:
2368:
2360:
2352:
2351:Mother Tongue
2345:
2338:
2330:
2324:
2316:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2296:
2289:
2287:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2259:
2252:(60): 75–102.
2251:
2247:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2225:
2219:
2212:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2191:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2137:
2131:
2124:
2118:
2111:
2105:
2098:
2092:
2084:
2077:
2071:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2054:
2050:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1892:Siculo-Arabic
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1819:Ottoman Turks
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1804:Demotic Greek
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1746:Gallo-Romance
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1695:Russification
1693:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1675:North Russian
1673:
1670:
1669:Russian North
1666:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1592:Old Norwegian
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1558:Insular Scots
1556:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1497:Modern Hebrew
1495:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1344:Central Andes
1342:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1300:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:Daco-Thracian
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1245:
1240:
1239:Ibero-Romance
1235:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1211:Gallo-Romance
1209:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1088:Irish English
1086:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1072:Anglicisation
1070:
1068:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1035:British Latin
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1002:
998:
995:
993:
989:
986:
985:
981:
978:
973:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
954:
951:
947:
943:
940:
938:
935:
932:
929:
928:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
911:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
894:
891:
887:
882:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
845:
842:
840:
836:
834:
830:
826:
822:
819:
817:
813:
809:
806:
805:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
788:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
740:
738:
734:
733:lingua franca
730:
724:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
688:
686:
682:
678:
667:
664:
656:
646:
642:
638:
632:
631:
627:
622:This section
620:
616:
611:
610:
602:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
536:
527:
524:
520:
515:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
492:
487:
476:
474:
470:
464:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
426:Nordwestblock
423:
419:
414:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
375:
372:
368:
364:
360:
349:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
327:Yemeni Arabic
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
305:, colloquial
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
283:Norn language
281:
276:
273:
268:
264:
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
241:
233:
230:
227:
226:
225:
222:
220:
216:
210:
208:
204:
200:
189:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
91:
88:
80:
70:
66:
60:
59:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
2724:
2701:
2696:11:1.95–114.
2693:
2686:
2675:
2671:
2660:
2653:
2642:
2634:
2626:
2619:
2608:
2601:
2591:
2581:
2574:
2538:
2532:
2491:
2486:
2467:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2437:
2428:
2422:
2413:
2393:
2386:
2366:
2359:
2350:
2337:
2314:
2294:
2274:. Retrieved
2270:Language Log
2268:
2258:
2249:
2223:
2218:
2210:
2205:
2197:
2174:
2166:
2151:
2143:
2135:
2130:
2122:
2117:
2109:
2104:
2096:
2091:
2082:
2076:
2058:
2053:
1953:Proto-Slavic
1944:Old Romanian
1756:Merovingians
1727:Superstrate
1515:Judeo-Arabic
1221:Vulgar Latin
1120:Middle Scots
950:Vulgar Latin
814:), Northern
799:Superstrate
741:
725:
715:, where the
689:
679:'s history,
674:
659:
650:
635:Please help
623:
598:
587:Austronesian
572:
537:
533:
530:Superstratum
516:
499:
482:
468:
465:
452:
442:
437:
436:. The name
434:Georg Holzer
430:Balto-Slavic
415:
376:
355:
343:
303:North Africa
277:
266:
262:
252:
237:
223:
211:
207:superstratum
195:
178:superstratum
177:
175:
159:Roman Empire
155:colonisation
142:
140:
129:
112:
104:
98:
83:
74:
55:
2694:Diachronica
2656:2:2.413–436
2622:2:2.389–412
1875:Reconquista
1861:during the
1851:(by way of
1844:Old Spanish
1790:during the
1778:Old English
1762:around 500
1703:Volga Finns
1382:Philippines
1333:during the
1295:Andalusians
1197:during the
1100:during the
1098:the English
1026:Old English
914:Mesopotamia
888:during the
844:Old Chinese
756:High German
709:North India
685:Old English
407:Volga Finns
344:Typically,
341:substrata.
299:Middle East
219:place names
192:Substratum
182:Burgundians
101:linguistics
77:August 2009
69:introducing
18:Superstrate
2746:Categories
2276:2017-09-30
2250:Filologija
2067:1843833123
2045:References
1903:and other
1867:al-Andalus
1783:Old Norman
1741:Old French
1724:Substrate
1686:languages
1645:Belarusian
1623:, various
1621:Neapolitan
1450:Portuguese
1400:Hiligaynon
1318:and other
982:expansion
977:Bronze Age
796:Substrate
748:Portuguese
593:spoken in
510:and other
461:morphology
374:replaced.
339:Himyaritic
143:substratum
52:references
2710:cite book
2704:. Bruges.
2689:64.27–51.
2611:. Madrid.
2557:223378429
2518:cite book
2323:cite book
1987:Bulgarian
1977:Bulgarian
1961:Ukrainian
1914:Aragonese
1853:Mozarabic
1607:Argentina
1535:European
1387:Chavacano
1331:Spaniards
1185:Hainanese
1181:Cantonese
1162:Singapore
772:Holocaust
681:Old Norse
653:July 2019
624:does not
605:Adstratum
556:adstratum
517:In 1884,
457:phonology
445:etymology
438:Temematic
405:and the "
391:Greek one
381:may have
311:Levantine
267:ab oculis
215:loanwords
203:adstratum
138:culture.
132:migration
2687:Language
2600:(1996).
2510:82586980
2475:Archived
2003:See also
1899:, later
1897:Sicilian
1871:Castille
1859:Umayyads
1751:Frankish
1574:Scotland
1549:Shetland
1530:mishnaic
1526:Biblical
1478:Kimbundu
1408:Bangingi
1365:Paraguay
1234:Portugal
1110:Scotland
1052:Cornwall
997:Tigrinya
992:Ethiopia
957:Ethiopia
837:Various
823:(Viet),
575:Japanese
315:Egyptian
291:Shetland
261:such as
151:invasion
136:diaspora
117:language
1973:Serbian
1969:Russian
1955:, then
1951:(first
1930:Moldova
1926:Romania
1901:Italian
1887:Maltese
1788:Normans
1768:England
1697:of the
1690:Russian
1684:Volgaic
1640:Belarus
1630:Spanish
1611:Uruguay
1510:Yiddish
1506:Russian
1482:Kikongo
1474:Umbundu
1404:Cebuano
1396:Ilokano
1392:Tagalog
1375:GuaranĂ
1354:Quechua
1325:Spanish
1316:Nahuatl
1285:Guanche
1258:Romania
1216:Gaulish
1177:Teochew
1173:Min Nan
1138:Jamaica
1083:Ireland
1062:Cornish
1021:England
988:Eritrea
980:Semitic
962:Amharic
931:Maghreb
816:Vietnam
764:Aramaic
752:Yiddish
744:Spanish
713:Belgium
697:capital
695:of the
693:dialect
677:England
645:removed
630:sources
568:Gaulish
540:English
473:Ossetic
401:of the
323:Aramaic
319:Maghreb
285:on the
263:aveugle
259:calques
240:Gaulish
167:Gaulish
121:contact
105:stratum
65:improve
2731:
2676:et al.
2555:
2545:
2508:
2498:
2460:to nim
2401:
2374:
2181:
2158:
2065:
1993:, and
1975:, and
1965:Polish
1910:Norman
1849:Arabic
1799:Greece
1736:France
1699:Chudes
1680:Finnic
1665:Russia
1597:Danish
1587:BokmĂĄl
1582:Norway
1553:Orkney
1532:Hebrew
1502:German
1492:Israel
1480:, and
1464:Angola
1431:Brazil
1422:, and
1416:Tausug
1306:Mexico
1226:Romans
1206:France
948:, and
907:Coptic
866:Levant
856:, and
812:Baiyue
760:Hebrew
717:French
583:Altaic
560:French
544:Norman
508:French
317:, and
307:Arabic
295:Orkney
272:exsops
255:sandhi
248:Romans
186:Franks
113:strate
54:, but
2456:niman
2347:(PDF)
1882:Malta
1834:Spain
1718:Area
1568:Scots
1424:Malay
1420:Yakan
1251:Spain
1093:Irish
1005:Ge'ez
1001:Tigré
946:Punic
897:Egypt
886:Arabs
808:China
790:Area
721:Dutch
705:Hindi
701:India
577:(and
564:Latin
552:-logy
469:*mori
403:Chude
287:Scots
244:Gauls
147:elite
109:Latin
2729:ISBN
2716:link
2553:OCLC
2543:ISBN
2524:link
2506:OCLC
2496:ISBN
2452:take
2399:ISBN
2372:ISBN
2329:link
2179:ISBN
2156:ISBN
2063:ISBN
1912:and
1760:Gaul
1701:and
1682:and
1563:Norn
1551:and
1528:and
1441:Tupi
1412:Sama
1122:and
1033:and
1012:and
1003:and
762:and
746:and
737:logy
719:and
628:any
626:cite
542:and
459:and
447:and
420:and
389:, a
337:and
329:has
301:and
293:and
184:and
176:The
103:, a
2685:".
1074:of
825:Min
821:Yue
639:by
599:sub
502:of
413:.
173:.
153:or
99:In
2748::
2712:}}
2708:{{
2670:.
2652:.
2618:.
2551:.
2520:}}
2516:{{
2504:.
2349:.
2325:}}
2321:{{
2303:^
2285:^
2267:.
2231:^
2189:^
2173:,
2150:,
1989:,
1979:)
1971:,
1967:,
1963:,
1942:,
1928:,
1671:)
1508:,
1504:,
1476:,
1443:,
1418:,
1414:,
1410:,
1406:,
1402:,
1398:,
1394:,
1356:,
1183:,
1179:,
1175:,
999:,
944:,
852:,
833:Wu
831:,
829:Au
827:,
774:.
687:.
475:.
333:,
313:,
217:,
2737:.
2718:)
2559:.
2526:)
2512:.
2407:.
2380:.
2353:.
2331:)
2279:.
1855:)
1667:(
1609:/
1512:,
990:/
810:(
666:)
660:(
655:)
651:(
647:.
633:.
107:(
90:)
84:(
79:)
75:(
61:.
34:.
20:)
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