515:), who promised to restore to him the fortress of Sahyun. When Turuntay, the second-in-command to the sultan, ran afoul of al-Ashraf Khalil, Sunqur inherited his position. However, Clifford holds this favor "spoiled him as it had Turuntay". Wary of Sunqur overstepping his power, al-Ashraf Khalil ordered him to surrender some of the assets of Turuntay, which Sunqur rejected. After initial hesitation to act against Sunqur, al-Ashraf Khalil was persuaded by his advisers to imprison Sunqur. He was executed in 1293.
404:
501:, the seat of the empire, and became an adviser and friend of the sultan, who continued to treat him honorably through the end of his reign in 1290. According to Northrup, Qalawun's "magnanimous" treatment of Sunqur and other senior rivals "was not entirely altruistic". As the sultan still lacked full support among the mamluk factions, he aimed to gain their goodwill by giving Sunqur and the sons of Baybars considerable freedom and benefits.
266:). Sunqur and al-Baysari practically ran the Mamluk state in the immediate aftermath of Baybars's death. Advised by his upstart emirs to assert his sultanic authority, al-Sa'id had them both arrested. This caused major controversy among the mamluks, with higher-ranking emirs confronting the sultan to reverse course. Al-Sa'id soon after freed Sunqur and al-Baysari. Sunqur eventually gained the good graces of al-Sa'id's
225:, and used him to ransom Sunqur from the Mongols, who were allies of the Armenians. Sunqur initially reacted with hesitation at the prospect of being released to Baybars, as he feared punishment for his previous defection from him during their service with the Ayyubids. According to the historian Linda Northrup, the effort to release Sunqur was an indication of the high regard Baybars held for him.
426:. At Sahyun, Sunqur corresponded with the Mongols, promising to join with their forces in the event of a Mongol invasion. However, when the Mongols invaded Syria in late 1280, Sunqur threw in his lot with the Mamluks. Several versions explaining Sunqur's motives exist, including requests by Qalawun's envoys to present a united front against the Mongols and beratement by Isa ibn Muhanna or
431:
Mamluk garrison, but withdrew two days later, after which the Muslim troops at Hama pursued them. The
Mongols' abandonment of their invasion was ascribed by the sources to the unexpected defection of Sunqur, the assembly of a large Mamluk force at Hama, or the demonstration of power by Qalawun. Following this event, more of Sunqur's men defected to Qalawun.
232:, Sunqur became the most devoted loyalist of Baybars, who had acceded as sultan in late 1260, with Sunqur and al-Baysari referred to in the sources as "the two wings" of Baybars. Baybars built a house for Sunqur next to his own in Cairo in 1267. While its location and specific descriptions of its structure do not exist, it contained an
270:, who supported his promotion to the office of viceroy of the sultan. This was probably due to Sunqur's willingness to allow al-Sa'id's loyalists to pilfer the state coffers in exchange for their support. Sunqur served as an envoy for al-Sa'id with other senior mamluks, such as Qalawun and one of the sultan's disaffected viceroys,
316:
Under the
Ayyubids, Syrian territories were ruled by members of the ruling family, who viewed themselves as equals of their relative, the sultan of Egypt. They frequently attempted to rule independently, a pattern which continued under the early Mamluk sultans. Qalawun's toppling of Solamish in Cairo
430:
sheikhs to not defect from Islam by joining the
Mongols at his old age. In any case, Sunqur and his relatively small detachment of troops joined the Mamluk army assembled at Hama, but without integrating under its command. The Mongols captured Aleppo, which had been abandoned by its inhabitants and
304:
the sultanate. He viewed himself as more worthy of the sultanate. His dissatisfaction at the political situation was reflected in his absence from
Qalawun's coronation ceremony, whilst all other senior mamluks were in attendance. Nevertheless, in December 1279, Qalawun's name was pronounced in the
303:
While the office of viceroy of Syria brought Sunqur control over substantial wealth, fortresses, and troops, as well as eminence among the other mamluks, he probably viewed the appointment as a move by
Qalawun to sideline him from the center of power in Cairo and remove him as a potential rival to
484:, to besiege Sahyun. Turuntay arrived in early 1287, offering Sunqur the opportunity to surrender peacefully in return for the sultan's pardon. He refused, but relented after the assault against the fortress commenced. Sunqur surrendered Sahyun and its satellite fortresses in April or May 1287.
457:. Qalawun summoned Sunqur to join the effort, which he complied with in return for promises that he would be allowed to return to Sahyun. His arrival, along with that of Aytamish, at the sultan's camp significantly boosted the morale of the Mamluk troops. The Mongols were routed at the
442:
fortress, to the west of Hama. The fortress was assaulted by
Qalawun's troops and its commander died. Negotiations ensued between Qalawun and Sunqur, whereby it was agreed that Sunqur would surrender Shaizar in return for a pardon and continued control over Sahyun as an
344:
between Sunqur and
Qalawun and invite the former back to obedience. Sunqur maintained his rebellion, attracting the other Salihi mamluks in Damascus to his side. Qalawun dispatched a small force to Palestine, which engaged with a small troop loyal to Sunqur in
287:
Sunqur may have resented al-Sa'id's rule, believing himself better suited to rule than the young sultan. He practically defected from him, when he refused to accompany him back to Cairo. Al-Sa'id died soon after and was succeeded by his brother
492:
Sunqur arrived with
Turuntay in Cairo afterward, where he received a grand reception by Qalalwun, his sons, the family of Baybars, the Mamluk armies, the leading emirs and his fellow Salihi mamluks. The sultan gave him the highest rank,
320:
Sunqur responded favorably to the invitation by the
Ayyubid emir, al-Mughith Khidr, to join the Syrian opposition to Qalawun. In early 1280, Sunqur declared himself independent, adopting the regnal title
377:
in June 1280. Sunqur, while having fought with distinction, was deprived of his mamluk troops and retreated with the
Bedouins of Isa ibn Muhanna and a small coteries of loyalists to the fortress of
151:. The Bahri mamluks were part of the large Salihiyya corps, i.e. the mamluks of al-Salih Ayyub. During this period, he became acquainted with another Bahri mamluk of al-Salih Ayyub, the future
361:
of Damascus, permitting him to challenge the Egyptian army. Sunqur gathered 14,000 mamluks and other troops from across Syria, especially from the Mamluk governors of Aleppo and
88:) imprisoned Sunqur and had him executed in 1293 for defying his orders to hand over part of the wealth he ended up controlling after the sultan's earlier execution of Turuntay.
159:. The Ayyubids of Egypt were toppled by their mamluks in 1250, inaugurating the Mamluk state. Sunqur and Qalawun were associates of the powerful deputy of Mamluk sultan
480:. Marqab was preserved and garrisoned. These developments enabled him to focus on finally subduing Sunqur at Sahyun. In 1286/1287 the sultan commissioned his deputy,
300:, the second highest-ranking post in the sultanate, in September 1279. Soon after Sunqur arrived to assume office in Damascus, Qalawun had been elevated to sultan.
325:, leading a royal procession in Damascus, and having his name read in the Friday prayer sermons. He proposed to Qalawun that be left to control the region between
229:
77:
in 1287. Sunqur returned to Cairo, where he was given the highest military ranks and considerable honors and benefits by Qalawun. The latter's son and successor,
435:
1015:
Yosef, Koby (2022). "The Names of the Mamluks: Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Solidarity in the Mamluk Sultanate (648-922, 1250-1517)". In Levanoni, Amalia (ed.).
353:. A larger force, numbering 6,000 men, was sent by Qalawun against Damascus, likely with the intention to intimidate Sunqur into submission. Sunqur gained a
453:
invaded northern Syria. Qalawun hurried to confront the challenge, setting up camp with the emirs of the Mamluk armies of Egypt and Syria at a site near
182:
292:, who was seven years old at the time. Sunqur did not act on his ambitions for power, preferring to wait out events. When Qalawun became the
472:
fortress in the coastal mountain south of Sahyun. He proceeded against the Crusaders further, capturing from them the nearby inland fort of
974:
From Slave to Sultan: The Career of Al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.)
414:
Mamluk troops soon after pursued Sunqur, who thereafter left Isa ibn Muhanna's company in the Syrian desert for refuge in the castle of
481:
174:. When the latter was murdered in the Bahri citadel on Aybak's orders in 1254, Sunqur and Qalawun fled the citadel for Ayyubid Syria.
74:
201:
the Ayyubid principalities there and made Sunqur their honored guest. Baybars, by now having returned to Egypt under the new sultan
271:
177:
During their time in Syria, the Bahri exiles became divided, with one faction, including Sunqur, defecting to the Ayyubid emir of
438:, defected to Sunqur at Sahyun with 300 of his horsemen. In the meantime, Sunqur had gained the defection of the Mamluk emir of
70:
in 1281. He remained in a state of peaceful relations with the sultan, despite ruling his coastal principality independently.
434:
After Qalawun executed Kunduk and other leading emirs in reaction to an assassination plot against him, another leading emir,
296:(commander-in-chief), and thus the practical ruler of the sultanate, Sunqur joined his entourage. He was appointed viceroy of
1026:
961:
1080:
927:"A dirhem of Al-Kāmil Shams Al-Dīn Sunqur, rebel sultān of Syria, hitherto unrecorded in numismatics (679 H.=1280 A.D.)"
497:(emir of one hundred cavalry, commander of one thousand mamluks). He was given the prestigious honor of quarters in the
1003:
982:
1085:
333:
valley. He did not advocate secession from the sultanate, but autonomy of the kind enjoyed by the Ayyubid emir of
1055:
450:
423:
62:
in the coastal mountains of northern Syria. He joined Qalawun in the successful defense of Syria against the
1060:
222:
194:
1075:
218:
1065:
198:
953:
State formation and the structure of politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E
1070:
1045:
926:
458:
67:
340:
Qalawun initially responded by diplomatic means, sending Salihi emissaries to appeal to the
1050:
374:
55:
8:
206:
171:
308:
sermons in Syria's cities, a formal recognition of his sultanate in Sunqur's domains.
193:. The defectors to Khidr were eventually imprisoned by al-Nasir Yusuf, but during the
1022:
999:
978:
957:
938:
505:
214:
152:
78:
63:
28:
1016:
993:
972:
951:
370:
256:
20:
381:, along the Euphrates. Damascus surrendered to Qalawun's forces after securing
305:
244:
210:
190:
125:
40:
36:
1039:
498:
408:
373:. Despite their greater numbers, most defected to the Egyptian army during a
358:
140:
59:
461:, forcing their retreat from Syria. Sunqur was allowed to return to Sahyun.
73:
Sunqur's rule came to an end with the capture of Sahyun by Qalawun's deputy
383:
942:
403:
1018:
Egypt and Syria under Mamluk Rule: Political, Social and Cultural Aspects
144:
995:
The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture
449:(akin to a fief). After this agreement was struck, Mongol armies under
504:
Sunqur initially enjoyed close ties with Qalawun's successor, his son
346:
330:
209:, capturing most of the region in 1260. Six years later, during the
477:
469:
378:
326:
297:
289:
178:
32:
473:
439:
419:
366:
362:
186:
156:
136:
117:
44:
465:
415:
238:
121:
337:, a principality spared full absorption by the Mamluk state.
317:
was taken as a signal by Sunqur to act as sovereign in Syria.
563:
392:
354:
350:
205:, led the Mamluk victory against the Mongols in Syria at the
202:
160:
148:
950:
Clifford, Winslow William (2013). Conermann, Stephan (ed.).
859:
823:
703:
454:
445:
427:
334:
233:
905:
903:
901:
888:
886:
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847:
835:
811:
799:
787:
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of Damascus by one of his former prisoners, the mamluk
387:(guarantee of safety). Sunqur was formally replaced as
775:
763:
727:
679:
628:
616:
575:
551:
541:
539:
282:
604:
592:
524:
487:
536:
349:. Sunqur's men were put to flight, regrouping in
1037:
116:). He was born around 1223 and was an ethnic
369:, Bedouin Arabs of the Syrian steppe, under
956:. Bonn University Press: V and R Unipress.
143:(adj. 'Bahri'), a mamluk regiment based in
101:
139:sultan of Egypt, who appointed him to the
39:independently, in a rebellion against the
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402:
365:, the Ayyubid governor of Hama, and the
311:
242:(private reception room) and a type of
197:, Sunqur was freed by the Mongols, who
189:, joined the Ayyubid emir of Damascus,
17:Shams al-Din Sunqur al-Ashqar al-Salihi
1038:
991:
610:
598:
418:, near the Crusader-held port city of
1014:
924:
545:
530:
398:
35:in 1279–1280, who attempted to rule
424:northern coastal mountains of Syria
277:
54:). While the rebellion in Damascus
24:
13:
1021:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 59–118.
283:Appointment and sultanic ambitions
255:Baybars was succeeded by his son,
58:, Sunqur ensconced himself in the
14:
1097:
248:(roofed reception area) called a
228:Along with another Bahri mamluk,
488:Return to Cairo and later career
918:
510:
261:
165:
130:
91:
83:
49:
464:In May 1285, Qalawun captured
1:
518:
25:شمس الدين سنقر الأشقر الصالحي
7:
1081:Mamluk viceroys of Damascus
971:Northrup, Linda S. (1998).
476:and the island fortress of
375:confrontation at al-Jassora
10:
1102:
992:Rabbat, Nasser O. (1995).
185:, while the other, led by
195:Mongol invasion of Syria
1086:13th-century executions
495:amir mi'a, muqaddam alf
221:, a son of their king,
411:
230:Badr al-Din al-Baysari
943:10.3406/numi.1969.991
572:, p. 85, note 7.
406:
312:Rebellion in Damascus
96:Sunqur was nicknamed
1056:13th-century regents
925:Balog, Paul (1969).
111:the blond, the Greek
1061:13th-century rebels
868:, pp. 130–132.
832:, pp. 106–107.
712:, pp. 133–134.
459:battle outside Homs
217:, Baybars captured
207:Battle of Ain Jalut
124:(slave soldier) of
56:was quashed in 1280
931:Revue Numismatique
412:
215:Cilician Armenians
172:Faris al-Din Aktay
1028:978-90-04-45951-9
998:. Leiden: Brill.
977:. Franz Steiner.
963:978-3-8471-0091-1
760:, pp. 94–95.
661:, pp. 92–93.
649:, pp. 91–92.
436:Aytamish al-Sa'di
399:Control of Sahyun
357:from the scholar
323:al-Malik al-Kamil
98:al-Ashqar al-Rumi
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513: 1290–1293
512:
506:al-Ashraf Khalil
389:na'ib al-saltana
294:atabek al-asakir
278:Viceroy of Syria
265:
264: 1277–1279
263:
183:al-Mughith Khidr
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168: 1250–1257
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133: 1240–1249
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115:
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86: 1290–1293
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79:al-Ashraf Khalil
64:Ilkhanid Mongols
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52: 1279–1290
51:
26:
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937:(11): 296–299.
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371:Isa ibn Muhanna
314:
285:
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257:al-Sa'id Baraka
164:
147:in the capital
129:
113:
110:
107:
104:
94:
82:
48:
12:
11:
5:
1099:
1089:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1076:Mongol Mamluks
1073:
1068:
1063:
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1053:
1048:
1034:
1033:
1027:
1011:
1010:
1004:
989:
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968:
962:
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917:
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914:
912:, p. 150.
897:
895:, p. 137.
882:
880:, p. 136.
870:
858:
856:, p. 112.
846:
844:, p. 109.
834:
822:
820:, p. 105.
810:
808:, p. 102.
798:
796:, p. 101.
786:
774:
762:
750:
748:, p. 134.
738:
726:
724:, p. 204.
714:
702:
700:, p. 133.
690:
678:
676:, p. 132.
663:
651:
639:
637:, p. 119.
627:
625:, p. 115.
615:
613:, p. 115.
603:
601:, p. 114.
591:
574:
562:
550:
535:
533:, p. 296.
522:
520:
517:
489:
486:
400:
397:
313:
310:
306:Friday prayers
284:
281:
279:
276:
211:Battle of Mari
191:al-Nasir Yusuf
126:al-Salih Ayyub
93:
90:
68:Battle of Homs
43:-based sultan
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1098:
1087:
1084:
1082:
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984:3-515-06861-9
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910:Clifford 2013
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893:Northrup 1998
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818:Northrup 1998
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806:Northrup 1998
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795:
794:Northrup 1998
790:
784:, p. 97.
783:
782:Northrup 1998
778:
772:, p. 95.
771:
770:Northrup 1998
766:
759:
758:Northrup 1998
754:
747:
746:Clifford 2013
742:
736:, p. 94.
735:
734:Northrup 1998
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723:
722:Northrup 1998
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711:
710:Clifford 2013
706:
699:
698:Clifford 2013
694:
688:, p. 92.
687:
686:Northrup 1998
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674:Clifford 2013
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659:Northrup 1998
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647:Northrup 1998
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635:Clifford 2013
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623:Clifford 2013
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595:
589:, p. 91.
588:
587:Northrup 1998
583:
581:
579:
571:
570:Clifford 2013
566:
560:, p. 90.
559:
558:Northrup 1998
554:
548:, p. 78.
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499:Cairo Citadel
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359:Ibn Khallikan
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22:
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1071:Mamluk emirs
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919:Bibliography
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861:
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213:against the
176:
97:
95:
92:Early career
72:
16:
15:
1051:1293 deaths
611:Rabbat 1995
599:Rabbat 1995
451:Manku Timur
145:Roda Island
120:. He was a
31:viceroy of
1040:Categories
546:Yosef 2022
531:Balog 1969
519:References
27:) was the
331:Euphrates
199:conquered
482:Turuntay
478:Maraclea
474:Bulunyas
470:Crusader
379:al-Rahba
329:and the
327:al-Arish
298:Damascus
290:Solamish
250:hurmiyya
179:al-Karak
141:Bahriyya
75:Turuntay
33:Damascus
440:Shaizar
422:in the
420:Latakia
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363:Baalbek
223:Hethoum
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466:Margat
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153:Mamluk
122:mamluk
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21:Arabic
393:Lajin
355:fatwa
351:Ramla
203:Qutuz
161:Aybak
149:Cairo
41:Egypt
37:Syria
1023:ISBN
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468:, a
455:Homs
446:iqta
428:Sufi
407:The
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245:qa'a
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