Mamluk Sultanate - Knowledge

4831: 4365: 2141: 3117: 1474: 3584:. Under Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids, and Isma'ilism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. The Mamluks were motivated by personal piety or political expediency for Islam was both an assimilating and unifying factor between the Mamluks and the majority of their subjects; the early mamluks had been brought up as Sunni Muslims and the Islamic faith was the only aspect of life shared between the Mamluk ruling elite and its subjects. While the precedent set by the Ayyubids highly influenced the Mamluk state's embrace of Sunni Islam, the circumstances in the Muslim Middle East in the aftermath of the Crusader and Mongol invasions also left Mamluk Egypt as the last major Islamic power able to confront the Crusaders and the Mongols. Thus, the early Mamluk embrace of Sunni Islam also stemmed from the pursuit of a moral unity within their realm based on the majority views of its subjects. 4226: 1950: 3245: 3178: 2689: 4025:

nonetheless a reality at times, especially during the Bahri period, where Baybars' sons Baraka and Solamish succeeded him, before Qalawun usurped the throne and was thereafter succeeded by four generations of direct descendants, with occasional interruptions. Hereditary rule was much less frequent under the Burji regime. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. The accession of blood relatives to the sultanate was often the result of the decision or indecision of leading Mamluk emirs or the will of the preceding sultan. The latter situation applied to the sultans Baybars, Qalawun, the latter's son, al-Nasir Muhammad and Barquq, who formally arranged for one or more of their sons to succeed them. More often than not, the sons of sultans were elected by the senior emirs with the intention that they serve as convenient figureheads presiding over an oligarchy of the emirs.

2795: 3536: 3031: 2023: 3070:. Qaitbay's 28-year-long reign, the second longest in Mamluk history after al-Nasir Muhammad, was marked by relative stability and prosperity. Historical sources present a sultan whose character was markedly different from other Mamluk rulers. Notably, he disliked engaging in conspiracy, even though this had been a hallmark of Mamluk politics. He had a reputation for being even-handed and treating his colleagues and subordinates fairly, examplified by his magnanimous treatment of the deposed Timurbugha. These traits seem to have kept internal tensions and conspiracies at bay throughout his reign. While the Mamluk practices of confiscation, extortion, and bribery continued in fiscal matters, under Qaitbay they were practiced in a more systematic way that allowed individuals and institutions to function within a more predictable environment. His engagement with the civil bureaucracy and the 3914: 2841: 2584: 3923: 2452: 4733: 2468:

major political, economic and military reforms ultimately intended to ensure his continued rule and consolidate the Qalawuni–Bahri regime. Concurrent with his reign was the disintegration of the Ilkhanate into several smaller dynastic states and the consequent Mamluk effort to establish diplomatic and commercial relationships with the new states. Amid conditions reducing the flow of mamluks from the Mongol territories to the sultanate, al-Nasir Muhammad compensated by adopting new methods of training, and military and financial advancement that introduced a great level of permissiveness. This led to relaxed conditions for new mamluks and encouraged the pursuit of military careers in Egypt by aspiring mamluks outside of the empire.

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there were multiple sources of mostly rain-fed irrigation, and measures and rights were determined at the local level. Centralization in Syria and Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and their frequent invasions. The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other rural infrastructure. Although the degree of centralization was not as high as in Egypt, the Mamluks imposed sufficient control over the Syrian economy to derive significant revenues. The maintenance of the Mamluk army in Syria relied on the state's control over Syrian agricultural revenues.

2535: 2387: 2832:) installed as a puppet sultan; the caliph had the support of the non-Circassian mamluks and legitimacy with the local population. Six months later, Shakyh ousted al-Musta'in after neutralizing his main rival, Nawruz, and assumed the sultanate. Shaykh's main policy was restoring state authority within the empire, which experienced further plagues in 1415–1417 and 1420. Shaykh replenished the treasury through tax collection expeditions akin to raids across the empire to compensate the tax arrears that accumlated under Faraj. Shaykh also commissioned and led military campaigns against the Mamluks' enemies in Anatolia, reasserting the state's influence there. 5079: 3078: 2814:. That year, Timur invaded Syria, sacking Aleppo and Damascus. Timur ended his occupation of Syria in 1402 to fight the Ottomans in Anatolia, whom he deemed a more dangerous threat. Faraj held onto power during this turbulent period, which, in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkmen tribes in the Jazira, and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that practically ended Mamluk control of Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. Mamluk authority throughout the sultanate significantly eroded, while the capital Cairo underwent an economic crisis. 144: 3764:

of worship during intercommunal clashes. As a result of popular pressure, Copts had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion, in 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. Coptic bureaucrats were often restored to their positions after tensions passed. Many Copts were forced to convert to Islam or at least adopted outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment and avoid the jizya and official measures against them. A large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam occurred in the 14th century, as a result of

104: 159: 5023:, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. Late Mamluk minarets, for example, most typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level. Domes also transitioned from wooden or brick structures, sometimes of bulbous shape, to pointed stone domes with complex geometric or arabesque motifs carved into their outer surfaces. The peak of this stone dome architecture was achieved under Qaitbay in the late 15th century. 4692: 4167: 2603:. The Mamluks concurrently experienced a deterioration of their lucrative position in international trade and the economy declined, further weakening the Bahri regime. Meanwhile, the harshness of Yalbugha's educational methods and his refusal to rescind his disciplinary reforms provoked a mamluk backlash. Yalbugha was killed by his mamluks in an uprising in 1366. The rebels were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha had installed in 1363. Sha'ban ruled as the real power in the sultanate until 1377, when he was killed by mamluk dissidents on his way to 4194:(non-mamluk soldiers). The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive. The Royal Mamluks were the private corps of the sultan. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, akin to private armies, which were also mobilized by the sultan when needed. As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they often utilized their forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. The 3760:

to the latter's use of Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacres of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than by the Mamluk sultans. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy.

4144:, caliph, who in turn confirmed Baybars as sultan. The caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, the Jazira, Diyar Bakr, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. Al-Mustansir's Abbasid successors continued in their official capacity as caliphs, but held no real power. The less than year-long reign of Caliph al-Musta'in as sultan in 1412 was an anomaly. In an anecdotal testament to the caliph's lack of real authority, a group of rebellious mamluks responded to Lajin's presentation of the Caliph 3492:

and scholarly elite. Another contributing factor was the wave of Arab tribal migration to Egypt and subsequent intermarriage between Arabs and the indigenous population. The Mamluks contributed to the expansion of Arabic in Egypt through their victory over the Mongols and the Crusaders and the subsequent creation of a Muslim haven in Egypt and Syria for Arabic-speaking immigrants from other conquered Muslim lands. The continuing invasions of Syria by Mongol armies led to further waves of Syrian immigrants, including scholars and artisans, to Egypt.

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over time had also resulted in large numbers of soldiers feeling alienated and repeatedly threatening to revolt unless given extra payments, which drained the state's finances. To address the shortfalls, al-Ghuri resorted to heavy-handed and far-reaching taxation and extortion to refill the treasury, which elicited protests that were sometimes violent. He used the raised funds to repair fortresses throughout the region, to commission his own construction projects in Cairo, and to purchase a large number of new mamluks to fill his military ranks.

1977:. Qutuz sent military reinforcements to his erstwhile enemy an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria, and reconciled with the Bahriyya, including Baybars, who was allowed to return to Egypt, to face the common Mongol threat. Hulagu sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission to Mongol rule but Qutuz had them killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". After hearing that Hulagu withdrew from Syria to claim the Mongol throne, Qutuz and Baybars mobilized a 120,000-strong force to conquer Syria. 3405: 2677:, the latter a mamluk of Yalbugha. The rebels took over Syria and headed for Egypt, prompting Barquq to abdicate in favor of al-Salih Hajji. The alliance between Yalbugha al-Nasiri and Mintash soon fell apart and factional fighting ensued in Cairo, with Mintash ousting Yalbugha. Barquq was arrested and exiled to al-Karak where he rallied support. In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took the citadel and arrested al-Salih Hajji. This paved the way for Barquq's usurpation of the sultanate once more in February 1390, firmly establishing the 3074:(Islamic jurists and scholars) appeared to reflect a genuine commitment to Sunni Islamic law. He was one of the most prolific Mamluk patrons of architecture, second only to al-Nasir Muhammad, and his patronage of religious and civic buildings extended to the provinces beyond Cairo. Nonetheless, Qaitbay operated in an environment of recurring plague epidemics that underpinned a general population decline. Agriculture suffered, the treasury was often stretched thin, and by the end of his reign the economy was still weak. 3522:, did not typically hold positions in the military elite and instead, were often part of the civilian administration or the Muslim religious establishment. Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots, and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. The Mamluk elites of the Burji period were also apparently proud of their Circassian origins. 3716: 3504:

Turkishness was the distinctive aspect of the Mamluk ruling elite, for only they knew how to speak Turkish and had Turkish names. While the Mamluk elite was ethnically diverse, those who were not Turkic in origin were Turkicized nonetheless. As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population.

1632: 3707:, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the Sufis. While Ibn Taymiyya was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and arrested several times by the Mamluks for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern Muslim world. Ibn Taymiyya's doctrines were regarded as heretical by the Sunni establishment patronized by the Mamluks. 3319: 3858:(chief commander of the Bedouin) in Syria, led to conflict and rebellion among the tribes, leading to mass bloodshed in Syria in the aftermath of al-Nasir Muhammad's death. The Mamluk leadership in Syria, weakened by the losses of the Black Plague, was unable to quell the Bedouin through military expeditions, so they resolved to assassinate the chiefs of the tribes. The Al Fadl eventually lost favor, to the advantage of the Bedouin tribes around al-Karak under later Bahri sultans. 4953: 2775: 1626: 12914: 3432: 2943: 2314: 97: 12924: 3016:, was then chosen and eventually neturalized his opposition. His reign was marked by further political difficulties abroad and domestically. Cyprus remained a vassal, but Khushqadam's representative was killed in battle after insulting James II (who had been installed by Inal). At home, Bedouin tribes caused unrest and the sultan's attempts to suppress the Labid tribe in the Nile Delta and against the Hawwara in Upper Egypt had little effect. 687: 2329:, drew legitimacy by emphasizing his lineage from Qalawun. Like his predecessors, Khalil's main priorities were organizing the state apparati, defeating the Crusaders and Mongols, integrating Syria, and preserving the flow of new mamluks and weaponry into the empire. Baybars had purchased 4,000 mamluks, Qalawun 6,000–7,000 and by the end of Khalil's reign, there was an estimated total of 10,000 mamluks in the sultanate. In 1291, Khalil 1088: 3148:. The latter fled into exile and Qaitbay granted him sanctuary in Cairo in September 1481. Qaitbay eventually allowed him to return to Anatolia to lead a new attempt against Bayezid. This venture failed and Jem was fled into exile again, this time into Christian hands to the west. Bayezid interpreted Qaitbay's welcome to Jem as direct support for the latter's cause and was furious. Qaitbay also supported the Dulkadirid leader, 3353:, the governor of Aleppo, had secretly conspired with Selim and betrayed al-Ghuri, leaving with his troops part-way during the battle. In the subsequent chaos, al-Ghuri was killed. The surviving Mamluk forces returned to Aleppo but were denied entry to the city and marched back to Egypt, harassed along the way. Syria passed into Ottoman possession, and the Ottomans were welcomed in many places as deliverance from the Mamluks. 3451:, who could be an Ottoman officer or a local civilian. Their patronage extended to include retainers recruited from other Ottoman provinces as well as allies among the local urban population and tribes. Up to the early 17th century, the vast majority of Egyptian mamluks were still of Caucasian or Circassian origin. In the later 17th and 18th centuries, mamluks from other parts of the Ottoman Empire or its frontiers, such as 1503:) from his predecessors' emirs. He created a loyal paramilitary apparatus in Egypt so dominant that contemporaries viewed Egypt as "Salihi-ridden", according to historian Winslow William Clifford. While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts the Salihiyya's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten al-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes the Salihiyya's autonomy fell short of such loyalty. 12934: 12944: 4106:. Another prerogative, at least of the early Bahri sultans, was to import as many mamluks as possible, preferably those from the territories of the Mongols. The Mamluks' enemies, namely the Mongol states and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians, and the Crusaders, disrupted the flow of mamluks to the sultanate. Unable to meet the military's need for new mamluks, the sultans often resorted to recruiting 2051:(postal network) extending across Egypt and Syria, which led to large scale building of roads and bridges along the postal route. His military and administrative reforms cemented the power of the Mamluk state. He opened diplomatic channels with the Mongols to stifle their potential alliance with the Christian powers of Europe, while also sowing divisions between the Mongol Ilkhanate and the Mongol 3097:. Initially, the Mamluks failed in a series of campaigns against Shah Suwar. The tide turned in 1470–1471 when an agreement was reached between Qaitbay and Mehmed II, by which Qaitbay stopped supporting the Karamanids and the Ottomans stopped supporting the Dulkadirids. Now without Ottoman support, Shah Suwar was defeated in 1471 by a Mamluk expedition led by Qaitbay's senior field commander, 2599:. By then, mamluk solidarity and loyalty to the emirs had dissipated. To restore discipline and unity within the Mamluk state and military, Yalbugha revived the rigorous training of mamluks used under Baybars and Qalawun. In 1365, a Mamluk attempt to annex Armenia, which had since replaced Crusader Acre as the Christian commercial foothold of Asia, was stifled by an invasion of Alexandria by 5102:

the blazon usually symbolized the office or position they held at this time. The blazon appeared on their banners and it was retained even after they became sultans. Such blazons were an important feature of Mamluk visual culture and they are found on all kinds of objects manufactured for Mamluk patrons. They were also featured in Mamluk architecture, though less consistently. This

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slaves who rose through the ranks by their own efforts, were status-conscious patrons who commissioned luxury objects marked with emblems of their ownership. Architecture was the most significant form of Mamluk patronage and numerous artistic objects were commissioned to furnish Mamluk religious buildings, such as glass lamps, Qur'an manuscripts, brass candlesticks, and wooden

4222:. Baybars started biweekly inspections of the troops to verify sultanic orders were implemented, in addition to the periodic inspections where he distributed new arms to the troops. Beginning under Qalawun, the sultan and the military administration recorded all emirs in the empire and defined their roles as part of the right or left flanks of the army during wartime. 4922:. An example of the later period is a series of candlesticks commissioned by Qaitbay for Muhammad's tomb in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. They are made of engraved brass, with black bitumen filling parts of the surfaces in order to create contrast with the motifs in polished brass. Their decoration consists almost entirely of Arabic calligraphy, with the 3105:, before agreeing to surrender himself if his life was spared and he was allowed to remain as a vassal. In the end, Qaitbay was unwilling to let him live and Shah Suwar was betrayed, brought to Cairo, and executed. Shah Budaq was installed as his replacement and as a Mamluk vassal, though the Ottoman-Mamluk rivalry over the Dulkadirid throne continued. 5113:: only about forty-five symbols were used. Early Mamluk blazons were simple, usually featuring a single symbol such as a cup, sword, or even animals. Some banners were merely distinguished by patterned fabrics and plain geometric divisions. The blazon of Baybars was a panther, lion, or leopard, while that of Qalawun, according to one author, was a 4724:

devoting special attention to the cultivation of the more arable low-lying regions. To ensure rural life was undisturbed by Bedouin raiding, which disrupted agricultural work or damaged crops and agrarian infrastructure and thus decreased revenues, the Mamluks attempted to prevent Bedouin armament and confiscate existing weapons from them.

3113:. His son and successor, Ya'qub, resorted to inviting Yashbak min Mahdi to participate in a campaign against Edessa. As this avoided any challenge against Qaitbay's authority, Yashbak accepted. Although initially successful, he was killed during the siege of the city, thus depriving Qaitbay of his most important field commander. 3949:. Large lobed medallions in the center bear the name of the sultan (right) and blessing on him (left). Above and below on the right is the certificate of commissioning stating the manuscript to have been produced for his library, while opposite, on the facing page, the upper and lower panels contain the title of the work. 3875:, the Tha'laba tribes were entrusted to supervise the postal routes, but were often unreliable and joined the Al A'id tribe during their raids. Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and destroyed cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. In the mid-14th century, the rival Arak and 1914:. The purge caused a shortage of officers, which led Aktay to recruit new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from an-Nasir Yusuf and moved to Egypt in 1250. Aybak felt threatened by the growing amitions of the Syrian mamluks' empowered patron 2915:, was taken captive, because of his alleged assistance to the pirates; the large ransoms paid to the Mamluks by the Cypriots allowed them to mint new gold coinage for the first time since the 14th century. Janus became Barsbay's vassal, an arrangement enforced on his successors for several decades after. 4905:

Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. They were made of brass or bronze with inlaid decoration, though in the later periods decoration was often engraved rather than inlaid. The quality and quantity

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on non-Muslims), permission to construct houses of worship, and the public appearance of Christians and Jews. Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulties under the Mamluks than their Muslim predecessors. The association of Christians with the Mongols, due

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While the Mamluk Sultanate ceased to exist with the Ottoman conquest and the recruitment of Royal Mamluks ended, the mamluks as a military-social class continued to exist. They constituted a "self-perpetuating, largely Turkish-speaking warrior class" that continued to influence politics under Ottoman

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had circumnavigated Africa and reached India, thus opening a new route for European trade with the east which bypassed the Middle East. This posed a serious threat to Muslim commerce, which was dominant in the area, as well as to the prosperity of Venice, which relied on trade passing from the Indian

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to derive the greatest financial gain from the Red Sea transit route to Europe. Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. In the long

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of Persia, and thereby consolidated his authority over Islamic Syria. During his early reign, Baybars expanded the Mamluk from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. The new force was rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery. To

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invasion of Syria led the Ayyubid emirs to reconcile, and Baybars to defect to an-Nasir Yusuf. Qutuz deposed Ali in 1259 and purged or arrested the Mu'izziya and any remaining Bahri mamluks in Egypt to eliminate potential opposition. The surviving Mu'izzi and Bahri mamluks went to Gaza, where Baybars

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were usually divided into three parts, with the main symbol placed within each division, sometimes in pairs. After this, late Mamluk blazons became even more elaborate but were more homogenous in style. They were filled with details, including up to five or six different symbols. By this point, they

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Mamluk architecture is distinguished in part by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings. While Cairo was the

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before this period and Damascus was the most important production center during the Mamluk period. Coloured glass had been common in the preceding Ayyubid period, but during the Mamluk period enamel and gilding became the most important techniques of decorating glass. Mosque lamps had a bulbous body

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and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. Some manuscripts could be

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system. In 1429, he ordered the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the Portuguese expansion into Africa and Asia significantly decreased

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Under Barsbay, a state monopoly was established on luxury goods, namely spices, with the state setting prices and collecting a percentage of the profits. In 1387, Barsbay established direct control over Alexandria, the principal Egyptian commercial port, transferring its tax revenues to his personal

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The Mamluk economy essentially consisted of two spheres: the state economy, which was organized like an elite household and controlled by the caste government headed by the sultan, and the free market economy, which was the domain of society and associated with the local subjects, in contrast to the

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could enter and rise high within the hierarchy, but typically did not enter military service. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. The army Baybars inherited consisted of Kurdish and Turkic tribesmen, refugees from the Ayyubid armies of Syria, and other troops

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sermon). The process was not formalized and the electoral body never defined, but typically consisted of the emirs and mamluks of whichever Mamluk faction held sway; usurpations of the throne by rival factions were relatively common. Despite the electoral nature of accession, dynastic succession was

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The Mamluks did not significantly alter the administrative, legal and economic systems they inherited from the Ayyubid state. The Mamluk ruled over essentially the same territory of the Ayyubid state, i.e. Egypt, Syria and the Hejaz. Unlike the collective sovereignty of the Ayyubids, where territory

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The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the Burji regime. There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Copts and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses

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Christians and Jews in the empire were governed by the dual authority of their respective religious institutions and the sultan. The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two communities.

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overwhelmed the defenders on 22 January 1517 and reached Cairo. Over the following days, furious fighting continued between Mamluks, locals, and Ottomans, resulting in much damage to the city and three days of pillaging. Selim proclaimed an amnesty on 31 January, at which point many of the remaining

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in 1514. Soon after, he attacked and defeated the Dulkadirids, a Mamluk vassal, for refusing to aid him against the Safavids. Secure now against Ismail I, in 1516 he drew together a great army aiming at conquering Egypt, but to obscure the fact he presented the mobilisation of his army as being part

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under Mamluk suzerainty. The conquest of Nubia was not permanent and the process of invading the region and installing vassal kings was repeated by Baybars's successors. Nonetheless, Baybars' initial conquest led to the annual expectation of tribute from the Nubians by the Mamluks until the Makurian

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where the Egyptians destroyed the Crusaders on 6 April. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. Turanshah proceeded to place his own entourage and mamluks, known as the 'Mu'azzamiya', in positions of authority at the expense of

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was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. Imported luxury goods from the East sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture.The Mamluks themselves, as former

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Among the responsibilities of a Mamluk provincial or district governor were repopulating abandoned areas to foster agricultural production, protecting the lands from Bedouin raids, increasing productivity in barren lands (likely through the upkeep and expansion of existing irrigation networks), and

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system was fundamental in assuring a legitimized, controlled and guaranteed access to the resources of the Syro-Egyptian realm to an upper level of Mamluk society that was primarily military in form and organization. As such it was a fundamental feature of Mamluk society, on the one hand giving way

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Qalawun's early reign was marked by policies intended to garner support from the merchant class, the Muslim bureaucracy and the religious establishment. He eliminated the illegal taxes that burdened the merchants and commissioned extensive building and renovation projects for Islam's holiest sites,

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Mamluks sultans and emirs also had personal blazons, which were important symbols of their status and a distinctive cultural feature of the Mamluk ruling class. With the possible exception of the earliest years of the regime, Mamluks chose their own blazons. This was done while they were emirs and

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Patronage varied over time, but the two high points of the arts were the reigns of al-Nasir Muhammad and of Qaitbay. Some art forms also varied in importance over time. For example, enameled glassware was a prominent industry during the first half of the Mamluk period but declined significantly in

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these goods. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. These goods originated in Persia,

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revenue from plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes had led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. To compensate these losses, the Mamluks applied a three-pronged approach: taxing the urban middle classes, boosting production and sale of cotton and sugar to Europe,

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In Egypt, Mamluk centralization of agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine. All agriculture in Egypt depended on a single source of irrigation, the Nile, and the measures and rights to irrigation were determined by the river's flooding, whereas in Syria and Palestine,

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Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk economy. Agricultural products were the main exports of Mamluk Egypt, Syria and Palestine. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production depended on crops (sugar cane and cotton). Every agricultural commodity was taxed by

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The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars's early reforms was creating such a hierarchy. To that end, he a ranking system for emirs of ten, forty and one hundred, each indicating the number of mamluks were assigned to an emir's command. An emir of one

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was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the close relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. The Greek Orthodox Church declined after the Mamluk destruction of its spiritual center,

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had already been established as the language of religion, culture and the bureaucracy in Egypt, and was widespread among non-Muslim communities there as well. Arabic's wide usage among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling

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Baybars II ruled for roughly one year before al-Nasir Muhammad became sultan again in 1310, this time ruling for over three decades in a period often considered by historians to be the zenith of the Mamluk empire. To avoid the experiences of his previous two reigns where the mamluks of Qalawun and

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in September 1260. The battle ended in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa's capture and execution. Afterward, the Mamluks recaptured Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols. Upon Qutuz's triumphant return to Cairo, he was assassinated in a Bahri plot. Baybars then assumed power in October

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The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. Ethnicity served as a major factor separating the mostly Turkic or Turkicized Mamluk elite from their Arabic-speaking subjects. Ethnic origin was a key component of an individual mamluk's

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Al-Ghuri also attempted reforms of the Mamluk military. He recognized the impact of gunpowder technology used by the Ottomans and Europeans, but which the Mamluks had eschewed. In 1507, he established a foundry to produce cannons and created a new regiment trained to use them, known as the 'Fifth

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Al-Ghuri is often viewed negatively by historical commentators, particularly Ibn Iyas, for his draconic fiscal policies. He inherited a state beset by financial problems. In addition to the demographic and economic changes under his predecessors, changes in the organisation of the Mamluk military

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The challenges to Mamluk dominance abroad were also mounting, particularly to the north. Shah Suwar, the leader of the Dulkadirid principality in Anatolia, benefited from Ottoman support and was an excellent military tactician. Meanwhile, Qaitbay supported the ruler of the Karamanid principality,

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Barsbay pursued an economic policy of establishing state monopolies over the lucrative trade with Europe, particularly spices, at the expense of local merchants. European merchants were forced to buy spices from state agents who set prices that maximized revenue rather than promoting competition.

2467:

Under al-Nasir Muhammad, the Mamluks repulsed an Ilkhanid invasion of Syria in 1313 and concluded a peace treaty with the Ilkhanate in 1322, bringing a long-lasting end to the Mamluk–Mongol wars. Afterward, al-Nasir Muhammad ushered in a period of stability and prosperity through the enactment of

4777:

Mamluk Egypt was a major producer of textiles and a supplier of raw materials for Western Europe. The frequent outbreaks of the Black Plague led to a decline in the production of textiles, silk products, sugar, glass, soaps, and paper, which coincided with the Europeans' increasing production of

3788:

and Damascus in 1400. The Syriac Christians also significant declined in Syria due to intra-communal disputes over patriarchal succession and the destruction of churches by the Timurids or local Kurdish tribes. The Mamluks inaugurated a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their

2871:, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1422. Under Barsbay, the Mamluk Sultanate reached its greatest territorial extent and was militarily dominant throughout the region, but his legacy was mixed in the eyes of contemporary commentators who criticized his fiscal methods and economic policies. 2700:

Barquq solidified power in 1393, when his forces killed the major opponent to his rule, Mintash, in Syria. Barquq oversaw the mass recruitment of Circassians (estimated at 5,000 recruits) into the mamluk ranks and the restoration of the state's authority throughout its realm in the tradition of

3136:

annexed Cyprus. The Venetians promised Qaitbay their occupation would benefit him as well, as their large fleet than could better keep the peace in the eastern Mediterranean than the Cypriots. Venice also agreed to continue the Cypriots' yearly tribute of 8,000 ducats to Cairo. A treaty signed

2998:

in 1453 and ordered public celebrations to commemorate the event, much like the celebrations of a Mamluk victory. It is unclear whether Inal and the Mamluks understood the implications of this event. It marked the rise of the Ottomans as a superpower, a status that brought them into increasing

3503:

was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language." According to historian Michael Winter,

3356:

The Mamluk Sultanate survived a little longer until 1517. Tuman Bay, whom al-Ghuri had left as deputy in Cairo, was hastily and unanimously proclaimed sultan on 10 October 1516. The emirs rejected his plan to confront the next Ottoman advance at Gaza, so instead he prepared a final defense at

2377:

in 1299. Ghazan largely withdrew from Syria shortly after due to a lack of fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. Another Ilkhanid invasion in 1303 was repelled after a Mamluk victory at the Battle of Marj

4085:

Among the sultan's responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the empire and, in some cases, overseeing the

2518:

of al-Karak, was declared sultan. Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to govern in Cairo. This unorthodox arrangement, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother

1907:, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter viewed Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. Aybak moved against the Bahriyya by shutting their Roda headquarters in 1251 and assassinating Aktay in 1254. 1298:, overthrew the sultan in 1382 and again in 1390, inaugurating Burji rule. Mamluk authority across the empire eroded under his successors due to foreign invasions, tribal rebellions, and natural disasters, and the state entered into a long period of financial distress. Under Sultan 2962:, appointed regent. The usual disputes over succession ensued and after three months Jaqmaq won and became sultan, exiling Yusuf to Alexandria. Jaqmaq maintained friendly relations with the Ottomans. His most important foreign military effort was an abortive campaign to conquer 4210:

hundred could further be assigned one thousand mounted troops during battle. Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and ended the improvised nature of the Ayyubid forces in Egypt and Syria. Baybars and Qalawun standardized the undefined Ayyubid policies of distributing

5057:

s or khans), actually grew in number during the Ottoman period. In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a 'neo-Mamluk' style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local 'Egyptian' styles.

3108:

The next challenge to Qaitbay was the rise of the Aq Qoyunlu leader Uzun Hasan. The latter led an expedition into Mamluk territory around Aleppo in 1472, but was routed by Yashbak. The next year, Uzun Hassan was more resoundingly defeated in battle against Mehmed II near

5026:

After the Ottoman conquest of 1517, new Ottoman-style buildings were introduced, however the Mamluk style continued to be repeated or combined with Ottoman elements in many subsequent monuments. Some building types which first appeared in the late Mamluk period, such as

4028:

Lesser-ranked emirs viewed the sultan as a peer whom they entrusted with ultimate authority and as a benefactor whom they expected to guarantee their salaries and monopoly on the military. When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots,

5071:. After Selim II conquered Damascus in 1516, a contemporary writer, Ibn Tulun, noted that the rich yellow silk banner of the Mamluks was replaced by the plain red banner of the Ottomans. Red banners are also known to have been used by the Mamluks. The historian 4039:, defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him." The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of 3268:, in direct opposition to the Sunnism of the Mamluks and Ottomans. Tensions along this frontier encouraged al-Ghuri to rely more on the Ottomans for aid, a policy that the Venetians ultimately also urged him to follow in order to counter their common foe, the 4588:

to a military hierarchy that crystallized into an even more developed economic hierarchy and that had substantial economic interests in society at large; on the other hand, it deeply characterized the realm's economic and social development, its agriculture,

4967:

main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. Patrons, including sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them charitable structures such as

1599:. She ensured the Salihiyya's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and inaugurated patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyya. In particular, she cultivated close ties with the Jamdari (pl. Jamdariyya) and Bahri (pl. Bahriyya) corps, distributing to them 4774:, and increasing tariffs on commodities. At this time, the long-established trade between Europe and the Islamic world began to make up a significant part of state revenues as the Mamluks taxed the merchants operating or passing through the empire's ports. 4045:, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. The sultan also derived power from other emirs, with whom there was constant tension, particularly in peacetime. According to Holt, the factious nature of emirs who were not the sultan's 2417:

Khalil held sway and periodically assumed power, al-Nasir Muhammad established a centralized autocracy. In 1310, he imprisoned, exiled or killed any Mamluk emirs that supported those who toppled him in the past, including the Burji mamluks. He assigned

5218: 2301:

in Cairo. After the détente with the Ilkhanids, Qalawun suppressed internal dissent by imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. He diversified the hitherto mostly Turkic mamluk ranks by purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly

4392:

ethnic outsiders of the ruling elite. The Mamluks introduced greater centralization of the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the military hierarchy and its associated

5002:

mosque, though the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate over time, with stone-carving and colored marble paneling and mosaics (including

6288:

of gold roundels (bawlikir). The two musicians at the lower right both wear turkic coats and plumed caps, one of which has an upwardly turned brim. The plumes are set in a front metal plaque ('amud) (Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, ms A. F. 9, fol.

4894:

monumental in size; for example, one Qur'an manuscript produced for al-Ashraf Sha'ban measured between 75 and 105 centimetres tall. One of the stylistic features that distinguished Mamluk manuscript decoration was the presence of gilded foliate

4888:

In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo were among the main centers of manuscript production. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly

2970:, involving three expeditions between 1440 and 1444. Domestically, Jaqmaq largely continued Barsbay's monopolies, though he promised to enact reforms and formally rescinded some tariffs. Jaqmaq died in February 1453. His eighteen-year-old son, 1383:, or household slave. After thorough training in martial arts, court etiquette and Islamic sciences, these slaves were freed but expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. Mamluks formed part of the military apparatus in 2794: 6283:

Fig. 22. Frontispiece of a court scene from a Maqamat manuscript, probably from Egypt, dated 1334. The enthroned prince wears a brocaded qabli' maftulJ with inscribed Tiraz armbands over a qabli' turki which is clinched at the waist with a

3587:

The Mamluks cultivated and utilized Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of their Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans favored the

3241:, and craftsmen. The traditional mamluk army, however, regarded firearms with contempt and vigorously resisted their incorporation into Mamluk warfare, which prevented al-Ghuri from making effective use of them until the end of his reign. 3373:

Selim initially offered the Mamluk sultan peace as an Ottoman vassal, but his messengers were intercepted and killed by mamluks. Tuman Bay, with 4,000 cavalry and some 8,000 infantry, confronted the Ottomans in a final bloody battle near

5066:

The Mamluk sultans followed the Ayyubids in using yellow as the official colour associated with the sultan and used on sultanic banners. Baybars is said to have noted the yellow colour of his banners in opposition to the red banners of

2576:(descendants of mamluks who did not undergo the enslavement/manumission process) in the military and administration, a process lasted for the remainder of the Bahri period. This caused resentment among Hasan's own mamluks, led by Emir 3658:

was the most popular order. The Shadhiliyya lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. It incorporated Sunni Islamic piety with its basis in the

2400:. "In the paintings the facial cast of these Turks is obviously reflected, and so are the special fashions and accoutrements they favored". The brimmed hats in the bottom right corner are Mongol. Al-Nasir Muhammad was himself of 4410:. The monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by the sultans. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. 6252:

The sultan who possibly commissioned the manuscript and who may be the one depicted on the dedicatory title page is An-Nasir Muhammad b. Qala'un, who was in power for the third time from 709 AH / 1309–10 AD to 741 AH / 1340–41

3867:. The tribe remained strong after al-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans. They were restored after each rebellion, before the tribe's sheikh was finally executed in 1353. In 2875:

This monopoly set a precedent for his successors, some of whom established monopolies over other goods such as sugar and textiles. Barsbay compelled Red Sea traders to offload their goods at the Mamluk-held Hejazi port of

4504:

represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (an emir) as income and a financial source to provision his soldiers. Before the Mamluks' rise, there was a growing tendency of

4320:) was the sultan's chief of staff, responsible for organizing the royal court's daily activities, managing the sultan's personal budget, and supervising all of the buildings of the Citadel of Cairo and its staff. The 3544: 4069:

of Syria who had power bases in their provinces. Typically, the faction most loyal to the sultan were the Royal Mamluks, particularly those whom the sultan had personally recruited and manumitted, as opposed to the

3341:

of the war against Ismail I. The war started in 1516 which led to the later incorporation of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman Empire, with Mamluk cavalry proving no match for the Ottoman artillery and the

2557:

and other plagues followed, causing mass death in the country, which led to major social and economic changes in the region. In 1351, the senior emirs, led by Emir Taz, ousted and replaced Hasan with his brother,

11295: 2888:

term, the monopoly over the spice trade had a negative effect on Egyptian commerce and became a motivation for European merchants to seek alternative routes to the east around Africa and across the Atlantic.

2081:

in 1266. Baybars's destroy captured fortresses along the Syrian coast to prevent their potential future use by new waves of Crusaders. In August 1266, the Mamluks launched a punitive expedition against the

4576:

was a more stable revenue source than other methods the Mamluks employed, such as tax hikes, the sale of administrative offices, and extortion of the population. According to historian Jo van Steenbergen,

1615:, was rebuffed from monopolizing power by the army and the Bahriyya and Jamdariyya, who all asserted that sultanic authority was exclusive to the Ayyubids. The Bahriyya compelled Aybak to share power with 2218:

as co-sultan in 1264. This represented a break from the Mamluk tradition of choosing the sultan by merit rather than lineage. In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Baraka.

2140: 2098:, both cities in interior Palestine. Unlike the coastal fortresses, the Mamluks strengthened and utilized the interior cities as major garrisons and administrative centers. In 1268, the Mamluks captured 4364: 4830: 3221:, a former rival who opposed him in 1504–1505, as governor of Damascus in 1506. The latter remained a major figure during his reign but he acknowledged Cairo's suzerainty and helped to keep the peace. 5117:. Starting with al-Nasir Muhammad, epigraphic blazons (with Arabic script) became part of the heraldic repertoire. From the late 14th to the mid-15th centuries, blazons became more complex and their 1241:

in 1260, halting their southward expansion. They then conquered or gained suzerainty over the Ayyubids' Syrian principalities. By the end of the 13th century, through the efforts of sultans Baybars,

4350:

became a powerful office in the late 14th century, particularly under Barquq and al-Nasir Faraj, who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the

2257:, a top deputy of Baybars, as sultan in November 1279. The Ilkhanids launched a massive offensive against Syria in 1281. The Mamluks were outnumbered by the 80,000-strong Ilkhanid-Armenian-Georgian- 1925:

Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257, possibly on orders from Shajar al-Durr, who was assassinated a week later. Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son,

3805:. Qalawun purchased horses from the Bedouin of Barqa, which were inexpensive but of high quality, while al-Nasir Muhammad spent extravagantly for horses from Bedouins in Barqa, Syria, Iraq and 4710:

the state, with the sultan's treasury taking the largest share of the revenues; emirs and major private brokers followed. An emir's main source of income were the agricultural products of his

3861:

In Egypt, during al-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Mamluks had a similar relationship with the Bedouin. The Isa Ibn Hasan al-Hajjan tribe became powerful there after being assigned massive

2895:

to a minimum, sent troops to occupy the Hejaz and rein in the Bedouin, and took direct control of much of the region's administration. He aimed to secure the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from

3789:

conquest of the Cilicia in 1374, in addition to the raids of the Timurids in 1386 and the conflict between the Timurids and the Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Qoyonlu tribal confederations in Cilicia.

3288:

took place between Portuguese forces in the Indian Ocean and Muslim expeditions sent against them. A Mamluk fleet of fifty ships left from Jeddah in 1506, with assistance of forces from the

3116: 2930:

to largely submit to their suzerainty, Mamluk authority in Upper Egypt was mostly relegated to the emirs of the Hawwara tribe. The latter had grown wealthy from their burgeoning trade with

4881:

the 15th century. Most of the surviving examples of carpets, by contrast, date from the end of the Mamluk period. Ceramic production was relatively less important overall, in part because

4766:

and profiting from their transit position in the trade between Europe and the Far East. The last was the Mamluks' most lucrative policy and was accomplished by cultivating trade ties with

4956: 2669:

His accession was enabled by Yalbugha's mamluks, whose corresponding rise to power left Barquq vulnerable. His rule was challenged by a revolt in Syria in 1389 by the Mamluk governors of

1575:. On 27 February, Turanshah arrived in al-Mansura to lead the Egyptian army. On 5 April 1250, the Crusaders evacuated their camp opposite al-Mansura. The Egyptians followed them into the 3386:, one of Cairo's gates, on 13 April 1517. In reward for his betrayal at Marj Dabiq, Selim installed Khayr Bak as Ottoman governor of Egypt. Janbirdi was appointed governor of Damascus. 1473: 1445:. Mamluks were highly committed to their master, to whom they often referred to as 'father', and were in turn treated more as kinsmen than as slaves. The Ayyubid emir and future sultan 1338:). These names emphasized the ethnic origin of the rulers and Mamluk writers did not explicitly highlight their status as slaves, except on rare occasions during the Circassian period. 4188:

from armies dispersed by the Mongols. After the Battle of Ain Jalut, Baybars restructured the army into three components: the Royal Mamluk regiment, the soldiers of the emirs, and the

2423:

to over thirty of his own mamluks. Initially, he left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed

2570:

deposed Salih and restored Hasan in 1355, after which Hasan gradually purged Taz, Shaykhu and Sirghitmish and their mamluks from his administration. Hasan recruited and promoted the

3428:

s. The difference between these Ottoman regiments and the Egyptian mamluk regiments became blurred over time as intermarriage became common, resulting in a more mixed social class.

2550:

After Hajji's death, the senior emirs hastily appointed another son of al-Nasir Muhammad, the twelve-year-old al-Nasir Hasan. Coinciding with Hasan's first reign, in 1347–1348, the

4864:

metalwork, woodwork, and textiles—were prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. Mamluk glassware influenced the

4338:

s (lesser majordomos) who oversaw specific aspects of the court and citadel, such as the sultan's treasury, private property, and the kitchens of the citadel. Emirs had their own

3462:

Throughout the Ottoman period, powerful mamluk households and factions struggled for control of important political offices and of Egypt's revenues. Between 1688 and 1755, mamluk

4398:

system. In Egypt, the centrality of the Nile River facilitated Mamluk centralization of the region. The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, consisting of gold

3466:, allied with Bedouin and factions within the Ottoman garrison, deposed at least thirty-four governors. The mamluks remained a dominating force in Egyptian politics until their 12763: 3382:, another former Mamluk commander, persuaded the Ottoman sultan that Tuman Bay was too dangerous to keep alive. Accordingly, the last Mamluk sultan was executed by hanging at 10259:

Haarmann, Ulrich (1998). "Joseph's Law – The Careers and Activities of Mamluk Descendants before the Ottoman Conquest of Egypt". In Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich (eds.).

1918:

growing ambitions. Upon learning of Aydughdi's plot to install an-Nasir Yusuf as sultan, which would leave Aydughdi as practical ruler of Egypt, Aybak imprisoned Aydughdi in

11796: 4225: 4120:

To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought confirmation of their executive authority from a

2476:

Al-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of descendants in a period marked by political instability. Most of his successors, except for

11791: 11786: 645: 620: 606: 592: 578: 564: 550: 536: 522: 11175:

Yosef, Koby (2012). "Dawlat al-atrāk or dawlat al-mamālīk? Ethnic Origin or Slave Origin as the Defining Characteristic of the Ruling Élite in the Mamlūk Sultanate".

7494:

Ritratti et elogii di capitanii illustri. The portraits engraved by Pompilio Totti; the letterpress by J. Roscius, A. Mascardi, F. Leonida, O. Tronsarelli, and others

3883:

rulers of the region, forcing the Mamluks to rely on them for tax collection. The Bedouin were purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Shaykhu in 1353.

5011:) replacing stucco as the most dominant architectural decoration. Monumental decorated entrance portals became common compared to earlier periods, often carved with 8774:"A Blood-Measuring Device, folio from a manuscript of The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices (Kitab al-hiyal al-nafisa), AKM11, The Aga Khan Museum" 4644:

was completed in 1315 under al-Nasir Muhammad and influenced political and economic developments of the Mamluk Sultanate until its fall in the early 16th century.

4665:

lands to meet the fiscal needs of the military, namely payment of emirs and their subordinates. The state resolved to increase allotments by dispersing an emir's

3177: 1915: 1489:

Al-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his mamluks, provisioning them through confiscated

5508:"Frontispiece, folio from a manuscript of The Prescription for Pleasure (Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'Udwan al-Atba') of Ibn Zafar al-Siqili, AKM12, The Aga Khan Museum" 3797:

Bedouins were a reserve force in the Mamluk military. During the third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad, the Bedouin tribes, particularly those of Syria, such as the

1949: 12998: 3633:

s. This policy was partly motivated to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other

5181: 3244: 1583:

An electoral college dominated by the Salihiyya then convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between

1287:(r. 1293–1294, 1299–1309, 1310–1341), before giving way to the internal strife characterizing the succession of his sons, when real power was held by senior 4237:

Gradually, as mamluks filled administrative and courtier posts within the state, Mamluk innovations to the Ayyubid hierarchy were developed. The offices of

2674: 2662:

in 1378, giving him command of the Mamluk army, which he used to oust Baraka in 1380. Ali died in May 1381 and was succeeded by his nine-year-old brother,

7200: 4786:

and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver

4086:

investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. The sultan or his appointees led the Hajj caravans from Cairo and Damascus to Mecca in the capacity of

3768:, destruction of churches, and to retain employment. By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. 3137:

between the two powers in 1490 formalized this arrangement. It was a sign that the Mamluks were now depending partly on the Venetians for naval security.

2362:

to his supporters. He was unable to keep power and al-Nasir Muhammad was restored as sultan in 1298, ruling over a fractious realm until being toppled by

1903:

led to Bahri rioting in Cairo, the first of many intra-Salihi clashes about his ascendancy. The Bahriyya and Jamdariyya were represented by their patron,

158: 12993: 3098: 2688: 2069:

With his power in Egypt and Islamic Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing

3989:

of al-Karak, Safed, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. In Hama, the Mamluks permitted the Ayyubids to continue governing until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320,

2498:), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. The first of al-Nasir Muhammad's sons to accede was 2086:

for its alliance with the Mongols, laying waste to numerous Armenian villages and significantly weakening the kingdom. At around the same time, Baybars

3900:

remained the capital of the empire and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Citadel of Cairo serving as the sultan's headquarters.

3205:(or al-Ghawri) was placed on the throne in 1501. Al-Ghuri secured his position over several months and appointed new figures to key posts. His nephew, 2204: 4933:

Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned for mosques. Egypt and Syria already possessed a rich tradition of

4002:

A consistent accession process occurred with every new sultan. It mostly involved an election by a council of emirs and mamluks (who would proffer an

3163:

over the next six years. By 1491, both sides were exhausted and an Ottoman embassy arrived in Cairo in the spring. An agreement was concluded and the

13008: 12318: 1937:

made two attempts to conquer Egypt in November 1257 and 1258 but were defeated. They then turned on an-Nasir Yusuf in Damascus, who defeated them at

1934: 1588: 1910:

Afterward, Aybak purged his retinue and the Salihiyya of perceived dissidents, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in

3844:

to the Al Fadl to prevent their defection to the Ilkhanate, which the Al Fadl had frequently done during the early 14th century. Competition over

2121:

in 1272, in July 1273, the Mamluks, who by then considered the Assassins' independence as problematic, wrested control of their fortresses in the

11565: 3030: 2904: 2166:. In 1265, the Mamluks invaded northern Makuria, forcing the Nubian king to become their vassal. Around that time, the Mamluks had conquered the 1002: 3535: 13003: 7706: 3508:

identity, and ethnic identity manifested itself through given names, dress, access to administrative positions and was indicated by a sultan's

3218: 1302:

major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside.

2727:. Barquq instituted this to better control the Egyptian countryside from the rising strength of the Bedouin tribes. He further dispatched the 2265:, confirming Mamluk dominance in Syria. The Ilkhanids' rout enabled Qalawun to proceed against Crusader holdouts in Syria and in May 1285, he 12187: 11226: 10137:"Why Domenico Had to Die and Black Slaves Wore Red Uniforms: Military Technology and Its Decisive Role in the 1517 Ottoman Conquest of Egypt" 4811:

the revenues of the Mamluk–Venetian monopoly on trans-Mediterranean trade. This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate.

2022: 13033: 10671:

From Slave to Sultan: The Career of Al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.)

10136: 3201:

Qaitbay's death on 8 August 1496 inaugurated several years of instability. Eventually, following several brief reigns by other candidates,

1605:

and other privileges. Her efforts and Egyptian military's preference to preserve the Ayyubid state were evident when the Salihi mamluk and

6695: 4614:

units), assessment of land quality, and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as

4289:(commander of the audience). These additional offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to the military hierarchy. 3555: 143: 4200:

had inferior status to the mamluk regiments. It had its own administrative structure and was under the direct command of the sultan. The

10219:

Hathaway, Jane (2019). "Mamlūks, Ottoman period". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

4033:

plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own

2429:

to his own mamluks. By 1316, the number of mamluks decreased to 2,000. Al-Nasir Muhammad further consolidated power by replacing Caliph

11813: 11781: 2999:

conflict with the evermore stagnant Mamluk Sultanate. By then, the state was under severe financial stress, with the state selling off

1116: 2851:

Before Shaykh died in 1421, he attempted to offset the power of the Circassians by importing Turkish mamluks and installing a Turk as

2840: 1556:. Although the Salihiyya welcomed his succession, Turanshah challenged their dominance in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his 1534:. Al-Salih opposed the evacuation of Damietta and threatened to punish the city's garrison. This provoked a mutiny by his garrison in 12642: 12170: 11652: 7761:

The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500–1799): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas

7391:"Shirt of Mail and Plate of Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Qaitbay (ca. 1416/18–1496), 18th Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt | probably Egyptian" 12654: 12045: 10178: 10835:

Egypt and Syria Under the Circassian Sultans, 1382–1468 A.D.: Systematic Notes to Ibn Taghrî Birdî's Chronicles of Egypt, Volume 1

2583: 12089: 11823: 2652:, though the oligarchy of the senior emirs held the reins of power. Among the senior emirs who rose to prominence under Ali were 10419:

Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

4751:. Early into their rule, the Mamluks expanded the empire's role in foreign trade, with Baybars signing a commercial treaty with 12988: 12978: 11366: 10069: 9849:

Contact and Conflict in Frankish Greece and the Aegean, 1204–1453: Crusade, Religion and Trade between Latins, Greeks and Turks

6688: 3913: 3691:. While the Mamluks patronized the Sunni ulema through appointments to government office, they patronized the Sufis by funding 3548: 3313: 3160: 2186:(Cyrenaica). In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of 1189: 485: 3005:

properties, depriving the treasury of their tax revenues. Coins based on precious metals nearly disappeared from circulation.

2745:

to become a Mamluk vassal. Towards the end of the 14th century, challengers to the Mamluks emerged in Anatolia, including the

12891: 11335: 11250: 11165: 11142: 11123: 11104: 11081: 11058: 11037: 11016: 10993: 10974: 10902: 10881: 10854: 10822: 10801: 10782: 10759: 10740: 10719: 10698: 10679: 10658: 10637: 10614: 10593: 10572: 10551: 10530: 10489: 10468: 10426: 10399: 10378: 10336: 10312: 10289: 10268: 10249: 10228: 10188: 10167: 10148: 10112: 10090: 10046: 10025: 10004: 9985: 9964: 9943: 9922: 9898: 9877: 9856: 9833: 9812: 9748: 9665: 9642: 9621: 8293: 8255: 8236: 8190: 8171: 7991: 7769: 6672: 6590: 6391: 6364: 6339: 6312: 5370: 5336: 10300: 10198:

Al-Harithy, Howyda N. (1996). "The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading Between the Lines". In Necıpoğlu, Gülru (ed.).

4991:

agreements that also served the secondary purpose of ensuring some form of income or property for the patrons' descendants.

4082:

s occasionally constituted a hostile faction, such as with as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of al-Nasir Muhammad.

3727:

numerals, dated 1282/1283. This astrolabe and other items of its kind are proof that Mamluks still used Coptic numerals and

3561:

A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major

13023: 12715: 12369: 12313: 12269: 12082: 11756: 11746: 11706: 5237: 4596:

The system consisted of land assignments from the state in return for military services. Land was assessed by the periodic

3651:

and gain more influence over them. Nevertheless, the Shafi'i scholars kept a number of privileges over their counterparts.

2934:

and achieved a degree of local popularity due to their piety, education and generally benign treatment of the inhabitants.

1616: 12563: 9653: 3699:

s (Sufi lodges). On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar

3066:. Timurbugha was deposed in turn on 31 January 1468, but voluntarily consented to the accession of his second in command, 2821:, against whom Faraj had sent seven military expeditions. The emirs could not usurp the throne themselves, and had Caliph 13018: 12983: 12374: 12114: 12000: 5122:

were possibly no longer used as individualized personal blazons but perhaps more as general marks of their social class.

3922: 3144:, to the Ottoman throne, Ottoman-Mamluk tensions escalated. Bayezid's claim to the throne was challenged by his brother, 2891:

Barsbay undertook efforts protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids. He reduced the independence of the

2844: 2596: 772: 10604: 10364: 9708: 9679: 7759: 3012:, ruled for a short stint under challenges from the governors of Damascus and Jeddah. A compromise candidate, the Greek 2451: 2137:, but withdrew to avoid overstretching his forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a larger incoming Ilkhanid army. 13028: 13013: 12973: 12827: 12758: 12637: 12259: 12136: 11803: 11684: 11611: 11599: 11560: 4985:

s (public fountains), or mosques. The revenues and expenses of these charitable complexes were governed by inalienable

3801:, were strengthened and integrated into the economy. Bedouin tribes were also a major supplier of the Mamluk cavalry's 3467: 3439:

During this period, a number of mamluk 'households' formed, with a complex composition including both true mamluks and

3420:

rule. They existed as military units in parallel with the more strictly Ottoman regiments like the janissaries and the

3009: 1039: 992: 792: 752: 12362: 11891: 10923: 10447: 10209: 9032: 6276: 5284: 4906:

of metalwork was also generally higher in the early period. One of the best examples of this period is the so-called

3235:). The latter's ranks were filled recruits from outside the traditional mamluk system, including Turkmens, Persians, 2649: 2396: 10126:

Ibn Khaldūn in Egypt: His Public Functions and His Historical Research, 1382–1406, a Study in Islamic Historiography

5977: 5837: 5219:"The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration?" 3152:(who had replaced Shah Budaq), against the Ottomans, but Ala al-Dawla was compelled to shift his loyalty to Bayezid 12495: 12158: 11881: 5157: 4938:

with a wide flaring neck at the top. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains.

4161: 3892:

was divided among members of the royal family, the Mamluk state was unitary. Under many Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had

3776: 2520: 2297:. His building activities later shifted to more secular and personal purposes, including his large, multi-division 2214:

Baybars attempted to establish his Zahirid house as the state's ruling dynasty by appointing his four-year-old son

6243: 4732: 4206:

regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force.

3959:

The Mamluk sultan was the supreme government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as

2366:, a Circassian mamluk of Qalawun, who was wealthier, and more pious and cultured than his immediate predecessors. 1941:. An-Nasir Yusuf followed up with a siege of al-Mughith and the Bahriyya at al-Karak, but the growing threat of a 12854: 12822: 12575: 12301: 11711: 11431: 10347: 8773: 4517:

as personal, heritable property. The Mamluks effectively ended this, with the exception of some areas, mainly in

3732: 3285: 2693: 2666:, with real power held by Barquq as regent. The next year, Barquq toppled al-Salih Hajji and assumed the throne. 2515: 1358: 1347: 1212:(1382–1517), called after the predominant ethnicity or corps of the ruling Mamluks during these respective eras. 705: 9691: 3654:

The Mamluks embraced the Sufi orders in the empire. Sufism was widespread in Egypt by the 13th century, and the

2625: 2055:. His diplomacy was additionally intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia. 1625: 12423: 12217: 12180: 5152: 4449:

inspected weights and measures and the quality of goods, maintained legal trade, and detected price gouging. A

3357:

al-Raydaniyya to the north of Cairo. In the early days of 1517, Tuman Bay received news that a Mamluk army was

2974:, was installed on the throne but soon lost all support when he tried to buy the loyalty of other mamluks with 2539: 1109: 7591: 2926:

in 1433. The Aq Qoyonlu consequently recognized Mamluk suzerainty. While the Mamluks succeeded in forcing the

2386: 12710: 12505: 11911: 11436: 11419: 9610:"The Logistics of the Mamluk-Mongol War, with Special Reference to the Battle of Wadi'l-Khaznadar, 1299 C.E." 4181:

The sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was essentially restricted to mamluks.

4128:, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph 3785: 3248:

Anonymous 1511 painting depicting a reception of Venetian ambassadors in Damascus during the time of al-Ghuri

2971: 2333:, the last major Crusader stronghold in Palestine and Mamluk rule consequently extended across all of Syria. 2122: 732: 12622: 10305:

History and Society During the Mamluk Period (1250–1517): Studies of the Annemarie Schimmel Research College

4486:

system was inherited from the Ayyubids and further organized under the Mamluks to fit their military needs.

4012:, a state-organized procession through Cairo led by the sultan, and the reading of the sultan's name in the 12686: 12490: 12458: 12274: 11906: 11776: 11699: 11272:, by Yusef. William Popper, translator Abu L-Mahasin ibn Taghri Birdi, University of California Press 1954. 10141:

The Mamluk-Ottoman Transition: Continuity and Change in Egypt and Bilād al-Shām in the Sixteenth Century, 2

3190: 3047: 2918:

In response to Aq Qoyonlu raids against the Jazira, the Mamluks launched expeditions against them, sacking

802: 10865: 4907: 4834: 2027: 12937: 12849: 12691: 12433: 12323: 12146: 11941: 11808: 11751: 11647: 11522: 4703: 2374: 2083: 1969:, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing 1069: 611: 13038: 12844: 12649: 12546: 12529: 12512: 12453: 12279: 12234: 12165: 12104: 12077: 11721: 11580: 11359: 5507: 5094: 4869: 4564:

to non-mamluks to extract more profits. By 1343, the practice was commonplace and by 1347, the sale of

4265:(treasurer), which existed during the Ayyubid period, were preserved, but Baybars added the offices of 3077: 2955: 2681:. The ruling Mamluks of this period were mostly Circassians drawn from the Christian population of the 2534: 2063: 1545: 9825:

Practising Diplomacy in the Mamluk Sultanate: Gifts and Material Culture in the Medieval Islamic World

5305: 5109:

Unlike European heraldry, Mamluk blazons used a much more limited set of images and symbols for their

12968: 12810: 12753: 12720: 12485: 12395: 12357: 12352: 12340: 12239: 11931: 11901: 11886: 11638: 10967:

Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-century Egypt

10752:

Twilight of Majesty: The Reigns of the Mamlūk Sultans Al-Ashrāf Qāytbāy and Qanṣūh Al-Ghawrī in Egypt

10355: 6329: 6302: 4771: 4094:(commander of the Hajj caravan). Starting with Qalawun, the sultans monopolized the provision of the 3812:

Baybars and Qalawun, and the Syrian viceroys of al-Nasir Muhammad during his first two reigns, emirs

3182: 1576: 1572: 1283:. The sultanate then experienced a long period of stability and prosperity during the third reign of 1102: 666: 5078: 4455:

or Muslim scholar occupied the post, but in the 15th century, mamluk emirs began to be appointed as

3378:

on 2 April 1517, where he was defeated and captured. Selim intended to spare him, but Khayr Bak and

2514:, appointed instead. By January 1342, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, 12886: 12866: 12674: 12500: 12296: 12284: 12121: 12099: 11766: 11716: 11657: 11616: 11492: 11487: 11453: 11414: 9908: 9687: 6740:

The legend reads "This sultan of Babylon is great and powerful amongst those of this region.". in

5978:"Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)" 5838:"Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)" 5147: 4877:. Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture. 3828:

were of low quality. During al-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality

2456: 2203:

kingdom's demise in the mid-14th century. Furthermore, the Mamluks received the submission of King

2195: 1638: 1553: 875: 723: 179: 11245:

Al-Maqrizi, al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar, Matabat aladab, Cairo 1996,

5075:(d. 1470) recorded that Sultan al-Mu'ayyad gifted a red banner to one of his vassals in Anatolia. 4998:

was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional

1885:

by that time, with Turkic polities occupying South and Western Asia, the other main one being the

13043: 12795: 12418: 12153: 12005: 11978: 11963: 11958: 11694: 11594: 9888: 6742: 3500: 3128:

armor belonging to Sultan Qaitbay, one of the few surviving sets of armor from the Mamluk period.

1966: 1870: 1785: 1030: 762: 569: 300: 207: 96: 3703:, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the 2336:

Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother,

1310:

The 'Mamluk Sultanate' is a modern historiographical term. Arabic sources for the period of the

12947: 12876: 12805: 12627: 12595: 12289: 12227: 12222: 11936: 11401: 10543:

A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of Al-Nāṣir Muḥammad Ibn Qalāwūn (1310–1341)

10322: 10301:"Social Milieus and Worldviews in Mamluk Adab-Encyclopedias: The Example of Poverty and Wealth" 9977:

State Formation and the Structure of Politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E.

5131: 5068: 5019:. Influences from Syria, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. 4890: 3950: 3896:

over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute.

3868: 3581: 3165: 3013: 2995: 2822: 2510:, held real power and imprisoned and executed Abu Bakr and had al-Nasir Muhammad's infant son, 2238: 1758: 1700: 1143: 368: 344: 135: 20: 11004: 10770: 10625: 9844: 7492: 6580: 6381: 3169:

was reaffirmed. During the rest of Qaitbay's reign, no further external conflicts took place.

12881: 12773: 12743: 12632: 12612: 12558: 12470: 12109: 12067: 12062: 12040: 11848: 11838: 11623: 11502: 11470: 11352: 11153: 11069: 10583: 10158:

Garcin, Jean-Claude (1998). "The Regime of the Circassian Mamluks". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).

10057: 9609: 5118: 3471: 3358: 3194: 3051: 2954:

Barsbay died on 7 June 1438 and, per his wishes, was succeeded by his fourteen-year-old son,

2912: 2818: 2523:

in June 1342. Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother

2430: 2262: 2087: 1362: 287: 11095:

Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World: The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600

4691: 4233:(horsemanship manual) by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria. 3751:(protected peoples) status, determined the taxes paid by Christians and Jews, including the 2701:

Baybars and Qalawun. A major innovation to this system was the division of Egypt into three

2542:(1356–1363) is the largest and costliest Mamluk building in Cairo, despite being built in a 1957:(horsemanship manual) by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria. 103: 12748: 12698: 12568: 11672: 11662: 4995: 4166: 3834:

in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the

3765: 3346: 3149: 3094: 3081: 2588: 2554: 2488: 2330: 1776: 1580:

the Salihiyya. On 2 May 1250, disgruntled Salihi emirs assassinated Turanshah at Fariskur.

1482: 782: 742: 555: 450: 10058:"The Prince who Favored the Desert: Fragmentary Biography of al-Nasir Ahmad (d. 745/1344)" 4677:

holders neglecting the administrative oversight, maintenance, and infrastructure of their

2990:, won enough support to be declared sultan two months after Jaqmaq's death. He ruled when 2038:

In 1263, Baybars deposed al-Mughith based on allegations of collaboration with the Mongol

8: 12859: 12839: 12659: 12607: 12602: 12541: 12443: 12126: 12057: 12052: 11771: 11475: 7390: 4960: 4947: 4102:(mantle) that was annually draped over the Kaaba, in addition to patronizing Jerusalem's 3615:. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as 3379: 3337: 2967: 2524: 2208: 2148:

by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria. He is wearing the

2107: 1993: 1767: 1234: 1215:

The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan

972: 212: 149: 10846:

Tell This in My Memory: Stories of Enslavement from Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Empire

12669: 12580: 12480: 12347: 12175: 12141: 12094: 12072: 11968: 11870: 11741: 11628: 11575: 11093: 10953: 10124: 9789: 9038: 7700: 4767: 3511: 3495:

Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of

3362: 3265: 3133: 3059: 2959: 2947: 2499: 2215: 2175: 2163: 2118: 2058: 1981: 1904: 1836: 1523: 1049: 1012: 884: 11029:

Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt

9956:

Trading Conflicts: Venetian Merchants and Mamluk Officials in Late Medieval Alexandria

4216:

to emirs. This reform created a clear link between an emir's rank and the size of his

12923: 12817: 12617: 12524: 12475: 12428: 12413: 12328: 12244: 12131: 12029: 12010: 11843: 11517: 11512: 11443: 11426: 11409: 11331: 11312: 11304: 11246: 11161: 11138: 11119: 11100: 11077: 11054: 11033: 11012: 10989: 10970: 10919: 10898: 10877: 10850: 10818: 10797: 10778: 10755: 10736: 10715: 10694: 10675: 10654: 10633: 10610: 10589: 10568: 10547: 10526: 10485: 10464: 10443: 10422: 10395: 10374: 10332: 10308: 10285: 10264: 10245: 10224: 10205: 10184: 10163: 10144: 10108: 10086: 10065: 10042: 10021: 10000: 9981: 9960: 9939: 9918: 9894: 9873: 9852: 9829: 9808: 9781: 9744: 9718: 9661: 9638: 9617: 9042: 9028: 7765: 6668: 6586: 6387: 6360: 6335: 6308: 6272: 5366: 5332: 5280: 5257: 5110: 4899: 4842: 4838: 4380: 4125: 3932: 3813: 3779:

Christians from the coastal areas to prevent their contact with European powers. The

3496: 3456: 3404: 3289: 3269: 2927: 2900: 2858: 2682: 2600: 2595:

Yalbugha became regent to Hasan's successor, the young son of the late sultan Hajji,

2577: 2528: 2391: 2337: 2111: 1897:

Aybak was the main bulwark against the Bahri and Jamdari emirs, and his promotion as

1794: 1740: 1720: 1549: 1517: 1470:). These mamluks were called the 'Salihiyya' (singular 'Salihi') after their master. 1429:

had a private mamluk corps. Most of the mamluks in the Ayyubids' service were ethnic

1422: 1400: 1284: 934: 924: 904: 894: 837: 696: 625: 583: 527: 356: 293: 164: 12679: 11116:

The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia: Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile

4461:

to recompense them during cash shortages or as a result of the gradual shift of the

4030: 3993:, was granted the honorary title of sultan by al-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the 3279:

was one of the major concerns of al-Ghuri's time. In 1498, the Portuguese navigator

12778: 12735: 12705: 12553: 12335: 12264: 12206: 11921: 11916: 11896: 11818: 11633: 11465: 11448: 11389: 11201: 10945: 10689:

Northrup, Linda S. (1998b). "The Bahri Mamluk Sultanate". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).

9771: 9020: 5992: 5852: 5249: 4980: 4934: 4882: 4603: 4103: 3202: 2981: 2460: 2345: 2326: 2278: 2233: 2191: 1749: 1709: 1647: 1449:

acquired about one thousand mamluks (some of them free-born) from Syria, Egypt and

1253: 1059: 675: 12590: 11300: 11070:"Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350–1516" 4759:. By the 15th century, internal upheaval from Mamluk power struggles, diminishing 3853: 3102: 2373:

was a Muslim convert, had invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the

2158:

To Egypt's south, Baybars had initiated an aggressive policy toward the Christian

12768: 12585: 12536: 12438: 12254: 11990: 11973: 11604: 11529: 11325: 11262: 11048: 11027: 10913: 10892: 10869: 10844: 10833: 10812: 10730: 10709: 10669: 10648: 10606:

The Ottomans and the Mamluks: Imperial Diplomacy and Warfare in the Islamic World

10562: 10541: 10520: 10500: 10479: 10458: 10437: 10410: 10389: 10326: 10279: 10239: 10199: 10100: 10080: 10036: 10015: 9975: 9954: 9933: 9912: 9867: 9823: 9802: 9632: 6662: 6266: 5072: 4853: 4445:

in Cairo was the most important and his position akin to a finance minister. The

4149: 4141: 4137: 4129: 3838:. Beyond his personal admiration of the Bedouin, al-Nasir Muhammad's distributed 3780: 3728: 3724: 3452: 3293: 2892: 2857:

to serve as regent for his infant son Ahmad. After his death, a Circassian emir,

2746: 2713:; provinces), similar to the administrative divisions in Syria. The new Egyptian 2318: 2298: 2290: 2266: 2242: 2129:. In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in 2091: 1886: 1689: 1535: 1531: 1404: 1396: 1332:). During Burji rule, it was also referred to as the 'State of the Circassians' ( 1264: 1185: 1134: 944: 541: 319: 202: 131: 70: 44: 10585:

A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War

9442: 9168: 4683:, and concentrating solely on collecting taxes, resulting in less productivity. 3683:(invocation of God). Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the 12917: 12871: 12725: 12664: 12448: 12249: 11761: 11689: 11548: 11482: 11206: 11189: 10359: 10351: 9703: 9695: 9654:""Jeux de miroir": Architecture of Istanbul and Cairo from Empire to Modernism" 4865: 4825: 4783: 4779: 4175: 3806: 3802: 3399: 3300:

in 1509. In 1515, a joint Ottoman-Mamluk fleet set out under the leadership of

3257: 2931: 2867:

and assumed power. Tatar died three months into his reign and was succeeded by

2811: 2785: 2741:

During Barquq's reign, in 1387, the Mamluks had forced the Anatolian entity in

2663: 2559: 2551: 2477: 2405: 2074: 2062:

Enameled and gilded bottle with the scene of battle. Egypt, late 13th century.

1961:

While mamluk factions fought for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under

1596: 1584: 1446: 1403:

dynasties. Mamluk regiments constituted the backbone of Egypt's military under

1388: 1216: 1197: 1193: 1176:

from the mid-13th to early 16th centuries. It was ruled by a military caste of

1165: 857: 827: 638: 467: 387: 237: 11265:, al-Nujum al-Zahirah Fi Milook Misr wa al-Qahirah, al-Hay'ah al-Misreyah 1968 9776: 9759: 5253: 4148:'s decree asserting Lajin's authority with the following comment, recorded by 3284:

Ocean to the Mediterranean through Mamluk lands. For over more than a decade,

1631: 12962: 12800: 12788: 12783: 12463: 11553: 11316: 10414: 10281:

A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen

9785: 9722: 9699: 9683: 5261: 4638:

system and the first was carried out in 1298 under Lajin. A second and final

4518: 4171: 4021: 3990: 3835: 3715: 3395: 3297: 3280: 2817:

Faraj was toppled in 1412 by the Syria-based emirs, Tanam, Jakam, Nawruz and

2678: 2630: 2620: 2307: 2258: 2115: 2006: 1942: 1926: 1882: 1858: 1564: 1425:'s black African infantry with mamluks. Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking 1407:

in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, beginning under the first Ayyubid

1384: 1311: 1238: 1209: 1201: 982: 471: 112: 10949: 10105:

The Art of the Qu'ran: Treasures from the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts

5093:, a red cup on a yellow field, is prominently visible on the upper section. 4841:(r.1285-1341), which from the 17th century was used as a baptismal font for 4747:

Egypt and Syria played a central transit role in international trade in the

3318: 2527:. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother 1548:. As the Crusaders advanced, al-Salih died and was succeeded by his Jazira ( 12927: 12517: 11926: 11585: 11074:

Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350–1500)

10933: 9675: 6244:"Al-Hariri, Maqamat ('Assemblies') – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum" 5114: 5048: 4952: 4895: 4089: 3740: 3700: 3276: 3206: 3125: 3058:

Khushqadam died on 9 October 1467 and the mamluk emirs initially installed

2758: 2286: 2052: 1847: 1731: 1667: 1658: 1434: 1092: 424: 255: 217: 9024: 6264: 5300: 4736: 2922:

and massacring its Muslim inhabitants in 1429 and attacking their capital

11946: 11677: 11667: 11460: 11279: 11221: 10439:

The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382

10201:

Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, Volume 13

6268:

Arab Dress: A Short History : from the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times

5082: 4804:) instead of the imperial treasury, which was linked with the military's 4748: 4589: 3893: 3872: 3577: 3574: 3383: 3301: 2567: 2543: 2503: 2441: 2369:

Early into al-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader

2325:

Qalawun was the last Salihi sultan and after his death in 1290, his son,

2303: 1962: 1803: 1438: 1372: 1205: 847: 290: 233: 11240:

The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades

10894:

The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mameluk Architecture

10391:

The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517

10017:

History's Greatest Wars: The Epic Conflicts that Shaped the Modern World

9793: 9014: 3580:, particularly in Upper Egypt. There remained a significant minority of 3349:, the Ottomans were victorious against an army led by al-Ghuri himself. 2774: 2198:

and installed their ally Shakanda as king. This brought the fortress of

11995: 11953: 11232: 10957: 9291: 4498:

of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that the

4152:: "Stupid fellow. For God's sake—who pays any heed to the caliph now?" 4145: 3876: 3589: 3431: 3145: 3141: 3121: 3063: 2975: 2942: 2923: 2800:

Ambassadors of al-Nasir Faraj present tribute, including a giraffe, to

2754: 2735: 2363: 2313: 2199: 1919: 1226:), usurping power from his successor in 1250. The Mamluks under Sultan 332: 243: 3667:, Sufi mysticism, and elements of popular religion such as sainthood, 2847:

in Cairo, completed in 1432. The carved dome (center) covers his tomb.

12834: 12306: 10936:(1967). "Northern Lebanon Under the Dominance of Ġazīr (1517–1591)". 5996: 5856: 5142: 4999: 4915: 4902:

were often decorated with star-shaped or hexagonal geometric motifs.

4531: 4436: 4376: 4244: 4133: 4003: 3942: 3772: 3720: 3688: 3684: 3660: 3540: 3445:, who could also rise to high ranks. Each household was headed by an 3350: 3342: 2991: 2896: 2183: 2150: 2039: 1911: 1680: 1276: 686: 175: 9586: 9423: 5277:

Over-stating the Arab State: Politics and Society in the Middle East

11507: 11275: 10771:"The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period" 10328:

A History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present Day

9564: 9562: 9560: 6548: 6464: 6357:

Arab dress: a short history; from the dawn of Islam to modern times

6156: 5242:

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland

5103: 5014: 4424: 3937: 3756: 3675:(visitation) to the tombs of saintly or religious individuals, and 3655: 3323: 3253: 2908: 2720: 2401: 2134: 2130: 1989: 1974: 1592: 1527: 1460: 1430: 1280: 914: 10082:

Crowds and Sultans: Urban Protest in Late Medieval Egypt and Syria

9524: 9522: 9520: 9518: 9375: 9303: 8845: 8843: 7691:

Ibn Iyas, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (1955). Wiet, Gaston (trans.) (ed.).

4132:. Three years later, Baybars reestablished the institution of the 3336:, the new Ottoman sultan, defeated the Safavids decisively at the 3140:

With the death of Mehmed II in 1481 and the accession of his son,

2810:

Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son,

1522:

Tensions between as-Salih and his mamluks culminated in 1249 when

5020: 4968: 4925: 4857: 4791: 3946: 3798: 3694: 3670: 3608: 3367: 3333: 3327: 3212: 3110: 3085: 3067: 3035: 3025: 2868: 2728: 2670: 2656:

and Baraka, both Circassian mamluks of Yalbugha. Barquq was made

2563: 2341: 2254: 2246: 2228: 2167: 2103: 2031: 2017: 1985: 1938: 1568: 1411: 1378: 1299: 1268: 1242: 1231: 597: 412: 272: 261: 249: 11154:"The Re-Emergence of the Mamluks Following the Ottoman Conquest" 9935:

Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery

9804:

The Arts of the Mamluks in Egypt and Syria: Evolution and Impact

9557: 9491: 9254: 9252: 9213: 6878: 4356:, turning the latter into the state's chief financial official. 4332:(grand master of the house) to distinguish from his subordinate 1874:

The Mamluk Sultanate and some of the main contemporary polities

1392: 11539: 11497: 11344: 10775:

The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517

9741:

Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture

9515: 9363: 8925: 8913: 8840: 6692: 6008: 6006: 5090: 5086: 5042: 4911: 4874: 4846: 4794:, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey, and cheeses. 4756: 4609: 4403: 4121: 4097: 4015: 3746: 3704: 3664: 3612: 3604: 3570: 3564: 3552: 3488: 2963: 2919: 2876: 2731: 2653: 2643: 2507: 2409: 2370: 2349: 2294: 2282: 2270: 2187: 2171: 2126: 1970: 1825: 1450: 1442: 1408: 1368: 1295: 1181: 1177: 1169: 463: 277: 11190:"The Term Mamlūk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate" 10691:

The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt 640–1517

9914:

New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual

8982: 8888: 8886: 8884: 8882: 4918:

and horizontal scenes of animals, hunters, and riders playing

3739:

The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the

11570: 11375: 11235:, Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, 1997. 9249: 8105: 8093: 6943: 6941: 5006: 4861: 4787: 4752: 4522: 4416: 4399: 4384: 3897: 3752: 3678: 3435:

One of the last Mamluks, painted by William Page in 1816-1824

3071: 3043: 2880: 2801: 2781: 2750: 2742: 2724: 2604: 2511: 2448:(head judge) to issue legal rulings advancing his interests. 2390:

Mamluk court scene, with possible depiction of Mamluk Sultan

2353: 2179: 2159: 2099: 2095: 2070: 2046: 1930: 1890: 1612: 1557: 1272: 1227: 1173: 400: 189: 11200:(1). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas: 7–34. 10442:. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. 9974:

Clifford, Winslow William (2013). Conermann, Stephan (ed.).

9339: 9281: 9279: 9203: 9201: 9199: 9186: 9184: 9182: 8791: 8789: 8787: 8413: 8389: 8377: 8149: 8147: 8122: 8120: 7940: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7320: 7318: 7316: 6968: 6724: 6722: 6720: 6718: 6705: 6703: 6132: 6120: 6035: 6033: 6003: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5866: 4492:

were a central component of the Mamluk power structure. The

1459:(viceroy) of Egypt during the absence of his father, Sultan 11983: 11282:, translator, Journal d'un Bourgeois du Caire. Paris: 1955. 8903: 8901: 8879: 8828: 7672: 7237: 7235: 6620: 6618: 6616: 6614: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6407: 6405: 6403: 6175: 6173: 6171: 6096: 5942: 5427: 5425: 4919: 4407: 4229:

Horsemen wheeling around, with a sword in each one's hand.

3423: 3375: 3261: 2884: 2608: 2445: 2182:(western Arabia), the desert regions west of the Nile, and 2078: 1492: 1426: 1288: 11050:

Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals

11009:

Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras IV

10522:

World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca

9469: 9467: 9465: 9463: 9327: 9237: 9225: 8867: 8727: 8639: 8637: 8635: 8610: 8608: 8593: 8571: 8569: 8467: 8178: 7720: 7718: 7716: 7624: 7264: 7262: 7042: 7032: 7030: 6938: 6926: 6830: 6108: 6074: 6072: 5959: 5957: 5930: 5792: 5790: 5736: 5714: 5712: 5648: 5646: 5365:. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 164–165. 4898:

over pastel-coloured backgrounds set within wide margins.

4671:

across several provinces and for short terms. This led to

4540:, successfully resisted the abolition of their hereditary 4379:(1136–1206). Edition created for an amir of Mamluk Sultan 1184:. The sultanate was established with the overthrow of the 10711:

The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World

10062:

Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter

9547: 9545: 9543: 9541: 9539: 9537: 9479: 9411: 9276: 9196: 9179: 8994: 8970: 8958: 8784: 8705: 8703: 8666: 8664: 8425: 8144: 8132: 8117: 8081: 7981: 7979: 7952: 7928: 7408: 7313: 7301: 7017: 7015: 7013: 7011: 7009: 7007: 6958: 6956: 6820: 6818: 6715: 6700: 6691:

Collection of Mamluk Qur'an Manuscripts inscribed in the

6476: 6454: 6452: 6450: 6190: 6188: 6030: 5863: 5724: 5697: 5687: 5685: 5658: 5631: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5530: 5518: 5217:

Turan, Fikret; Boeschoten, Hendrik; Stein, Heidi (2007).

3551:

Collection of Mamluk Qur'an Manuscripts inscribed in the

3463: 3189:", "Campson Gauro, king of Egypt") by Florentine painter 9997:

L'Égypte des Mamelouks: L'empire des esclaves, 1250–1517

9893:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. 9136: 9124: 8898: 8855: 8806: 8804: 8744: 8742: 8676: 8401: 8365: 8353: 8307: 8305: 8303: 8283: 8281: 8279: 8277: 8243: 8214: 8212: 8057: 8047: 8045: 8032: 8030: 8028: 8003: 8001: 7964: 7648: 7572: 7560: 7473: 7437: 7232: 7078: 7054: 6782: 6611: 6560: 6400: 6168: 5807: 5805: 5777: 5775: 5466: 5464: 5422: 5331:. Wisconsin, USA: Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 757. 4552:

was an emir's main income source, and starting in 1337,

4155: 3816:

and Baybars II, were averse to granting Bedouin sheikhs

3217:

and his second in command. In Syria, al-Ghuri appointed

2764: 1984:

and confronted the Mongol army Hulagu left behind under

11327:

The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society

11005:"Identifying a Late Medieval Cadastral Survey of Egypt" 10866:"Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing" 9460: 9399: 9387: 9351: 9315: 9102: 9100: 8715: 8688: 8632: 8605: 8566: 8556: 8554: 8552: 8550: 8525: 8523: 8510: 8508: 8506: 8457: 8455: 8442: 8440: 7918: 7916: 7903: 7901: 7899: 7862: 7860: 7797: 7785: 7741: 7739: 7737: 7735: 7733: 7713: 7614: 7612: 7592:"The reception of the Venetian ambassadors in Damascus" 7550: 7548: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7540: 7525: 7513: 7449: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7343: 7341: 7339: 7337: 7335: 7333: 7289: 7279: 7277: 7259: 7220: 7169: 7157: 7135: 7133: 7131: 7129: 7114: 7090: 7027: 6854: 6842: 6805: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6797: 6760: 6758: 6756: 6599: 6536: 6383:

Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras

6200: 6084: 6069: 6057: 5954: 5894: 5787: 5748: 5709: 5643: 5437: 5363:

Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert

2531:, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. 9534: 9503: 9148: 8754: 8700: 8661: 8224: 8197: 7976: 7004: 6953: 6914: 6902: 6890: 6815: 6770: 6630: 6524: 6447: 6435: 6423: 6185: 5918: 5906: 5882: 5760: 5682: 5670: 5619: 5607: 5595: 5571: 5554: 5542: 5488: 5449: 4959:(built 1470–1474), one of the finest examples of late 4653:

system was expanded, and increasingly larger areas of

4413:

The Mamluks created an administrative body called the

3792: 3062:

as his successor. After two months he was replaced by

1560:

retinue from the Jazira and Syria as a counterweight.

1196:

in 1517. Mamluk history is generally divided into the

9264: 9112: 9085: 9073: 9061: 9049: 8816: 8801: 8739: 8535: 8300: 8274: 8209: 8159: 8069: 8042: 8025: 7998: 7809: 7636: 7461: 6144: 6045: 6018: 5817: 5802: 5772: 5583: 5476: 5461: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5382: 4373:

The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices

3597:, while additionally promoting the other major Sunni 3408:

Armour of a Mamluk horseman from the Ottoman period,

1538:, which only dissipated with the intervention of the 11137:(7th ed.). American University in Cairo Press. 11007:. In Vermeulen, Urbain; van Steenbergen, Jo (eds.). 10814:

The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages

10732:

The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages

9890:

Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture

9656:. In Necipoğlu, Gülru; Barry Flood, Finbarr (eds.). 9574: 9097: 8937: 8649: 8620: 8581: 8547: 8520: 8503: 8491: 8479: 8452: 8437: 8341: 8329: 8317: 8262: 8013: 7913: 7896: 7884: 7872: 7857: 7845: 7833: 7821: 7730: 7660: 7609: 7537: 7501: 7425: 7371: 7359: 7330: 7274: 7247: 7181: 7145: 7126: 7102: 7066: 6992: 6980: 6866: 6794: 6753: 6642: 6224: 6212: 5410: 5216: 5198: 5052: 5040: 5034: 5028: 5012: 5004: 4986: 4978: 4972: 4923: 4805: 4799: 4760: 4711: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4607: 4597: 4582: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4525: 4512: 4506: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4481: 4471: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4440: 4430: 4422: 4414: 4393: 4351: 4345: 4339: 4333: 4327: 4321: 4299: 4293: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4248: 4238: 4217: 4211: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4182: 4107: 4095: 4087: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4013: 4007: 3994: 3984: 3978: 3972: 3966: 3960: 3862: 3851: 3845: 3839: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3744: 3692: 3676: 3668: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3598: 3592: 3562: 3517: 3509: 3446: 3440: 3421: 3236: 3230: 3210: 3000: 2985: 2862: 2852: 2714: 2708: 2702: 2657: 2571: 2424: 2418: 2357: 2044: 2030:(1320–1340). This is a probable depiction of Sultan 1898: 1606: 1600: 1539: 1498: 1490: 1454: 1376: 1333: 1327: 1321: 1315: 1148: 76: 50: 11257:

Description topographique et historique de l'Egypte

10986:

Tarikh Misr al-Islamiyah (History of Islamic Egypt)

9845:"A Damascene Eyewitness to the Battle of Nicopolis" 6512: 6500: 6488: 6265:Yedida Kalfon Stillman, Norman A. Stillman (2003). 5398: 5186: 3710: 3370:in Middle Egypt with some of his remaining forces. 3322:Ottoman painting showing the head of Mamluk Sultan 2381: 2340:, being overthrown the following year by an ethnic 1929:, as heir to the sultanate and Aybak's close aide, 11294: 11092: 10874:The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950–1800) 10564:The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923 10123: 9013:Currie, Gabriela; Christensen, Lars (April 2022). 5379: 5106:practice was unique in the medieval Muslim world. 4051:stemmed from their primary loyalty being to their 2253:Baraka was ousted in a power struggle ending with 2178:, while attempting to extend their control to the 1881:. Most of the Asian continent was occupied by the 1567:, a junior regiment of the Salihiyya commanded by 1314:refer to the dynasty as the 'State of the Turks' ( 10241:The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages 9012: 6359:(Rev. 2. ed.). Brill. p. 67, Plate 22. 4558:holders sometimes leased or sold rights to their 3264:. The Safavids styled themselves as champions of 2043:improve intracommunication, Baybars instituted a 1946:had established a shadow state opposed to Qutuz. 1391:since at least the 9th century, rising to become 12960: 11324:Winter, Michael; Levanoni, Amalia, eds. (2004). 10632:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 213–226. 10060:. In Wasserstein, David J.; Ayalon, Ami (eds.). 9887:Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2009). "Flags". 9821: 9800: 9757: 9738: 9592: 9568: 9528: 9497: 9381: 9369: 9309: 9258: 6884: 6554: 6470: 6271:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. Fig. 22. 6162: 6012: 5238:"Some Notes on the Feudal System of the Mamlūks" 4124:. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the 2648:Sha'ban was succeeded by his seven-year-old son 1437:, who, upon entering service, were converted to 16:State in Egypt, Hejaz and the Levant (1250–1517) 11156:. In Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich (eds.). 11135:Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide 11002: 9847:. In Chrissis, Nikolaos G.; Carr, Mike (eds.). 9614:Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades 8931: 8919: 8849: 4606:), which a survey of land parcels (measured by 4429:(inspector-general) in charge. There were four 4170:Mamluk lancers, early 16th century (etching by 4076:s, who were recruited by his predecessors. The 3731:for various practical and scientific purposes. 2106:on 18 May. In 1271, Baybars captured the major 11323: 9938:. Albany: State University of New York Press. 9760:"The Jalayirid Connection in Mamluk Metalware" 9651: 9429: 4006:), the sultan's assumption of the regal title 3159:or 1484, which soon triggered the start of an 2356:. To consolidate control, Lajin redistributed 12999:States and territories disestablished in 1517 11360: 10918:. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. 10630:Islamic Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art 10411:"The Position and Power of the Mamluk Sultan" 9866:Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). 9743:. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. 6379: 4467:'s role from the legal realm to enforcement. 3389: 3304:, but ultimately it did not accomplish much. 2102:before conquering the Crusader stronghold of 1511: 1110: 11158:The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society 10261:The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society 10099: 9869:The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250–1800 9652:Avcıoğlu, Nebahat; Volait, Mercedes (2017). 9219: 6327: 6300: 5182:Mamluk Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas (1375) 4755:and Qalawun signed a similar agreement with 163:Extent of the Mamluk Sultanate under Sultan 62: 36: 10107:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 9658:A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture 9173:The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History 6380:Vermeulen, Urbain; Smet, Daniel De (1995). 5360: 4305: 3569:s (schools of jurisprudence) and different 3101:. Shah Suwar held out in his fortress near 2738:to Upper Egypt to check the Arab Bedouins. 2378:al-Suffar in the plains south of Damascus. 2261:coalition, but routed the coalition at the 12994:States and territories established in 1250 11367: 11353: 11183:. Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 387–410. 11072:. In Thomas, David; Mallett, Alex (eds.). 10365:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10197: 10139:. In Conermann, Stephan; Şen, Gül (eds.). 9886: 9865: 9822:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2014). "Africa". 9709:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9485: 9345: 9297: 9285: 9243: 9231: 9207: 9190: 9169:"The Art of the Mamluk Period (1250–1517)" 9019:. Cambridge University Press. p. 74. 8473: 7705:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7307: 6624: 6566: 4112:(Ilkhanid deserters or prisoners of war). 3903: 3639:s prevailed. The diffusion of the post of 2471: 1117: 1103: 157: 11205: 11046: 10911: 10688: 10667: 10509: 10373:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 321–330. 10078: 9775: 9717:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 944–945. 9000: 8988: 8976: 8964: 8892: 8861: 8834: 8795: 8292:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8254:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8235:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8189:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8170:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8153: 8138: 8126: 8111: 8099: 7990:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 7958: 7934: 7678: 6728: 6417: 6179: 6138: 6126: 6114: 6090: 5900: 5796: 5754: 5742: 5718: 5652: 5589: 5443: 5431: 5345: 4063:also rebelled at times, particularly the 3771:In Syria, the Mamluks uprooted the local 3645:enabled Mamluk sultans to patronize each 2761:tribes of southern and eastern Anatolia. 2614: 2000: 1595:. Consensus settled on al-Salih's widow, 1530:in their bid to conquer Egypt during the 13009:16th-century disestablishments in Africa 11132: 10581: 10560: 10539: 10321: 10277: 10258: 10218: 10176: 10160:The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1 10034: 9973: 9931: 9907: 9630: 9473: 9405: 9393: 9357: 9333: 9321: 9270: 8949: 8907: 8733: 8721: 8709: 8694: 8682: 8670: 8599: 8575: 8431: 8419: 8407: 8395: 8383: 8371: 8359: 7946: 7815: 7803: 7791: 7693:Journal d'un Bourgeois du Caire, vol. II 7690: 7630: 7241: 6974: 6848: 6836: 6709: 6636: 6605: 6578: 6482: 6458: 6441: 6429: 6386:. Peeters Publishers. pp. 313–314. 6354: 6334:. New York : Rizzoli. p. 162. 6307:. New York : Rizzoli. p. 148. 6206: 6194: 6102: 6078: 6063: 6039: 5963: 5948: 5936: 5924: 5912: 5888: 5876: 5766: 5730: 5703: 5691: 5676: 5664: 5637: 5625: 5613: 5601: 5577: 5548: 5536: 5524: 5494: 5455: 5077: 4951: 4914:today), a large brass basin inlaid with 4829: 4731: 4690: 4363: 4224: 4165: 3971:). The vice-regent of Egypt was the top 3714: 3547:in 1334. This manuscript is part of the 3534: 3430: 3403: 3317: 3243: 3176: 3115: 3076: 3029: 3008:Inal died on 26 February 1461. His son, 2941: 2937: 2907:in 1425–1426, during which the island's 2839: 2687: 2624: 2582: 2533: 2450: 2385: 2312: 2232: 2222: 2139: 2057: 2021: 1948: 1472: 10983: 10964: 10646: 10456: 10121: 10013: 9634:The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land 9417: 7757: 6860: 6776: 6024: 5823: 5811: 5781: 5470: 5416: 5204: 3366:Mamluks surrendered. Tuman Bay fled to 3307: 19:For the Mamluk sultanate of Delhi, see 12961: 11151: 11113: 11090: 10969:. American University in Cairo Press. 10932: 10890: 10863: 10842: 10831: 10623: 10477: 10460:A History of African Societies to 1870 10298: 10284:. State University of New York Press. 10157: 10085:. American University in Cairo Press. 9952: 9842: 9729: 9674: 9607: 9551: 9509: 9154: 9142: 9130: 9091: 9079: 9067: 9055: 8873: 8822: 8810: 8760: 8748: 8287: 8249: 8230: 8184: 8165: 8063: 8051: 8036: 8007: 7985: 7048: 7021: 6962: 6947: 6932: 6920: 6908: 6896: 6824: 6230: 6218: 6150: 6051: 5482: 5326: 5235: 5192: 5061: 4868:industry. Trade with Iran, India, and 4057:. Emirs who were part of the sultan's 3621:(chief judge) and instead appointed a 3573:orders, but also small communities of 2026:Enthroned ruler and attendants in the 1856: 1845: 1729: 13004:13th-century establishments in Africa 12393: 12204: 12027: 11868: 11387: 11348: 11292: 11187: 11177:Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 11174: 11067: 11025: 10810: 10791: 10768: 10749: 10728: 10707: 10602: 10498: 10435: 10134: 10055: 9580: 9435: 9118: 9106: 9016:Eurasian Musical Journeys: Five Tales 8943: 8655: 8643: 8614: 8587: 8541: 8485: 8446: 8347: 8335: 8323: 8311: 8268: 8218: 8087: 8075: 8019: 7745: 7724: 7642: 7618: 7554: 7531: 7519: 7507: 7479: 7467: 7455: 7431: 7419: 7353: 7324: 7295: 7283: 7268: 7253: 7226: 7187: 7175: 7163: 7139: 7120: 7108: 7096: 7084: 7072: 7036: 6998: 6660: 6648: 6530: 6518: 6506: 6494: 5975: 5835: 5565: 5404: 5392: 5279:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 67. 5274: 4727: 4659:(taxable lands) were appropriated as 4592:, and rural demography in particular. 4156:Military and administrative hierarchy 4115: 2950:minted in Cairo between 1438 and 1440 2903:piracy. Related to this, he launched 2861:, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the 2765:Crises and restoration of state power 2190:. In 1276, the Mamluks defeated King 1834: 1823: 1718: 1707: 1698: 1687: 1678: 1665: 1656: 1645: 1636: 12943: 10518: 10408: 10387: 10345: 10237: 9994: 8626: 8560: 8529: 8514: 8497: 8461: 8203: 7970: 7922: 7907: 7890: 7878: 7866: 7851: 7839: 7827: 7666: 7654: 7578: 7566: 7443: 7377: 7365: 7151: 7060: 6986: 6872: 6809: 6788: 6764: 6542: 3999:of the provinces were mamluk emirs. 3516:. The sons of mamluks, known as the 3487:By the time the Mamluks took power, 3172: 1812: 1801: 1792: 1783: 1774: 1765: 1756: 1747: 1738: 1485:, Mamluk Egypt or Syria, circa 1330. 13034:Historical transcontinental empires 12933: 7758:Jenkins, Everett Jr. (7 May 2015). 3983:of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the 3793:Bedouin relationship with the state 3530: 3256:had emerged in 1501 and forged the 3042:", "The great Caitbeius, Sultan of 3019: 2835: 2506:. Al-Nasir Muhammad's senior aide, 2011: 1180:(freed slave soldiers) headed by a 1138: 63: 37: 13: 11286: 11255:Idem in French: Bouriant, Urbain, 11215: 10754:. University of Washington Press. 10628:. In Ettinghausen, Richard (ed.). 9932:Brummett, Palmira Johnson (1994). 9166: 6667:. Thames and Hudson. p. 193. 6582:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture 5354: 5125: 4957:Funerary complex of Sultan Qaitbay 4852:Mamluk decorative arts—especially 4277:(commander of the royal stables), 2958:, with a leading emir of Barsbay, 2637: 1546:Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh 1479:Sulwan al-Muta’ fi ‘Udwan al-Atba’ 14: 13055: 12314:Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces 11238:Idem in English: Bohn, Henry G., 10838:. University of California Press. 10512:Memoirs of John lord de Joinville 10481:Economic Concepts of Ibn Taimiyah 10204:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 68–79. 10130:. University of California Press. 9175:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 6743:"The Cresques Project – Panel IV" 5320: 5293: 2348:, who in turn was succeeded by a 1933:, as strongman. The Bahriyya and 1619:, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. 12942: 12932: 12922: 12913: 12912: 12171:Refugees of the Syrian civil war 11374: 11303:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; 9801:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2012). 9758:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2009). 9739:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007). 9160: 9006: 8766: 7751: 7684: 7584: 7497:(in Italian). 1646. p. 218. 7485: 7383: 7193: 6734: 5158:Military of the Mamluk Sultanate 4421:to supervise the market, with a 4283:(chief of the mamluk corps) and 4162:Military of the Mamluk Sultanate 3921: 3912: 3711:Christian and Jewish communities 3275:The latter's expansion into the 2793: 2784:(left) and the Mamluk troops of 2773: 2485: 1347–1351, 1354–1361 2382:Third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad 1630: 1624: 1571:, defeated the Crusaders at the 1506: 1086: 685: 643: 618: 604: 590: 576: 562: 548: 534: 520: 142: 102: 95: 12655:Identification card controversy 11227:The Concise History of Humanity 10794:The Mamluk Sultanate: A History 10582:McGregor, Andrew James (2006). 10303:. In Conermann, Stephan (ed.). 10122:Fischel, Walter Joseph (1967). 9601: 9443:"Neo-Mamluk Style Beyond Egypt" 6687:This manuscript is part of the 6681: 6654: 6572: 6373: 6348: 6321: 6294: 6258: 6236: 5969: 5829: 5500: 4941: 4470: 4259:(commander of the arsenal) and 3743:which gave Christians and Jews 3733:Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum 3363:Ottoman attack at al-Raydaniyya 2827: 2694:Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Barquq 2493: 2482: 2435: 2114:. Despite an alliance with the 1997:1260, inaugurating Bahri rule. 1465: 1416: 1359:Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate 1348:History of the Mamluk Sultanate 1258: 1247: 1221: 11561:Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt 11311:(3rd ed.). Brill Online. 11160:. Cambridge University Press. 11099:. Cambridge University Press. 11047:Streusand, Douglas E. (2018). 10817:. Princeton University Press. 10796:. Cambridge University Press. 10777:. Cambridge University Press. 10735:. Princeton University Press. 10714:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. 10693:. Cambridge University Press. 10588:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 10463:. Cambridge University Press. 10263:. Cambridge University Press. 10244:. Cambridge University Press. 10162:. Cambridge University Press. 9917:. Edinburgh University Press. 7395:The Metropolitan Museum of Art 6328:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977). 6301:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977). 5268: 5236:Poliak, A. N. (January 1937). 5229: 5210: 5174: 5153:List of Sunni Muslim dynasties 4686: 4435:s based in Cairo, Alexandria, 4375:(Kitab al-hiyal al-nafisa) of 3879:tribes of Upper Egypt, became 3314:Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517) 2587:Qur'an commissioned by sultan 2394:. Probably Egypt, dated 1334. 1375:slave, distinguished from the 1: 12989:Former countries in West Asia 12979:Medieval history of Palestine 11869: 10849:. Stanford University Press. 10843:Powell, Eve M. Trout (2012). 10221:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 5329:The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 5168: 4696: 4371:: folio from a manuscript of 4326:was often referred to as the 3886: 3786:Timurid destruction of Aleppo 3545:Ahmad ibn Kamal al-Mutatabbib 3409: 3153: 2780:Battle between the troops of 1875: 1544:(commander of the military), 117: 12188:Twin towns and sister cities 12028: 11700:Assassination of Anwar Sadat 11068:Teule, Herman G. B. (2013). 11003:van Steenbergen, Jo (2005). 10603:Muslu, Cihan Yüksel (2014). 10409:Holt, Peter Malcolm (2005). 10388:Holt, Peter Malcolm (1986). 10041:. Harvard University Press. 9843:Binbaş, İlker Evrim (2014). 9734:. London: Variorum Reprints. 9300:, pp. 70, 85–87, 92–93. 7202:Rönesans'ta Osmanlı esintisi 6696:Memory of the World Register 6355:Stillman, Yedida K. (2003). 5361:Hillenbrand, Carole (2007). 3556:Memory of the World Register 3459:, began to appear in Egypt. 3345:. On 24 August 1516, at the 2946:Gold dinar of Mamluk sultan 2633:, late 1370s or early 1380s. 2580:, who killed Hasan in 1361. 2444:, as well as compelling the 7: 13024:Medieval history of Lebanon 12716:Vehicle registration plates 12394: 12370:Water supply and sanitation 12205: 11388: 11293:Petry, Carl Forbes (2012). 11133:Williams, Caroline (2018). 11032:. Oxford University Press. 10773:. In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). 10478:Islahi, Abdul Azim (1988). 10457:Isichei, Elizabeth (1997). 10331:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 10223:. Brill. pp. 124–129. 9732:The Mamluk Military Society 9612:. In Pryor, John H. (ed.). 6689:National Library of Egypt's 5327:Setton, Kenneth M. (1969). 5136: 5053: 5041: 5035: 5029: 5013: 5005: 4987: 4979: 4973: 4924: 4806: 4800: 4761: 4712: 4704:Museum of Islamic Art, Doha 4695:Mamluk Wool Carpet, Egypt, 4679: 4673: 4667: 4661: 4655: 4649: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4608: 4598: 4583: 4572: 4566: 4560: 4554: 4548: 4542: 4536: 4526: 4513: 4507: 4500: 4494: 4488: 4482: 4472: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4441: 4431: 4423: 4415: 4394: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4334: 4328: 4322: 4300: 4294: 4285: 4279: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4239: 4218: 4212: 4202: 4196: 4190: 4183: 4108: 4096: 4088: 4078: 4072: 4065: 4059: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4035: 4014: 4008: 3995: 3985: 3979: 3973: 3967: 3961: 3863: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3745: 3693: 3677: 3669: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3599: 3593: 3563: 3549:National Library of Egypt's 3525: 3518: 3510: 3482: 3447: 3441: 3422: 3237: 3231: 3211: 3001: 2986: 2984:, who Barsbay had made his 2863: 2853: 2845:Barsbay's mausoleum complex 2715: 2709: 2703: 2658: 2572: 2425: 2419: 2375:Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar 2358: 2319:Mausoleum of Sultan Qalawun 2110:fortress from the Crusader 2045: 1899: 1607: 1601: 1540: 1499: 1491: 1455: 1377: 1334: 1328: 1322: 1316: 1149: 612:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 77: 51: 10: 13060: 13019:Medieval history of Jordan 12984:Former countries in Africa 12375:Water resources management 11207:10.3989/alqantara.2013.001 10915:Cairo: The City Victorious 10891:Rabbat, Nasser O. (1995). 10484:. The Islamic Foundation. 10394:. Addison Wesley Longman. 10177:Grainger, John D. (2016). 10038:Cairo: Histories of a City 9430:Avcıoğlu & Volait 2017 6585:. Routledge. p. 269. 5301:"Mamluk | Islamic dynasty" 5129: 5095:Metropolitan Museum of Art 4945: 4837:, basin from the reign of 4823: 4814: 4534:), who became part of the 4359: 4159: 4136:by making a member of the 3477: 3393: 3390:Mamluks under Ottoman rule 3311: 3286:a series of confrontations 3040:Mag Caitbeivs Cairi Svltan 3023: 2749:and the Turkmen allies of 2641: 2618: 2440:) with his own appointee, 2306:, forming out of them the 2226: 2064:Metropolitan Museum of Art 2015: 2004: 1515: 1512:Conflict with the Ayyubids 1453:by 1229, while serving as 1395:in Egypt and Syria as the 1356: 1352: 1345: 1341: 1279:, the Hejaz, and southern 18: 13029:Medieval history of Syria 13014:Medieval history of Libya 12974:Medieval history of Egypt 12908: 12734: 12406: 12402: 12389: 12270:Impact on the environment 12260:Entrepreneurship policies 12213: 12200: 12036: 12023: 11877: 11864: 11832: 11734: 11400: 11396: 11383: 10668:Northrup, Linda (1998a). 10561:McCarthy, Justin (2014). 10540:Levanoni, Amalia (1995). 10505:. Chester Beatty Library. 10307:. Bonn University Press. 10180:Syria: An Outline History 10143:. Bonn University Press. 10079:Elbendary, Amina (2015). 9872:. Yale University Press. 9807:. V&R unipress GmbH. 9777:10.1163/22118993-90000147 9631:Asbridge, Thomas (2010). 6579:Petersen, Andrew (2002). 5254:10.1017/S0035869X00096179 4930:script prominently used. 4908:Baptistère of Saint-Louis 4835:Baptistère de Saint Louis 4546:. In the Mamluk era, the 3822:, and when they did, the 3191:Cristofano dell'Altissimo 3187:Campson Gavro re d'Egitto 3048:Cristofano dell'Altissimo 3046:") by Florentine painter 2144:Horseman impales a bear. 2084:Armenian Cilician Kingdom 2028:Baptistère de Saint Louis 1563:On 11 February 1250, the 1497:(akin to fiefs; singular 1188:in Egypt in 1250 and was 1164:, was a state that ruled 848:Roman and Byzantine Egypt 499: 495: 486:Ottoman conquest of Cairo 482: 460: 447: 443: 435: 431: 418: 406: 394: 381: 377: 367: 363: 350: 338: 326: 313: 309: 299: 283: 271: 226: 195: 185: 171: 156: 128: 92: 87: 30: 12041:Administrative divisions 11717:2011 Egyptian revolution 11658:1952 Egyptian revolution 11454:Lighthouse of Alexandria 11152:Winter, Michael (1998). 10832:Popper, William (1955). 10650:Mamluk 'Askari 1250–1517 10510:Joinville, Jean (1807). 10238:Heng, Geraldine (2018). 10135:Fuess, Albrecht (2022). 10103:; Rettig, Simon (2016). 10035:AlSayyad, Nezar (2013). 10014:Cummins, Joseph (2011). 9220:Farhad & Rettig 2016 6248:islamicart.museumwnf.org 5976:Fuess, Albrecht (2018). 5836:Fuess, Albrecht (2018). 5275:Ayubi, Nazih N. (1996). 5163: 5148:Egypt in the Middle Ages 4369:A Blood-Measuring Device 4271:(secretary or adviser), 3296:in 1507 but lost at the 2996:conquered Constantinople 2905:campaigns against Cyprus 2673:and Aleppo, Mintash and 2502:, who al-Nasir Muhammad 2457:Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque 1326:) or 'State of Turkey' ( 58:State of the Circassians 12245:Egyptian stock exchange 11091:Varlik, Nükhet (2015). 11026:Stilt, Kristen (2011). 10988:. Cairo: Dar al-Maref. 10984:Shayyal, Jamal (1967). 10965:Sanders, Paula (2008). 10950:10.1163/157005867X00029 10912:Rodenbeck, Max (1999). 10864:Rabbat, Nasser (2001). 10811:Petry, Carl F. (2014). 10792:Petry, Carl F. (2022). 10769:Petry, Carl F. (1998). 10750:Petry, Carl F. (1993). 10729:Petry, Carl F. (1981). 10708:Paine, Lincoln (2015). 10647:Nicolle, David (2014). 10624:Nickel, Helmut (1972). 10519:King, David A. (1999). 10299:Herzog, Thomas (2014). 10278:Hathaway, Jane (2012). 9980:Bonn University Press. 9608:Amitai, Reuven (2006). 6747:www.cresquesproject.net 5306:Encyclopædia Britannica 5089:, dated 1329. Qawsun's 4885:were widely available. 4511:holders to treat their 3965:(deputy sultans, sing. 3904:Authority of the sultan 3501:Mamluk-Kipchak language 3294:defeated the Portuguese 3014:Khushqadam al-Mu'ayyadi 2540:complex of Sultan Hasan 2504:designated as successor 2472:End of the Bahri regime 2267:captured and garrisoned 1988:in the plains south of 1305: 793:3rd Intermediate Period 773:2nd Intermediate Period 753:1st Intermediate Period 570:Principality of Antioch 345:Abū al-Faḍl Al-Musta'in 110:Flags according to the 12576:International rankings 11581:Egyptian–Ethiopian War 11309:Encyclopaedia of Islam 11114:Welsby, Derek (2002). 11011:. Peeters Publishers. 10436:Irwin, Robert (1986). 10325:; Daly, M. W. (1961). 10056:Drory, Joseph (2006). 9953:Christ, Georg (2012). 9851:. Ashgate Publishing. 9730:Ayalon, David (1979). 9637:. Simon and Schuster. 9616:. Ashgate Publishing. 9486:Bloom & Blair 2009 9346:Blair & Bloom 1995 9298:Blair & Bloom 1995 9286:Blair & Bloom 1995 9244:Blair & Bloom 1995 9232:Blair & Bloom 1995 9208:Blair & Bloom 1995 9191:Blair & Bloom 1995 8474:Blair & Bloom 1995 7308:Blair & Bloom 1995 6664:Qurʾāns of the Mamlūks 6567:Blair & Bloom 1995 5180:Photographic extract: 5132:List of Mamluk sultans 5098: 4963: 4849: 4819: 4744: 4743:. Mamluk period, 1315. 4706: 4594: 4388: 4234: 4178: 3951:Chester Beatty Library 3938:Al-Kawākib ad-durriyya 3735: 3627:from each of the four 3558: 3436: 3416: 3330: 3252:In the meantime, Shah 3249: 3198: 3166:status quo ante bellum 3129: 3089: 3055: 2994:, the Ottoman sultan, 2951: 2848: 2697: 2634: 2615:Burji rule (1382–1517) 2592: 2547: 2464: 2413: 2322: 2250: 2155: 2066: 2035: 2001:Bahri rule (1250–1382) 1958: 1953:Horsemen with lances. 1486: 1263:), they conquered the 21:Mamluk dynasty (Delhi) 12181:Terrorism and tourism 11639:1948 Arab–Israeli War 11471:Library of Alexandria 11296:"Circassians, Mamlūk" 10653:. Osprey Publishing. 10499:James, David (1983). 9999:(in French). Perrin. 9995:Clot, André (2009) . 9593:Behrens-Abouseif 2009 9569:Behrens-Abouseif 2014 9529:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9498:Behrens-Abouseif 2012 9432:, pp. 1140–1142. 9382:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9370:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9310:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9259:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9025:10.1017/9781108913805 6885:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6661:James, David (1988). 6555:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6471:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6163:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6013:Behrens-Abouseif 2014 5985:Mamlūk Studies Review 5851:(2): 76, 84, Fig. 5. 5845:Mamlūk Studies Review 5351:Levanoni 1995, p. 17. 5081: 4955: 4833: 4735: 4694: 4579: 4439:and Lower Egypt. The 4367: 4228: 4169: 3935:to the manuscript of 3718: 3538: 3434: 3407: 3321: 3312:Further information: 3247: 3195:Galleria degli Uffizi 3185:(r. 1501–1516, here " 3180: 3119: 3080: 3052:Galleria degli Uffizi 3033: 3024:Further information: 2945: 2938:Successors of Barsbay 2843: 2691: 2629:Mamluk Sultan in the 2628: 2591:, dated to 1372 until 2586: 2537: 2454: 2389: 2316: 2289:in Jerusalem and the 2236: 2223:Early Qalawuni period 2143: 2094:, and shortly after, 2061: 2025: 1952: 1916:Jamal ad-Din Aydughdi 1554:al-Mu'azzam Turanshah 1476: 1363:Black Sea slave trade 733:Early Dynastic Period 196:Common languages 12892:World Heritage Sites 12711:Units of measurement 12166:Proposed new capital 11912:Environmental issues 11673:United Arab Republic 11566:Muhammad Ali dynasty 11188:Yosef, Koby (2013). 10020:. Fair Winds Press. 8991:, pp. 269, 271. 8932:van Steenbergen 2005 8920:van Steenbergen 2005 8850:van Steenbergen 2005 7695:. Paris. p. 67. 6040:Holt & Daly 1961 5047:) and multi-storied 5033:s (a combination of 4996:four-iwan floor plan 3945:made for the sultan 3539:Finispiece from the 3347:Battle of Marj Dabiq 3308:Fall to the Ottomans 3232:al-Ṭabaqa al-Khamisa 3064:Timurbugha al-Zahiri 3038:(r.1468-1496, here " 2696:in Cairo (1384–1386) 2397:Maqamat of al-Hariri 2321:in Cairo (1284–1285) 1980:The Mamluks entered 1871:class=notpageimage| 1573:Battle of al-Mansura 1483:Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli 1421:), who replaced the 1329:al-Dawla al-Turkiyya 1204:(1250–1382) and the 1003:Muhammad Ali dynasty 556:Kingdom of Jerusalem 178:nominally under the 12564:Freedom of religion 12459:Mass sexual assault 11824:Timekeeping devices 11722:2013 Rabaa massacre 11695:Egyptian–Libyan War 10346:Holt, P.M. (1991). 10323:Holt, Peter Malcolm 9660:. Wiley Blackwell. 9595:, pp. 149–159. 9222:, pp. 104–105. 8876:, pp. 146–147. 8422:, pp. 182–183. 8386:, pp. 176–177. 8187:, pp. 114–115. 8114:, pp. 268–269. 8102:, pp. 265–266. 8090:, pp. 394–395. 7973:, pp. 421–422. 7949:, pp. 126–127. 7657:, pp. 236–237. 7581:, pp. 235–236. 7569:, pp. 232–234. 7446:, pp. 226–228. 7422:, pp. 145–147. 7327:, pp. 128–129. 7063:, pp. 193–195. 7051:, pp. 293–294. 6977:, pp. 284–286. 6950:, pp. 291–292. 6935:, pp. 290–291. 6791:, pp. 127–128. 6557:, pp. 201–203. 6545:, pp. 122–123. 6473:, pp. 173–175. 6165:, pp. 132–134. 6141:, pp. 115–116. 6129:, pp. 119–120. 6105:, pp. 109–110. 5951:, pp. 103–104. 5062:Emblems and blazons 4961:Mamluk architecture 4948:Mamluk architecture 4315:master of the house 3380:Janbirdi al-Ghazali 3338:Battle of Chaldiran 3088:in Jerusalem (1482) 3060:Yalbay al-Mu'ayyadi 2968:Knights of St. John 2352:mamluk of Qalawun, 2344:mamluk of Qalawun, 2108:Krak des Chevaliers 1994:Battle of Ain Jalut 1526:'s forces captured 1393:governing dynasties 1150:Salṭanat al-Mamālīk 838:Ptolemaic dynasties 150:Mecia de Viladestes 12754:Art (contemporary) 12434:Capital punishment 12324:Telecommunications 12001:Towns and villages 11969:Qattara Depression 11782:Muslim Brotherhood 11752:Cigarette industry 11612:British occupation 11523:Crusader invasions 11493:Rashidun Caliphate 11299:. In Fleet, Kate; 11242:, AMS Press, 1969. 11118:. British Museum. 10071:9-78-0-415-37278-7 9692:Lévi-Provençal, E. 8955:Stilt 2011, p. 24. 8398:, p. 178–179. 7482:, pp. 99–100. 5939:, pp. 99–100. 5099: 4964: 4883:Chinese porcelains 4850: 4745: 4728:Trade and industry 4707: 4570:became taxed. The 4389: 4235: 4179: 4116:Role of the caliph 3977:, followed by the 3809:(eastern Arabia). 3736: 3559: 3437: 3417: 3331: 3326:being remitted to 3250: 3199: 3161:Ottoman–Mamluk war 3134:Republic of Venice 3130: 3090: 3056: 2960:Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq 2952: 2948:Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq 2849: 2819:al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh 2698: 2675:Yalbugha al-Nasiri 2635: 2597:al-Mansur Muhammad 2593: 2548: 2500:al-Mansur Abu Bakr 2465: 2414: 2354:Husam al-Din Lajin 2323: 2251: 2245:by the Mamluks of 2241:, led against the 2176:Dahlak Archipelago 2156: 2067: 2036: 1959: 1905:Faris al-Din Aktay 1577:Battle of Fariskur 1524:Louis IX of France 1487: 1335:Dawlat al-Jarakisa 1050:Sultanate of Egypt 1040:British occupation 1013:Khedivate of Egypt 885:Rashidun caliphate 706:Predynastic Period 78:Dawlat al-Jarākisa 32:State of the Turks 13039:Former sultanates 12956: 12955: 12904: 12903: 12900: 12899: 12828:Football stadiums 12759:Botanical gardens 12638:Catholic dioceses 12530:Gender inequality 12454:Human trafficking 12385: 12384: 12319:Tallest buildings 12280:Military industry 12196: 12195: 12137:Political parties 12090:Islamic extremism 12078:Foreign relations 12019: 12018: 11860: 11859: 11856: 11855: 11600:French occupation 11518:Fatimid Caliphate 11513:Ikhshidid dynasty 11337:978-90-04-13286-3 11268:Idem in English: 11251:978-977-241-175-7 11167:978-0-521-59115-7 11144:978-977-416-855-0 11125:978-0-7141-1947-2 11106:978-1-316-35182-6 11083:978-90-04-25278-3 11060:978-0-429-96813-6 11039:978-0-19-960243-8 11018:978-90-429-1524-4 10995:978-977-02-5975-7 10976:978-977-416-095-0 10904:978-90-04-10124-1 10883:978-90-04-11794-5 10856:978-0-8047-8375-0 10824:978-1-4008-5641-1 10803:978-1-108-47104-6 10784:978-0-521-06885-7 10761:978-0-295-97307-4 10742:978-1-4008-5641-1 10721:978-1-101-97035-5 10700:978-0-521-06885-7 10681:978-3-515-06861-1 10674:. Franz Steiner. 10660:978-1-78200-929-0 10639:978-0-87099-111-0 10616:978-0-85773-580-5 10595:978-0-2759-8601-8 10574:978-1-317-89048-5 10553:978-90-04-10182-1 10532:978-90-04-11367-1 10491:978-0-86037-665-1 10470:978-0-521-45599-2 10428:978-0-415-45096-6 10401:978-1-317-87152-1 10380:978-90-04-08112-3 10338:978-1-317-86366-3 10314:978-3-8471-0228-1 10291:978-0-7914-8610-8 10270:978-0-5215-9115-7 10251:978-1-108-42278-9 10230:978-90-04-16165-8 10190:978-1-4738-6083-4 10183:. Pen and Sword. 10169:978-0-521-06885-7 10150:978-3-8470-1152-1 10114:978-1-58834-578-3 10092:978-977-416-717-1 10048:978-0-674-07245-9 10027:978-1-61058-055-7 10006:978-2-262-03045-2 9987:978-3-8471-0091-1 9966:978-90-04-22199-4 9945:978-0-7914-1701-0 9924:978-1-4744-6462-8 9900:978-0-19-530991-1 9879:978-0-300-05888-8 9858:978-1-4094-3926-4 9835:978-0-85773-541-6 9814:978-3-89971-915-4 9750:978-977-416-077-6 9667:978-1-119-06857-0 9644:978-1-84983-770-5 9623:978-0-7546-5197-0 9420:, pp. 39–41. 9384:, pp. 80–84. 9348:, pp. 83–84. 9336:, pp. 30–31. 9312:, pp. 73–77. 9145:, pp. 33–34. 9133:, pp. 19–20. 8895:, pp. 37–38. 8837:, pp. 38–39. 8736:, pp. 11–12. 8646:, pp. 22–23. 8617:, pp. 30–31. 8602:, pp. 31–32. 8252:, pp. 15–16. 8066:, pp. 60–61. 7771:978-1-4766-0889-1 7727:, pp. 50–52. 7681:, pp. 44–45. 7633:, pp. 42–44. 7534:, pp. 48–49. 7522:, pp. 47–48. 7458:, pp. 92–93. 7298:, pp. 46–47. 7271:, pp. 45–46. 7229:, pp. 43–44. 7178:, pp. 42–43. 7166:, pp. 41–42. 7123:, pp. 40–41. 7099:, pp. 39–40. 7087:, p. 36, 42. 7039:, pp. 38–39. 6839:, pp. 76–80. 6712:, pp. 88–89. 6674:978-0-500-97367-7 6592:978-1-134-61366-3 6533:, pp. 28–29. 6485:, pp. 31–33. 6393:978-90-6831-683-4 6366:978-90-04-11373-2 6341:978-0-8478-0081-0 6314:978-0-8478-0081-0 6117:, pp. 84–85. 6042:, pp. 17–18. 5879:, pp. 92–93. 5745:, pp. 70–71. 5733:, pp. 73–74. 5706:, pp. 79–80. 5667:, pp. 75–76. 5640:, pp. 72–73. 5568:, pp. 19–21. 5539:, pp. 68–69. 5527:, pp. 67–68. 5372:978-0-7486-2572-7 5338:978-0-299-04844-0 4994:The cruciform or 4839:al-Nasir Muhammad 4521:, where longtime 4381:Al-Nasir Muhammad 4298:(from the Arabic 4126:Abbasid Caliphate 3962:nuwwab al-saltana 3784:Antioch, and the 3582:Coptic Christians 3468:final elimination 3290:Gujarat Sultanate 3173:Reign of al-Ghuri 3099:Yashbak min Mahdi 3010:al-Mu'ayyad Ahmad 2928:Anatolian beyliks 2734:tribesmen of the 2719:were Alexandria, 2683:northern Caucasus 2601:Peter I of Cyprus 2589:Al-Ashraf Sha'ban 2578:Yalbugha al-Umari 2529:al-Muzaffar Hajji 2489:al-Ashraf Sha'ban 2392:al-Nasir Muhammad 2338:al-Nasir Muhammad 2196:Battle of Dongola 2125:range, including 2112:County of Tripoli 1931:Sayf al-Din Qutuz 1922:in 1254 or 1255. 1550:Upper Mesopotamia 1518:Battle of al-Kura 1423:Fatimid Caliphate 1285:al-Nasir Muhammad 1153:), also known as 1147: 1127: 1126: 1078: 1077: 1031:Late Modern Egypt 1021: 1020: 993:French occupation 963: 962: 925:Ikhshidid dynasty 895:Umayyad caliphate 866: 865: 820:Greco-Roman Egypt 811: 810: 714: 713: 697:Prehistoric Egypt 659: 658: 655: 654: 651: 650: 631: 630: 626:Tahirid Sultanate 584:County of Tripoli 528:Abbasid Caliphate 449:• Murder of 420:• 1516–1517 408:• 1260–1277 396:• 1250–1257 357:Al-Mutawakkil III 352:• 1508–1516 340:• 1406–1414 328:• 1262–1302 294:elective monarchy 180:Abbasid Caliphate 165:Al-Nasir Muhammad 81: 55: 13051: 12969:Mamluk Sultanate 12946: 12945: 12936: 12935: 12926: 12916: 12915: 12721:Waste management 12486:Academic grading 12404: 12403: 12391: 12390: 12363:Railway stations 12341:Cultural tourism 12240:Economic regions 12202: 12201: 12025: 12024: 11866: 11865: 11535:Mamluk Sultanate 11466:Diocese of Egypt 11449:Battle of Actium 11398: 11397: 11385: 11384: 11369: 11362: 11355: 11346: 11345: 11341: 11320: 11298: 11270:History of Egypt 11211: 11209: 11184: 11171: 11148: 11129: 11110: 11098: 11087: 11064: 11043: 11022: 10999: 10980: 10961: 10929: 10908: 10887: 10870:Kennedy, Hugh N. 10860: 10839: 10828: 10807: 10788: 10765: 10746: 10725: 10704: 10685: 10664: 10643: 10620: 10599: 10578: 10557: 10536: 10515: 10506: 10495: 10474: 10453: 10432: 10405: 10384: 10342: 10318: 10295: 10274: 10255: 10234: 10215: 10194: 10173: 10154: 10131: 10129: 10118: 10101:Farhad, Massumeh 10096: 10075: 10052: 10031: 10010: 9991: 9970: 9949: 9928: 9904: 9883: 9862: 9839: 9828:. I. B. Tauris. 9818: 9797: 9779: 9754: 9735: 9726: 9671: 9648: 9627: 9596: 9590: 9584: 9578: 9572: 9566: 9555: 9549: 9532: 9526: 9513: 9507: 9501: 9495: 9489: 9483: 9477: 9471: 9458: 9457: 9455: 9453: 9439: 9433: 9427: 9421: 9415: 9409: 9403: 9397: 9391: 9385: 9379: 9373: 9367: 9361: 9355: 9349: 9343: 9337: 9331: 9325: 9319: 9313: 9307: 9301: 9295: 9289: 9283: 9274: 9268: 9262: 9256: 9247: 9241: 9235: 9229: 9223: 9217: 9211: 9205: 9194: 9188: 9177: 9176: 9164: 9158: 9152: 9146: 9140: 9134: 9128: 9122: 9116: 9110: 9104: 9095: 9089: 9083: 9077: 9071: 9065: 9059: 9053: 9047: 9046: 9010: 9004: 8998: 8992: 8986: 8980: 8974: 8968: 8962: 8956: 8953: 8947: 8941: 8935: 8929: 8923: 8917: 8911: 8905: 8896: 8890: 8877: 8871: 8865: 8859: 8853: 8847: 8838: 8832: 8826: 8820: 8814: 8808: 8799: 8793: 8782: 8781: 8770: 8764: 8758: 8752: 8746: 8737: 8731: 8725: 8719: 8713: 8707: 8698: 8692: 8686: 8680: 8674: 8668: 8659: 8653: 8647: 8641: 8630: 8624: 8618: 8612: 8603: 8597: 8591: 8585: 8579: 8573: 8564: 8558: 8545: 8539: 8533: 8527: 8518: 8512: 8501: 8495: 8489: 8483: 8477: 8471: 8465: 8459: 8450: 8444: 8435: 8429: 8423: 8417: 8411: 8405: 8399: 8393: 8387: 8381: 8375: 8369: 8363: 8357: 8351: 8345: 8339: 8333: 8327: 8321: 8315: 8309: 8298: 8297: 8285: 8272: 8266: 8260: 8259: 8247: 8241: 8240: 8228: 8222: 8216: 8207: 8206:, p. 76-78. 8201: 8195: 8194: 8182: 8176: 8175: 8163: 8157: 8151: 8142: 8136: 8130: 8124: 8115: 8109: 8103: 8097: 8091: 8085: 8079: 8073: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8049: 8040: 8034: 8023: 8017: 8011: 8005: 7996: 7995: 7983: 7974: 7968: 7962: 7956: 7950: 7944: 7938: 7932: 7926: 7920: 7911: 7905: 7894: 7888: 7882: 7876: 7870: 7864: 7855: 7849: 7843: 7837: 7831: 7825: 7819: 7813: 7807: 7801: 7795: 7789: 7783: 7782: 7780: 7778: 7755: 7749: 7743: 7728: 7722: 7711: 7710: 7704: 7696: 7688: 7682: 7676: 7670: 7664: 7658: 7652: 7646: 7640: 7634: 7628: 7622: 7616: 7607: 7606: 7604: 7602: 7588: 7582: 7576: 7570: 7564: 7558: 7552: 7535: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7511: 7505: 7499: 7498: 7489: 7483: 7477: 7471: 7465: 7459: 7453: 7447: 7441: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7401: 7387: 7381: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7357: 7351: 7328: 7322: 7311: 7305: 7299: 7293: 7287: 7281: 7272: 7266: 7257: 7251: 7245: 7239: 7230: 7224: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7213: 7207: 7197: 7191: 7185: 7179: 7173: 7167: 7161: 7155: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7124: 7118: 7112: 7106: 7100: 7094: 7088: 7082: 7076: 7070: 7064: 7058: 7052: 7046: 7040: 7034: 7025: 7019: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6951: 6945: 6936: 6930: 6924: 6918: 6912: 6906: 6900: 6894: 6888: 6882: 6876: 6870: 6864: 6858: 6852: 6846: 6840: 6834: 6828: 6822: 6813: 6807: 6792: 6786: 6780: 6774: 6768: 6762: 6751: 6750: 6738: 6732: 6726: 6713: 6707: 6698: 6685: 6679: 6678: 6658: 6652: 6646: 6640: 6634: 6628: 6622: 6609: 6603: 6597: 6596: 6576: 6570: 6564: 6558: 6552: 6546: 6540: 6534: 6528: 6522: 6516: 6510: 6504: 6498: 6492: 6486: 6480: 6474: 6468: 6462: 6456: 6445: 6439: 6433: 6427: 6421: 6415: 6398: 6397: 6377: 6371: 6370: 6352: 6346: 6345: 6325: 6319: 6318: 6298: 6292: 6291: 6262: 6256: 6255: 6240: 6234: 6228: 6222: 6216: 6210: 6204: 6198: 6192: 6183: 6177: 6166: 6160: 6154: 6148: 6142: 6136: 6130: 6124: 6118: 6112: 6106: 6100: 6094: 6088: 6082: 6076: 6067: 6061: 6055: 6049: 6043: 6037: 6028: 6022: 6016: 6010: 6001: 6000: 5997:10.6082/M100007Z 5982: 5973: 5967: 5961: 5952: 5946: 5940: 5934: 5928: 5922: 5916: 5910: 5904: 5898: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5861: 5860: 5857:10.6082/M100007Z 5842: 5833: 5827: 5821: 5815: 5809: 5800: 5794: 5785: 5779: 5770: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5746: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5722: 5716: 5707: 5701: 5695: 5689: 5680: 5674: 5668: 5662: 5656: 5650: 5641: 5635: 5629: 5623: 5617: 5611: 5605: 5599: 5593: 5587: 5581: 5575: 5569: 5563: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5534: 5528: 5522: 5516: 5515: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5480: 5474: 5468: 5459: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5402: 5396: 5390: 5377: 5376: 5358: 5352: 5349: 5343: 5342: 5324: 5318: 5317: 5315: 5313: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5056: 5046: 5038: 5032: 5018: 5010: 4990: 4984: 4976: 4929: 4809: 4803: 4764: 4741:The Musical Boat 4715: 4701: 4698: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4652: 4643: 4637: 4631: 4625: 4619: 4613: 4604:cadastral survey 4601: 4586: 4575: 4569: 4563: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4539: 4529: 4516: 4510: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4485: 4475: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4444: 4434: 4428: 4420: 4397: 4355: 4349: 4347:ustadar al-aliya 4343: 4337: 4331: 4329:ustadar al-aliya 4325: 4319: 4316: 4313: 4310: 4307: 4303: 4297: 4288: 4282: 4276: 4270: 4264: 4258: 4252: 4242: 4221: 4215: 4205: 4199: 4193: 4186: 4111: 4104:Dome of the Rock 4101: 4093: 4081: 4075: 4068: 4062: 4056: 4050: 4044: 4038: 4019: 4011: 3998: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3968:na'ib al-saltana 3964: 3925: 3916: 3866: 3857: 3850:and the post of 3849: 3843: 3833: 3827: 3821: 3750: 3698: 3682: 3674: 3650: 3644: 3638: 3632: 3626: 3620: 3602: 3596: 3568: 3531:Muslim community 3521: 3515: 3470:at the hands of 3450: 3444: 3427: 3414: 3411: 3359:defeated at Gaza 3240: 3234: 3216: 3158: 3155: 3082:Sabil of Qaitbay 3050:(16th century), 3020:Reign of Qaitbay 3004: 2989: 2987:atabeg al-asakir 2982:Sayf al-Din Inal 2972:al-Mansur Uthman 2893:Sharifs of Mecca 2879:rather than the 2866: 2864:atabeg al-asakir 2856: 2854:atabeg al-asakir 2836:Reign of Barsbay 2831: 2830: 1406–1413 2829: 2797: 2777: 2718: 2712: 2706: 2692:Interior of the 2661: 2659:atabeg al-asakir 2575: 2555:arrived in Egypt 2525:al-Kamil Sha'ban 2521:al-Salih Isma'il 2497: 2496: 1363–1367 2495: 2486: 2484: 2461:Citadel of Cairo 2455:Interior of the 2439: 2438: 1302–1340 2437: 2428: 2422: 2361: 2346:al-Adil Kitbugha 2327:al-Ashraf Khalil 2317:Interior of the 2299:hospital complex 2279:Prophet's Mosque 2239:siege of Tripoli 2192:David of Makuria 2050: 2012:Reign of Baybars 1902: 1880: 1877: 1865: 1863: 1854: 1852: 1843: 1841: 1832: 1830: 1821: 1819: 1810: 1808: 1799: 1797: 1790: 1788: 1781: 1779: 1772: 1770: 1763: 1761: 1754: 1752: 1745: 1743: 1736: 1734: 1727: 1725: 1716: 1714: 1705: 1703: 1696: 1694: 1685: 1683: 1676: 1674: 1663: 1661: 1654: 1652: 1643: 1641: 1634: 1628: 1610: 1604: 1587:of Damascus and 1543: 1502: 1496: 1477:Frontispiece of 1469: 1468: 1218–1238 1467: 1458: 1420: 1419: 1174–1193 1418: 1382: 1337: 1331: 1325: 1319: 1267:, expanded into 1262: 1261: 1290–1293 1260: 1254:al-Ashraf Khalil 1251: 1250: 1279–1290 1249: 1225: 1224: 1240–1249 1223: 1152: 1142: 1140: 1131:Mamluk Sultanate 1119: 1112: 1105: 1093:Egypt portal 1091: 1090: 1089: 1060:Kingdom of Egypt 1036: 1035: 979: 978: 881: 880: 824: 823: 729: 728: 702: 701: 689: 679: 661: 660: 647: 646: 635: 634: 622: 621: 608: 607: 594: 593: 580: 579: 566: 565: 552: 551: 538: 537: 524: 523: 517: 516: 501: 500: 161: 146: 138: 122: 119: 106: 99: 82: 80: 74: 66: 65: 61: 56: 54: 48: 40: 39: 35: 28: 27: 13059: 13058: 13054: 13053: 13052: 13050: 13049: 13048: 12959: 12958: 12957: 12952: 12896: 12887:Public holidays 12877:National anthem 12730: 12643:Coptic Churches 12586:Egyptian Arabic 12496:Medical schools 12398: 12381: 12297:Nuclear program 12209: 12192: 12122:Nationality law 12115:Supreme Council 12100:Law enforcement 12032: 12015: 11991:Sinai Peninsula 11974:Red Sea Riviera 11873: 11852: 11828: 11730: 11617:1919 revolution 11605:Revolt of Cairo 11530:Ayyubid dynasty 11508:Tulunid dynasty 11392: 11379: 11373: 11338: 11305:Rowson, Everett 11289: 11287:Further reading 11263:Ibn Taghribirdi 11218: 11216:Primary sources 11168: 11145: 11126: 11107: 11084: 11061: 11040: 11019: 10996: 10977: 10926: 10905: 10884: 10857: 10825: 10804: 10785: 10762: 10743: 10722: 10701: 10682: 10661: 10640: 10617: 10609:. I.B. Tauris. 10596: 10575: 10554: 10533: 10492: 10471: 10450: 10429: 10402: 10381: 10352:Bosworth, C. E. 10339: 10315: 10292: 10271: 10252: 10231: 10212: 10191: 10170: 10151: 10115: 10093: 10072: 10049: 10028: 10007: 9988: 9967: 9946: 9925: 9909:Bosworth, C. E. 9901: 9880: 9859: 9836: 9815: 9751: 9668: 9645: 9624: 9604: 9599: 9591: 9587: 9579: 9575: 9567: 9558: 9550: 9535: 9527: 9516: 9508: 9504: 9496: 9492: 9484: 9480: 9472: 9461: 9451: 9449: 9441: 9440: 9436: 9428: 9424: 9416: 9412: 9404: 9400: 9392: 9388: 9380: 9376: 9368: 9364: 9356: 9352: 9344: 9340: 9332: 9328: 9320: 9316: 9308: 9304: 9296: 9292: 9284: 9277: 9269: 9265: 9257: 9250: 9242: 9238: 9230: 9226: 9218: 9214: 9206: 9197: 9189: 9180: 9167:Yalman, Suzan. 9165: 9161: 9153: 9149: 9141: 9137: 9129: 9125: 9117: 9113: 9105: 9098: 9090: 9086: 9078: 9074: 9066: 9062: 9054: 9050: 9035: 9011: 9007: 8999: 8995: 8987: 8983: 8975: 8971: 8963: 8959: 8954: 8950: 8942: 8938: 8930: 8926: 8918: 8914: 8906: 8899: 8891: 8880: 8872: 8868: 8860: 8856: 8848: 8841: 8833: 8829: 8821: 8817: 8809: 8802: 8794: 8785: 8778:Aga Khan Museum 8772: 8771: 8767: 8759: 8755: 8747: 8740: 8732: 8728: 8720: 8716: 8708: 8701: 8693: 8689: 8685:, pp. 8–9. 8681: 8677: 8669: 8662: 8654: 8650: 8642: 8633: 8625: 8621: 8613: 8606: 8598: 8594: 8586: 8582: 8574: 8567: 8559: 8548: 8540: 8536: 8528: 8521: 8513: 8504: 8496: 8492: 8484: 8480: 8472: 8468: 8460: 8453: 8445: 8438: 8434:, p. 1183. 8430: 8426: 8418: 8414: 8406: 8402: 8394: 8390: 8382: 8378: 8370: 8366: 8358: 8354: 8346: 8342: 8334: 8330: 8322: 8318: 8310: 8301: 8291: 8286: 8275: 8267: 8263: 8253: 8248: 8244: 8234: 8229: 8225: 8217: 8210: 8202: 8198: 8188: 8183: 8179: 8169: 8164: 8160: 8152: 8145: 8137: 8133: 8125: 8118: 8110: 8106: 8098: 8094: 8086: 8082: 8074: 8070: 8062: 8058: 8050: 8043: 8035: 8026: 8018: 8014: 8006: 7999: 7989: 7984: 7977: 7969: 7965: 7957: 7953: 7945: 7941: 7933: 7929: 7921: 7914: 7906: 7897: 7889: 7885: 7877: 7873: 7865: 7858: 7850: 7846: 7838: 7834: 7826: 7822: 7814: 7810: 7802: 7798: 7790: 7786: 7776: 7774: 7772: 7756: 7752: 7744: 7731: 7723: 7714: 7698: 7697: 7689: 7685: 7677: 7673: 7665: 7661: 7653: 7649: 7641: 7637: 7629: 7625: 7617: 7610: 7600: 7598: 7590: 7589: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7565: 7561: 7553: 7538: 7530: 7526: 7518: 7514: 7506: 7502: 7491: 7490: 7486: 7478: 7474: 7466: 7462: 7454: 7450: 7442: 7438: 7430: 7426: 7418: 7409: 7399: 7397: 7389: 7388: 7384: 7376: 7372: 7364: 7360: 7352: 7331: 7323: 7314: 7306: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7282: 7275: 7267: 7260: 7252: 7248: 7240: 7233: 7225: 7221: 7211: 7209: 7205: 7199: 7198: 7194: 7186: 7182: 7174: 7170: 7162: 7158: 7150: 7146: 7138: 7127: 7119: 7115: 7107: 7103: 7095: 7091: 7083: 7079: 7071: 7067: 7059: 7055: 7047: 7043: 7035: 7028: 7020: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6954: 6946: 6939: 6931: 6927: 6919: 6915: 6907: 6903: 6895: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6871: 6867: 6859: 6855: 6847: 6843: 6835: 6831: 6823: 6816: 6808: 6795: 6787: 6783: 6775: 6771: 6763: 6754: 6741: 6739: 6735: 6727: 6716: 6708: 6701: 6686: 6682: 6675: 6659: 6655: 6647: 6643: 6635: 6631: 6625:Al-Harithy 1996 6623: 6612: 6604: 6600: 6593: 6577: 6573: 6565: 6561: 6553: 6549: 6541: 6537: 6529: 6525: 6517: 6513: 6505: 6501: 6493: 6489: 6481: 6477: 6469: 6465: 6457: 6448: 6440: 6436: 6428: 6424: 6416: 6401: 6394: 6378: 6374: 6367: 6353: 6349: 6342: 6326: 6322: 6315: 6299: 6295: 6279: 6263: 6259: 6242: 6241: 6237: 6229: 6225: 6217: 6213: 6205: 6201: 6193: 6186: 6178: 6169: 6161: 6157: 6149: 6145: 6137: 6133: 6125: 6121: 6113: 6109: 6101: 6097: 6089: 6085: 6077: 6070: 6062: 6058: 6050: 6046: 6038: 6031: 6023: 6019: 6011: 6004: 5980: 5974: 5970: 5962: 5955: 5947: 5943: 5935: 5931: 5923: 5919: 5911: 5907: 5899: 5895: 5887: 5883: 5875: 5864: 5840: 5834: 5830: 5822: 5818: 5810: 5803: 5795: 5788: 5780: 5773: 5765: 5761: 5753: 5749: 5741: 5737: 5729: 5725: 5717: 5710: 5702: 5698: 5690: 5683: 5675: 5671: 5663: 5659: 5651: 5644: 5636: 5632: 5624: 5620: 5612: 5608: 5600: 5596: 5588: 5584: 5576: 5572: 5564: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5535: 5531: 5523: 5519: 5512:Aga Khan Museum 5506: 5505: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5481: 5477: 5469: 5462: 5454: 5450: 5442: 5438: 5430: 5423: 5415: 5411: 5403: 5399: 5391: 5380: 5373: 5359: 5355: 5350: 5346: 5339: 5325: 5321: 5311: 5309: 5299: 5298: 5294: 5287: 5273: 5269: 5234: 5230: 5225:. Harrassowitz. 5215: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5191: 5187: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5166: 5139: 5134: 5128: 5126:List of sultans 5073:Ibn Taghribirdi 5064: 4950: 4944: 4828: 4822: 4817: 4730: 4699: 4689: 4647:Gradually, the 4620:(endowment) or 4478: 4362: 4317: 4314: 4311: 4308: 4253:(chamberlain), 4231:Nihāyat al-su’l 4164: 4158: 4150:Ibn Taghribirdi 4138:Abbasid dynasty 4118: 4004:oath of loyalty 3957: 3956: 3955: 3954: 3928: 3927: 3926: 3918: 3917: 3906: 3889: 3795: 3781:Maronite Church 3729:Coptic calendar 3713: 3533: 3528: 3485: 3480: 3412: 3402: 3392: 3316: 3310: 3266:Twelver Shi'ism 3203:Qansuh al-Ghuri 3183:Qansuh al-Ghuri 3175: 3156: 3028: 3022: 2940: 2838: 2826: 2808: 2807: 2806: 2805: 2804: 2798: 2790: 2789: 2778: 2767: 2747:Ottoman dynasty 2646: 2640: 2638:Reign of Barquq 2623: 2617: 2512:al-Ashraf Kujuk 2492: 2481: 2474: 2434: 2384: 2291:Ibrahimi Mosque 2231: 2225: 2216:al-Sa'id Baraka 2211:further south. 2146:Nihāyat al-suʾl 2092:Knights Templar 2020: 2014: 2009: 2003: 1955:Nihāyat al-su’l 1935:al-Mughith Umar 1900:atabeg al-askar 1895: 1894: 1893: 1887:Delhi Sultanate 1878: 1873: 1867: 1866: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1848: 1846: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1768: 1766: 1764: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1635: 1608:atabeg al-askar 1589:al-Mughith Umar 1541:atabeg al-askar 1532:Seventh Crusade 1520: 1514: 1509: 1464: 1415: 1365: 1355: 1350: 1344: 1317:Dawlat al-Atrak 1308: 1294:One such emir, 1265:Crusader states 1257: 1246: 1220: 1186:Ayyubid dynasty 1123: 1087: 1085: 1080: 1079: 1033: 1023: 1022: 976: 965: 964: 945:Ayyubid dynasty 935:Fatimid dynasty 915:Tulunid dynasty 905:Abbasid dynasty 878: 868: 867: 821: 813: 812: 726: 716: 715: 699: 677: 670: 644: 619: 605: 591: 577: 563: 549: 542:Ayyubid dynasty 535: 521: 491:22 January 1517 488: 475: 453: 421: 409: 397: 384: 353: 341: 329: 316: 267: 222: 167: 147: 140: 132:Attributed arms 130: 124: 120: 108: 107: 100: 83: 75: 68: 60: 59: 57: 52:Dawlat al-Atrāk 49: 42: 34: 33: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13057: 13047: 13046: 13044:Former empires 13041: 13036: 13031: 13026: 13021: 13016: 13011: 13006: 13001: 12996: 12991: 12986: 12981: 12976: 12971: 12954: 12953: 12951: 12950: 12940: 12930: 12920: 12909: 12906: 12905: 12902: 12901: 12898: 12897: 12895: 12894: 12889: 12884: 12879: 12874: 12869: 12864: 12863: 12862: 12857: 12852: 12847: 12837: 12832: 12831: 12830: 12825: 12823:Football clubs 12815: 12814: 12813: 12808: 12798: 12793: 12792: 12791: 12786: 12776: 12771: 12766: 12761: 12756: 12751: 12746: 12740: 12738: 12732: 12731: 12729: 12728: 12723: 12718: 12713: 12708: 12703: 12702: 12701: 12696: 12695: 12694: 12684: 12683: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12662: 12657: 12652: 12647: 12646: 12645: 12640: 12630: 12625: 12615: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12599: 12598: 12593: 12588: 12578: 12573: 12572: 12571: 12566: 12556: 12551: 12550: 12549: 12544: 12534: 12533: 12532: 12522: 12521: 12520: 12510: 12509: 12508: 12503: 12498: 12493: 12488: 12478: 12473: 12468: 12467: 12466: 12461: 12456: 12446: 12441: 12436: 12431: 12426: 12421: 12419:Animal welfare 12416: 12410: 12408: 12400: 12399: 12387: 12386: 12383: 12382: 12380: 12379: 12378: 12377: 12367: 12366: 12365: 12360: 12355: 12345: 12344: 12343: 12333: 12332: 12331: 12321: 12316: 12311: 12310: 12309: 12302:Power stations 12299: 12294: 12293: 12292: 12282: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12262: 12257: 12252: 12250:Egyptian pound 12247: 12242: 12237: 12232: 12231: 12230: 12220: 12214: 12211: 12210: 12198: 12197: 12194: 12193: 12191: 12190: 12185: 12184: 12183: 12173: 12168: 12163: 12162: 12161: 12154:Prime Minister 12151: 12150: 12149: 12139: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12119: 12118: 12117: 12107: 12102: 12097: 12092: 12087: 12086: 12085: 12075: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12049: 12048: 12037: 12034: 12033: 12021: 12020: 12017: 12016: 12014: 12013: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11987: 11986: 11976: 11971: 11966: 11961: 11959:Northern coast 11956: 11951: 11950: 11949: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11899: 11894: 11889: 11884: 11878: 11875: 11874: 11862: 11861: 11858: 11857: 11854: 11853: 11851: 11846: 11841: 11836: 11834: 11830: 11829: 11827: 11826: 11821: 11816: 11811: 11806: 11801: 11800: 11799: 11794: 11789: 11779: 11774: 11769: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11749: 11744: 11738: 11736: 11732: 11731: 11729: 11728: 11727: 11726: 11725: 11724: 11719: 11709: 11704: 11703: 11702: 11697: 11692: 11690:Yom Kippur War 11682: 11681: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11645: 11644: 11643: 11642: 11641: 11631: 11626: 11621: 11620: 11619: 11609: 11608: 11607: 11592: 11591: 11590: 11589: 11588: 11583: 11573: 11568: 11558: 11557: 11556: 11546: 11545: 11544: 11543: 11542: 11532: 11527: 11526: 11525: 11515: 11510: 11505: 11500: 11495: 11485: 11480: 11479: 11478: 11473: 11468: 11458: 11457: 11456: 11451: 11441: 11440: 11439: 11434: 11424: 11423: 11422: 11412: 11406: 11404: 11394: 11393: 11381: 11380: 11372: 11371: 11364: 11357: 11349: 11343: 11342: 11336: 11321: 11301:Krämer, Gudrun 11288: 11285: 11284: 11283: 11273: 11266: 11260: 11253: 11243: 11236: 11230: 11217: 11214: 11213: 11212: 11185: 11172: 11166: 11149: 11143: 11130: 11124: 11111: 11105: 11088: 11082: 11065: 11059: 11044: 11038: 11023: 11017: 11000: 10994: 10981: 10975: 10962: 10944:(2): 144–166. 10930: 10924: 10909: 10903: 10888: 10882: 10861: 10855: 10840: 10829: 10823: 10808: 10802: 10789: 10783: 10766: 10760: 10747: 10741: 10726: 10720: 10705: 10699: 10686: 10680: 10665: 10659: 10644: 10638: 10626:"A Mamluk Axe" 10621: 10615: 10600: 10594: 10579: 10573: 10558: 10552: 10537: 10531: 10516: 10507: 10496: 10490: 10475: 10469: 10454: 10448: 10433: 10427: 10406: 10400: 10385: 10379: 10356:van Donzel, E. 10343: 10337: 10319: 10313: 10296: 10290: 10275: 10269: 10256: 10250: 10235: 10229: 10216: 10210: 10195: 10189: 10174: 10168: 10155: 10149: 10132: 10119: 10113: 10097: 10091: 10076: 10070: 10053: 10047: 10032: 10026: 10011: 10005: 9992: 9986: 9971: 9965: 9950: 9944: 9929: 9923: 9905: 9899: 9884: 9878: 9863: 9857: 9840: 9834: 9819: 9813: 9798: 9770:(1): 149–159. 9755: 9749: 9736: 9727: 9688:Kramers, J. H. 9684:Gibb, H. A. R. 9672: 9666: 9649: 9643: 9628: 9622: 9603: 9600: 9598: 9597: 9585: 9573: 9571:, p. 178. 9556: 9554:, p. 213. 9533: 9514: 9512:, p. 217. 9502: 9500:, p. 309. 9490: 9478: 9459: 9434: 9422: 9410: 9398: 9386: 9374: 9362: 9350: 9338: 9326: 9314: 9302: 9290: 9275: 9263: 9248: 9246:, p. 107. 9236: 9234:, p. 109. 9224: 9212: 9195: 9178: 9159: 9157:, p. 163. 9147: 9135: 9123: 9121:, p. 244. 9111: 9096: 9084: 9072: 9060: 9048: 9033: 9005: 9003:, p. 261. 9001:Northrup 1998b 8993: 8989:Northrup 1998b 8981: 8979:, p. 277. 8977:Northrup 1998b 8969: 8967:, p. 270. 8965:Northrup 1998b 8957: 8948: 8936: 8934:, p. 477. 8924: 8922:, p. 476. 8912: 8910:, p. 171. 8897: 8893:Elbendary 2015 8878: 8866: 8862:Elbendary 2015 8854: 8852:, p. 475. 8839: 8835:Elbendary 2015 8827: 8815: 8800: 8798:, p. 254. 8796:Northrup 1998b 8783: 8765: 8763:, p. 158. 8753: 8738: 8726: 8714: 8699: 8687: 8675: 8660: 8648: 8631: 8629:, p. 243. 8619: 8604: 8592: 8580: 8565: 8563:, p. 248. 8546: 8544:, p. 468. 8534: 8532:, p. 240. 8519: 8517:, p. 239. 8502: 8500:, p. 238. 8490: 8478: 8476:, p. 113. 8466: 8464:, p. 237. 8451: 8436: 8424: 8412: 8410:, p. 182. 8400: 8388: 8376: 8374:, p. 175. 8364: 8362:, p. 173. 8352: 8340: 8328: 8316: 8314:, p. 120. 8299: 8273: 8261: 8242: 8233:, p. 115. 8223: 8221:, p. 109. 8208: 8196: 8177: 8158: 8156:, p. 267. 8154:Northrup 1998b 8143: 8141:, p. 268. 8139:Northrup 1998b 8131: 8129:, p. 269. 8127:Northrup 1998b 8116: 8112:Northrup 1998b 8104: 8100:Northrup 1998b 8092: 8080: 8078:, p. 394. 8068: 8056: 8041: 8024: 8012: 7997: 7988:, p. 114. 7975: 7963: 7961:, p. 114. 7959:Rodenbeck 1999 7951: 7939: 7937:, p. 113. 7935:Rodenbeck 1999 7927: 7925:, p. 410. 7912: 7910:, p. 325. 7895: 7893:, p. 263. 7883: 7881:, p. 258. 7871: 7869:, p. 256. 7856: 7854:, p. 254. 7844: 7842:, p. 253. 7832: 7830:, p. 251. 7820: 7808: 7796: 7784: 7770: 7750: 7729: 7712: 7683: 7679:Streusand 2018 7671: 7669:, p. 239. 7659: 7647: 7645:, p. 415. 7635: 7623: 7608: 7583: 7571: 7559: 7536: 7524: 7512: 7500: 7484: 7472: 7470:, p. 138. 7460: 7448: 7436: 7424: 7407: 7382: 7380:, p. 218. 7370: 7368:, p. 217. 7358: 7329: 7312: 7300: 7288: 7273: 7258: 7246: 7244:, p. 289. 7231: 7219: 7192: 7180: 7168: 7156: 7154:, p. 209. 7144: 7125: 7113: 7101: 7089: 7077: 7065: 7053: 7041: 7026: 7024:, p. 294. 7003: 6991: 6989:, p. 195. 6979: 6967: 6965:, p. 293. 6952: 6937: 6925: 6923:, p. 314. 6913: 6911:, p. 290. 6901: 6899:, p. 300. 6889: 6887:, p. 225. 6877: 6875:, p. 147. 6865: 6863:, p. 194. 6853: 6841: 6829: 6827:, p. 291. 6814: 6812:, p. 128. 6793: 6781: 6769: 6767:, p. 127. 6752: 6733: 6731:, p. 288. 6729:Northrup 1998b 6714: 6699: 6680: 6673: 6653: 6651:, p. 637. 6641: 6629: 6610: 6608:, p. 119. 6598: 6591: 6571: 6559: 6547: 6535: 6523: 6511: 6499: 6487: 6475: 6463: 6446: 6434: 6422: 6420:, p. 253. 6418:Northrup 1998b 6399: 6392: 6372: 6365: 6347: 6340: 6320: 6313: 6293: 6277: 6257: 6235: 6223: 6211: 6209:, p. 114. 6199: 6184: 6182:, p. 252. 6180:Northrup 1998b 6167: 6155: 6153:, p. 139. 6143: 6139:Northrup 1998a 6131: 6127:Northrup 1998a 6119: 6115:Northrup 1998a 6107: 6095: 6091:Northrup 1998a 6083: 6081:, p. 108. 6068: 6066:, p. 107. 6056: 6054:, p. 254. 6044: 6029: 6017: 6002: 5968: 5966:, p. 106. 5953: 5941: 5929: 5917: 5905: 5901:Northrup 1998a 5893: 5881: 5862: 5828: 5816: 5801: 5797:Northrup 1998a 5786: 5771: 5759: 5755:Northrup 1998a 5747: 5743:Northrup 1998a 5735: 5723: 5719:Northrup 1998a 5708: 5696: 5681: 5669: 5657: 5653:Northrup 1998a 5642: 5630: 5618: 5606: 5594: 5590:Joinville 1807 5582: 5570: 5553: 5541: 5529: 5517: 5499: 5487: 5485:, p. 944. 5475: 5460: 5448: 5444:Rodenbeck 1999 5436: 5434:, p. 250. 5432:Northrup 1998b 5421: 5409: 5397: 5378: 5371: 5353: 5344: 5337: 5319: 5292: 5285: 5267: 5228: 5209: 5197: 5185: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5138: 5135: 5130:Main article: 5127: 5124: 5063: 5060: 4946:Main article: 4943: 4940: 4866:Venetian glass 4826:Mamluk carpets 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4801:diwan al-khass 4784:Southeast Asia 4729: 4726: 4688: 4685: 4632:organized the 4477: 4469: 4361: 4358: 4335:ustadar saghir 4280:ru'us al-nawab 4176:British Museum 4160:Main article: 4157: 4154: 4117: 4114: 3930: 3929: 3920: 3919: 3911: 3910: 3909: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3888: 3885: 3803:Arabian horses 3794: 3791: 3777:Greek Orthodox 3712: 3709: 3603:s, namely the 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3497:Kipchak Turkic 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3400:Ottoman Empire 3391: 3388: 3309: 3306: 3258:Safavid Empire 3209:was appointed 3181:Mamluk Sultan 3174: 3171: 3034:Mamluk Sultan 3021: 3018: 2939: 2936: 2932:central Africa 2837: 2834: 2812:an-Nasir Faraj 2799: 2792: 2791: 2786:al-Nasir Faraj 2779: 2772: 2771: 2770: 2769: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2664:al-Salih Hajji 2642:Main article: 2639: 2636: 2619:Main article: 2616: 2613: 2560:al-Salih Salih 2552:Bubonic Plague 2544:time of plague 2516:al-Nasir Ahmad 2478:al-Nasir Hasan 2473: 2470: 2383: 2380: 2287:al-Aqsa Mosque 2263:battle of Homs 2224: 2221: 2123:Jabal Ansariya 2088:captured Safed 2016:Main article: 2013: 2010: 2005:Main article: 2002: 1999: 1967:sacked Baghdad 1869: 1868: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1617:al-Ashraf Musa 1597:Shajar al-Durr 1585:an-Nasir Yusuf 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1447:as-Salih Ayyub 1354: 1351: 1346:Main article: 1343: 1340: 1323:Dawlat al-Turk 1307: 1304: 1217:as-Salih Ayyub 1194:Ottoman Empire 1139:سلطنة المماليك 1125: 1124: 1122: 1121: 1114: 1107: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1034: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1019: 1018: 1015: 1009: 1008: 1005: 999: 998: 995: 989: 988: 985: 977: 971: 970: 967: 966: 961: 960: 957: 955:Mamluk dynasty 951: 950: 947: 941: 940: 937: 931: 930: 927: 921: 920: 917: 911: 910: 907: 901: 900: 897: 891: 890: 887: 879: 876:Medieval Egypt 874: 873: 870: 869: 864: 863: 860: 858:Sasanian Egypt 854: 853: 850: 844: 843: 840: 834: 833: 830: 828:Argead dynasty 822: 819: 818: 815: 814: 809: 808: 805: 799: 798: 795: 789: 788: 785: 779: 778: 775: 769: 768: 765: 763:Middle Kingdom 759: 758: 755: 749: 748: 745: 739: 738: 735: 727: 722: 721: 718: 717: 712: 711: 708: 700: 695: 694: 691: 690: 682: 681: 672: 671: 664: 657: 656: 653: 652: 649: 648: 641: 639:Ottoman Empire 632: 629: 628: 623: 615: 614: 609: 601: 600: 595: 587: 586: 581: 573: 572: 567: 559: 558: 553: 545: 544: 539: 531: 530: 525: 513: 512: 507: 497: 496: 493: 492: 489: 483: 480: 479: 476: 468:al-Salih Hajji 461: 458: 457: 454: 448: 445: 444: 441: 440: 437: 433: 432: 429: 428: 422: 419: 416: 415: 410: 407: 404: 403: 398: 395: 392: 391: 388:Shajar al-Durr 385: 382: 379: 378: 375: 374: 371: 365: 364: 361: 360: 354: 351: 348: 347: 342: 339: 336: 335: 330: 327: 324: 323: 317: 314: 311: 310: 307: 306: 303: 297: 296: 285: 281: 280: 275: 269: 268: 266: 265: 259: 253: 247: 241: 230: 228: 224: 223: 221: 220: 215: 210: 208:Mamluk-Kipchak 205: 199: 197: 193: 192: 187: 183: 182: 173: 169: 168: 162: 154: 153: 141: 126: 125: 109: 101: 94: 93: 90: 89: 85: 84: 31: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13056: 13045: 13042: 13040: 13037: 13035: 13032: 13030: 13027: 13025: 13022: 13020: 13017: 13015: 13012: 13010: 13007: 13005: 13002: 13000: 12997: 12995: 12992: 12990: 12987: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12970: 12967: 12966: 12964: 12949: 12941: 12939: 12931: 12929: 12925: 12921: 12919: 12911: 12910: 12907: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12873: 12870: 12868: 12865: 12861: 12858: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12846: 12843: 12842: 12841: 12838: 12836: 12833: 12829: 12826: 12824: 12821: 12820: 12819: 12816: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12803: 12802: 12799: 12797: 12794: 12790: 12787: 12785: 12782: 12781: 12780: 12777: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12760: 12757: 12755: 12752: 12750: 12749:Art (ancient) 12747: 12745: 12742: 12741: 12739: 12737: 12733: 12727: 12724: 12722: 12719: 12717: 12714: 12712: 12709: 12707: 12704: 12700: 12697: 12693: 12690: 12689: 12688: 12685: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12667: 12666: 12663: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12651: 12648: 12644: 12641: 12639: 12636: 12635: 12634: 12631: 12629: 12628:Blasphemy law 12626: 12624: 12621: 12620: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12597: 12596:Sign Language 12594: 12592: 12591:Saʽidi Arabic 12589: 12587: 12584: 12583: 12582: 12579: 12577: 12574: 12570: 12567: 12565: 12562: 12561: 12560: 12557: 12555: 12552: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12540: 12539: 12538: 12535: 12531: 12528: 12527: 12526: 12523: 12519: 12516: 12515: 12514: 12511: 12507: 12504: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12483: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12451: 12450: 12447: 12445: 12442: 12440: 12437: 12435: 12432: 12430: 12427: 12425: 12422: 12420: 12417: 12415: 12412: 12411: 12409: 12405: 12401: 12397: 12392: 12388: 12376: 12373: 12372: 12371: 12368: 12364: 12361: 12359: 12356: 12354: 12351: 12350: 12349: 12346: 12342: 12339: 12338: 12337: 12334: 12330: 12327: 12326: 12325: 12322: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12308: 12305: 12304: 12303: 12300: 12298: 12295: 12291: 12288: 12287: 12286: 12283: 12281: 12278: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12243: 12241: 12238: 12236: 12233: 12229: 12228:National Bank 12226: 12225: 12224: 12221: 12219: 12216: 12215: 12212: 12208: 12203: 12199: 12189: 12186: 12182: 12179: 12178: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12169: 12167: 12164: 12160: 12157: 12156: 12155: 12152: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12120: 12116: 12113: 12112: 12111: 12108: 12106: 12103: 12101: 12098: 12096: 12093: 12091: 12088: 12084: 12081: 12080: 12079: 12076: 12074: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12047: 12044: 12043: 12042: 12039: 12038: 12035: 12031: 12026: 12022: 12012: 12009: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11985: 11982: 11981: 11980: 11977: 11975: 11972: 11970: 11967: 11965: 11962: 11960: 11957: 11955: 11952: 11948: 11945: 11944: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11879: 11876: 11872: 11867: 11863: 11850: 11847: 11845: 11842: 11840: 11837: 11835: 11831: 11825: 11822: 11820: 11817: 11815: 11812: 11810: 11807: 11805: 11802: 11798: 11795: 11793: 11790: 11788: 11785: 11784: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11773: 11770: 11768: 11765: 11763: 11760: 11758: 11755: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11743: 11740: 11739: 11737: 11733: 11723: 11720: 11718: 11715: 11714: 11713: 11710: 11708: 11705: 11701: 11698: 11696: 11693: 11691: 11688: 11687: 11686: 11683: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11655: 11654: 11651: 11650: 11649: 11646: 11640: 11637: 11636: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11618: 11615: 11614: 11613: 11610: 11606: 11603: 11602: 11601: 11598: 11597: 11596: 11593: 11587: 11584: 11582: 11579: 11578: 11577: 11574: 11572: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11563: 11562: 11559: 11555: 11554:Ottoman Egypt 11552: 11551: 11550: 11547: 11541: 11538: 11537: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11524: 11521: 11520: 11519: 11516: 11514: 11511: 11509: 11506: 11504: 11501: 11499: 11496: 11494: 11491: 11490: 11489: 11486: 11484: 11481: 11477: 11474: 11472: 11469: 11467: 11464: 11463: 11462: 11459: 11455: 11452: 11450: 11447: 11446: 11445: 11442: 11438: 11435: 11433: 11430: 11429: 11428: 11425: 11421: 11418: 11417: 11416: 11413: 11411: 11408: 11407: 11405: 11403: 11399: 11395: 11391: 11386: 11382: 11377: 11370: 11365: 11363: 11358: 11356: 11351: 11350: 11347: 11339: 11333: 11329: 11328: 11322: 11318: 11314: 11310: 11306: 11302: 11297: 11291: 11290: 11281: 11277: 11274: 11271: 11267: 11264: 11261: 11259:, Paris 1895. 11258: 11254: 11252: 11248: 11244: 11241: 11237: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11228: 11223: 11220: 11219: 11208: 11203: 11199: 11195: 11191: 11186: 11182: 11178: 11173: 11169: 11163: 11159: 11155: 11150: 11146: 11140: 11136: 11131: 11127: 11121: 11117: 11112: 11108: 11102: 11097: 11096: 11089: 11085: 11079: 11075: 11071: 11066: 11062: 11056: 11053:. Routledge. 11052: 11051: 11045: 11041: 11035: 11031: 11030: 11024: 11020: 11014: 11010: 11006: 11001: 10997: 10991: 10987: 10982: 10978: 10972: 10968: 10963: 10959: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10943: 10939: 10935: 10934:Salibi, Kamal 10931: 10927: 10925:0-679-44651-6 10921: 10917: 10916: 10910: 10906: 10900: 10896: 10895: 10889: 10885: 10879: 10875: 10871: 10867: 10862: 10858: 10852: 10848: 10847: 10841: 10837: 10836: 10830: 10826: 10820: 10816: 10815: 10809: 10805: 10799: 10795: 10790: 10786: 10780: 10776: 10772: 10767: 10763: 10757: 10753: 10748: 10744: 10738: 10734: 10733: 10727: 10723: 10717: 10713: 10712: 10706: 10702: 10696: 10692: 10687: 10683: 10677: 10673: 10672: 10666: 10662: 10656: 10652: 10651: 10645: 10641: 10635: 10631: 10627: 10622: 10618: 10612: 10608: 10607: 10601: 10597: 10591: 10587: 10586: 10580: 10576: 10570: 10567:. Routledge. 10566: 10565: 10559: 10555: 10549: 10545: 10544: 10538: 10534: 10528: 10524: 10523: 10517: 10514:. Gyan Books. 10513: 10508: 10504: 10503: 10502:The Arab Book 10497: 10493: 10487: 10483: 10482: 10476: 10472: 10466: 10462: 10461: 10455: 10451: 10449:0-8093-1286-7 10445: 10441: 10440: 10434: 10430: 10424: 10421:. Routledge. 10420: 10416: 10415:Hawting, G.R. 10412: 10407: 10403: 10397: 10393: 10392: 10386: 10382: 10376: 10372: 10368: 10366: 10361: 10357: 10353: 10349: 10344: 10340: 10334: 10330: 10329: 10324: 10320: 10316: 10310: 10306: 10302: 10297: 10293: 10287: 10283: 10282: 10276: 10272: 10266: 10262: 10257: 10253: 10247: 10243: 10242: 10236: 10232: 10226: 10222: 10217: 10213: 10211:90-04-10633-2 10207: 10203: 10202: 10196: 10192: 10186: 10182: 10181: 10175: 10171: 10165: 10161: 10156: 10152: 10146: 10142: 10138: 10133: 10128: 10127: 10120: 10116: 10110: 10106: 10102: 10098: 10094: 10088: 10084: 10083: 10077: 10073: 10067: 10064:. Routledge. 10063: 10059: 10054: 10050: 10044: 10040: 10039: 10033: 10029: 10023: 10019: 10018: 10012: 10008: 10002: 9998: 9993: 9989: 9983: 9979: 9978: 9972: 9968: 9962: 9958: 9957: 9951: 9947: 9941: 9937: 9936: 9930: 9926: 9920: 9916: 9915: 9910: 9906: 9902: 9896: 9892: 9891: 9885: 9881: 9875: 9871: 9870: 9864: 9860: 9854: 9850: 9846: 9841: 9837: 9831: 9827: 9826: 9820: 9816: 9810: 9806: 9805: 9799: 9795: 9791: 9787: 9783: 9778: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9756: 9752: 9746: 9742: 9737: 9733: 9728: 9724: 9720: 9716: 9712: 9710: 9705: 9701: 9697: 9693: 9689: 9685: 9681: 9680:"Al-Baḥriyya" 9677: 9676:Ayalon, David 9673: 9669: 9663: 9659: 9655: 9650: 9646: 9640: 9636: 9635: 9629: 9625: 9619: 9615: 9611: 9606: 9605: 9594: 9589: 9583:, p. 13. 9582: 9577: 9570: 9565: 9563: 9561: 9553: 9548: 9546: 9544: 9542: 9540: 9538: 9531:, p. 94. 9530: 9525: 9523: 9521: 9519: 9511: 9506: 9499: 9494: 9488:, p. 76. 9487: 9482: 9476:, p. 97. 9475: 9474:Hathaway 2012 9470: 9468: 9466: 9464: 9448: 9447:Rawi Magazine 9444: 9438: 9431: 9426: 9419: 9414: 9408:, p. 17. 9407: 9406:Williams 2018 9402: 9396:, p. 34. 9395: 9394:Williams 2018 9390: 9383: 9378: 9372:, p. 79. 9371: 9366: 9360:, p. 31. 9359: 9358:Williams 2018 9354: 9347: 9342: 9335: 9334:Williams 2018 9330: 9324:, p. 30. 9323: 9322:Williams 2018 9318: 9311: 9306: 9299: 9294: 9288:, p. 70. 9287: 9282: 9280: 9272: 9271:Williams 2018 9267: 9260: 9255: 9253: 9245: 9240: 9233: 9228: 9221: 9216: 9210:, p. 99. 9209: 9204: 9202: 9200: 9193:, p. 97. 9192: 9187: 9185: 9183: 9174: 9170: 9163: 9156: 9151: 9144: 9139: 9132: 9127: 9120: 9115: 9109:, p. 24. 9108: 9103: 9101: 9094:, p. 33. 9093: 9088: 9082:, p. 32. 9081: 9076: 9070:, p. 40. 9069: 9064: 9058:, p. 39. 9057: 9052: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9034:9781108913805 9030: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9017: 9009: 9002: 8997: 8990: 8985: 8978: 8973: 8966: 8961: 8952: 8946:, p. 23. 8945: 8940: 8933: 8928: 8921: 8916: 8909: 8908:Levanoni 1995 8904: 8902: 8894: 8889: 8887: 8885: 8883: 8875: 8870: 8864:, p. 37. 8863: 8858: 8851: 8846: 8844: 8836: 8831: 8825:, p. 43. 8824: 8819: 8813:, p. 42. 8812: 8807: 8805: 8797: 8792: 8790: 8788: 8779: 8775: 8769: 8762: 8757: 8751:, p. 93. 8750: 8745: 8743: 8735: 8734:Levanoni 1995 8730: 8724:, p. 10. 8723: 8722:Levanoni 1995 8718: 8711: 8710:Levanoni 1995 8706: 8704: 8697:, p. 11. 8696: 8695:Levanoni 1995 8691: 8684: 8683:Levanoni 1995 8679: 8672: 8671:Levanoni 1995 8667: 8665: 8658:, p. 20. 8657: 8652: 8645: 8640: 8638: 8636: 8628: 8623: 8616: 8611: 8609: 8601: 8600:Levanoni 1995 8596: 8590:, p. 31. 8589: 8584: 8578:, p. 14. 8577: 8576:Levanoni 1995 8572: 8570: 8562: 8557: 8555: 8553: 8551: 8543: 8538: 8531: 8526: 8524: 8516: 8511: 8509: 8507: 8499: 8494: 8488:, p. 26. 8487: 8482: 8475: 8470: 8463: 8458: 8456: 8449:, p. 14. 8448: 8443: 8441: 8433: 8432:Levanoni 1995 8428: 8421: 8420:Levanoni 1995 8416: 8409: 8408:Levanoni 1995 8404: 8397: 8396:Levanoni 1995 8392: 8385: 8384:Levanoni 1995 8380: 8373: 8372:Levanoni 1995 8368: 8361: 8360:Levanoni 1995 8356: 8350:, p. 13. 8349: 8344: 8338:, p. 12. 8337: 8332: 8326:, p. 11. 8325: 8320: 8313: 8308: 8306: 8304: 8295: 8290:, p. 16. 8289: 8284: 8282: 8280: 8278: 8271:, p. 10. 8270: 8265: 8257: 8251: 8246: 8238: 8232: 8227: 8220: 8215: 8213: 8205: 8200: 8192: 8186: 8181: 8173: 8168:, p. 14. 8167: 8162: 8155: 8150: 8148: 8140: 8135: 8128: 8123: 8121: 8113: 8108: 8101: 8096: 8089: 8084: 8077: 8072: 8065: 8060: 8054:, p. 60. 8053: 8048: 8046: 8039:, p. 21. 8038: 8033: 8031: 8029: 8022:, p. 70. 8021: 8016: 8010:, p. 96. 8009: 8004: 8002: 7993: 7987: 7982: 7980: 7972: 7967: 7960: 7955: 7948: 7947:Hathaway 2019 7943: 7936: 7931: 7924: 7919: 7917: 7909: 7904: 7902: 7900: 7892: 7887: 7880: 7875: 7868: 7863: 7861: 7853: 7848: 7841: 7836: 7829: 7824: 7817: 7816:Grainger 2016 7812: 7806:, p. 82. 7805: 7804:Brummett 1994 7800: 7794:, p. 85. 7793: 7792:McCarthy 2014 7788: 7773: 7767: 7764:. McFarland. 7763: 7762: 7754: 7748:, p. 52. 7747: 7742: 7740: 7738: 7736: 7734: 7726: 7721: 7719: 7717: 7708: 7702: 7694: 7687: 7680: 7675: 7668: 7663: 7656: 7651: 7644: 7639: 7632: 7631:Brummett 1994 7627: 7621:, p. 50. 7620: 7615: 7613: 7597: 7593: 7587: 7580: 7575: 7568: 7563: 7557:, p. 49. 7556: 7551: 7549: 7547: 7545: 7543: 7541: 7533: 7528: 7521: 7516: 7510:, p. 47. 7509: 7504: 7496: 7495: 7488: 7481: 7476: 7469: 7464: 7457: 7452: 7445: 7440: 7434:, p. 42. 7433: 7428: 7421: 7416: 7414: 7412: 7396: 7392: 7386: 7379: 7374: 7367: 7362: 7356:, p. 45. 7355: 7350: 7348: 7346: 7344: 7342: 7340: 7338: 7336: 7334: 7326: 7321: 7319: 7317: 7310:, p. 93. 7309: 7304: 7297: 7292: 7286:, p. 46. 7285: 7280: 7278: 7270: 7265: 7263: 7256:, p. 44. 7255: 7250: 7243: 7242:Williams 2018 7238: 7236: 7228: 7223: 7204: 7203: 7196: 7190:, p. 43. 7189: 7184: 7177: 7172: 7165: 7160: 7153: 7148: 7142:, p. 41. 7141: 7136: 7134: 7132: 7130: 7122: 7117: 7111:, p. 40. 7110: 7105: 7098: 7093: 7086: 7081: 7075:, p. 38. 7074: 7069: 7062: 7057: 7050: 7045: 7038: 7033: 7031: 7023: 7018: 7016: 7014: 7012: 7010: 7008: 7001:, p. 39. 7000: 6995: 6988: 6983: 6976: 6975:Williams 2018 6971: 6964: 6959: 6957: 6949: 6944: 6942: 6934: 6929: 6922: 6917: 6910: 6905: 6898: 6893: 6886: 6881: 6874: 6869: 6862: 6857: 6851:, p. 15. 6850: 6849:McGregor 2006 6845: 6838: 6837:Bosworth 1996 6833: 6826: 6821: 6819: 6811: 6806: 6804: 6802: 6800: 6798: 6790: 6785: 6779:, p. 75. 6778: 6773: 6766: 6761: 6759: 6757: 6748: 6744: 6737: 6730: 6725: 6723: 6721: 6719: 6711: 6710:Levanoni 1995 6706: 6704: 6697: 6694: 6690: 6684: 6676: 6670: 6666: 6665: 6657: 6650: 6645: 6639:, p. 68. 6638: 6637:Haarmann 1998 6633: 6627:, p. 70. 6626: 6621: 6619: 6617: 6615: 6607: 6606:Levanoni 1995 6602: 6594: 6588: 6584: 6583: 6575: 6569:, p. 82. 6568: 6563: 6556: 6551: 6544: 6539: 6532: 6527: 6521:, p. 27. 6520: 6515: 6509:, p. 24. 6508: 6503: 6497:, p. 21. 6496: 6491: 6484: 6483:Levanoni 1995 6479: 6472: 6467: 6461:, p. 30. 6460: 6459:Levanoni 1995 6455: 6453: 6451: 6444:, p. 29. 6443: 6442:Levanoni 1995 6438: 6432:, p. 28. 6431: 6430:Levanoni 1995 6426: 6419: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6406: 6404: 6395: 6389: 6385: 6384: 6376: 6368: 6362: 6358: 6351: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6332: 6331:Arab painting 6324: 6316: 6310: 6306: 6305: 6304:Arab painting 6297: 6290: 6287: 6280: 6278:9789004113732 6274: 6270: 6269: 6261: 6254: 6249: 6245: 6239: 6233:, p. 38. 6232: 6227: 6221:, p. 34. 6220: 6215: 6208: 6207:Asbridge 2010 6203: 6197:, p. 32. 6196: 6195:Levanoni 1995 6191: 6189: 6181: 6176: 6174: 6172: 6164: 6159: 6152: 6147: 6140: 6135: 6128: 6123: 6116: 6111: 6104: 6103:Asbridge 2010 6099: 6093:, p. 84. 6092: 6087: 6080: 6079:Asbridge 2010 6075: 6073: 6065: 6064:Asbridge 2010 6060: 6053: 6048: 6041: 6036: 6034: 6027:, p. 52. 6026: 6021: 6014: 6009: 6007: 5998: 5994: 5991:(2): Fig. 6. 5990: 5986: 5979: 5972: 5965: 5964:Asbridge 2010 5960: 5958: 5950: 5949:Asbridge 2010 5945: 5938: 5937:Asbridge 2010 5933: 5927:, p. 98. 5926: 5925:Asbridge 2010 5921: 5915:, p. 97. 5914: 5913:Asbridge 2010 5909: 5903:, p. 73. 5902: 5897: 5891:, p. 95. 5890: 5889:Asbridge 2010 5885: 5878: 5877:Asbridge 2010 5873: 5871: 5869: 5867: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5839: 5832: 5826:, p. 91. 5825: 5820: 5814:, p. 90. 5813: 5808: 5806: 5799:, p. 72. 5798: 5793: 5791: 5784:, p. 89. 5783: 5778: 5776: 5769:, p. 80. 5768: 5767:Clifford 2013 5763: 5757:, p. 71. 5756: 5751: 5744: 5739: 5732: 5731:Clifford 2013 5727: 5721:, p. 70. 5720: 5715: 5713: 5705: 5704:Clifford 2013 5700: 5694:, p. 78. 5693: 5692:Clifford 2013 5688: 5686: 5679:, p. 77. 5678: 5677:Clifford 2013 5673: 5666: 5665:Clifford 2013 5661: 5655:, p. 69. 5654: 5649: 5647: 5639: 5638:Clifford 2013 5634: 5628:, p. 73. 5627: 5626:Clifford 2013 5622: 5616:, p. 72. 5615: 5614:Clifford 2013 5610: 5604:, p. 71. 5603: 5602:Clifford 2013 5598: 5591: 5586: 5580:, p. 70. 5579: 5578:Clifford 2013 5574: 5567: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5551:, p. 69. 5550: 5549:Clifford 2013 5545: 5538: 5537:Clifford 2013 5533: 5526: 5525:Clifford 2013 5521: 5513: 5509: 5503: 5497:, p. 67. 5496: 5495:Clifford 2013 5491: 5484: 5479: 5473:, p. 94. 5472: 5467: 5465: 5458:, p. 65. 5457: 5456:Clifford 2013 5452: 5446:, p. 57. 5445: 5440: 5433: 5428: 5426: 5418: 5413: 5407:, p. 53. 5406: 5401: 5394: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5374: 5368: 5364: 5357: 5348: 5340: 5334: 5330: 5323: 5308: 5307: 5302: 5296: 5288: 5286:9780857715494 5282: 5278: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5248:(1): 97–107. 5247: 5243: 5239: 5232: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5207:, p. 72. 5206: 5201: 5195:, p. 69. 5194: 5189: 5183: 5177: 5173: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5133: 5123: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5107: 5105: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5074: 5070: 5059: 5055: 5050: 5049:caravanserais 5045: 5044: 5037: 5031: 5024: 5022: 5017: 5016: 5009: 5008: 5001: 4997: 4992: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4975: 4970: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4949: 4939: 4936: 4931: 4928: 4927: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4910:(kept at the 4909: 4903: 4901: 4900:Frontispieces 4897: 4892: 4886: 4884: 4878: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4812: 4808: 4802: 4795: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4773: 4769: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4714: 4705: 4693: 4684: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4663: 4657: 4651: 4645: 4642: 4636: 4630: 4624: 4618: 4612: 4611: 4605: 4600: 4593: 4591: 4585: 4578: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4533: 4530:holders (see 4528: 4524: 4520: 4519:Mount Lebanon 4515: 4509: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4484: 4474: 4468: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4419: 4418: 4411: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4357: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4302: 4301:ustadh al-dar 4296: 4290: 4287: 4281: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4257: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4232: 4227: 4223: 4220: 4214: 4207: 4204: 4198: 4192: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4172:Daniel Hopfer 4168: 4163: 4153: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4113: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4099: 4092: 4091: 4083: 4080: 4074: 4067: 4061: 4060:khushdashiyya 4055: 4049: 4048:khushdashiyya 4043: 4042:khushdashiyya 4037: 4036:khushdashiyya 4032: 4026: 4023: 4022:Friday prayer 4018: 4017: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3939: 3934: 3924: 3915: 3901: 3899: 3895: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3854:amir al-ʿarab 3848: 3842: 3837: 3836:Syrian Desert 3832: 3826: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3790: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3769: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3748: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3708: 3706: 3702: 3697: 3696: 3690: 3686: 3681: 3680: 3673: 3672: 3666: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3649: 3643: 3642:qadi al-qudah 3637: 3631: 3625: 3624:qadi al-qudah 3619: 3618:qadi al-qudah 3614: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3566: 3557: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3523: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3505: 3502: 3499:, namely the 3498: 3493: 3490: 3475: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3443: 3433: 3429: 3426: 3425: 3406: 3401: 3397: 3396:Ottoman Egypt 3387: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3354: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3305: 3303: 3299: 3298:Battle of Diu 3295: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3281:Vasco da Gama 3278: 3273: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3246: 3242: 3239: 3233: 3226: 3222: 3220: 3215: 3214: 3208: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3170: 3168: 3167: 3162: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3138: 3135: 3132:In 1489, the 3127: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3112: 3106: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3017: 3015: 3011: 3006: 3003: 2997: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2956:al-Aziz Yusuf 2949: 2944: 2935: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2872: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2846: 2842: 2833: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2813: 2803: 2796: 2787: 2783: 2776: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2695: 2690: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2665: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2650:al-Mansur Ali 2645: 2632: 2631:Catalan Atlas 2627: 2622: 2621:Burji Mamluks 2612: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2553: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2532: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2490: 2479: 2469: 2462: 2458: 2453: 2449: 2447: 2443: 2432: 2427: 2421: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2371:Mahmud Ghazan 2367: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2332: 2331:captured Acre 2328: 2320: 2315: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2220: 2217: 2212: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2153: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2117: 2116:Isma'ili Shia 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2080: 2076: 2073:in 1265, and 2072: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2054: 2049: 2048: 2041: 2033: 2029: 2024: 2019: 2008: 2007:Bahri Mamluks 1998: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1956: 1951: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1927:al-Mansur Ali 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1906: 1901: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1883:Mongol Empire 1872: 1864: 1862: 1853: 1851: 1842: 1831: 1820: 1809: 1798: 1789: 1780: 1771: 1762: 1753: 1744: 1735: 1726: 1715: 1713: 1704: 1695: 1684: 1675: 1662: 1653: 1642: 1633: 1627: 1620: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1519: 1507:Rise to power 1504: 1501: 1495: 1494: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1431:Kipchak Turks 1428: 1424: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1380: 1374: 1370: 1364: 1360: 1349: 1339: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1313: 1312:Bahri Mamluks 1303: 1301: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1255: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1233: 1229: 1218: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1162:Mamluk Empire 1159: 1156: 1151: 1145: 1136: 1132: 1120: 1115: 1113: 1108: 1106: 1101: 1100: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1084: 1083: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1026: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1001: 1000: 996: 994: 991: 990: 986: 984: 983:Ottoman Egypt 981: 980: 974: 969: 968: 958: 956: 953: 952: 948: 946: 943: 942: 938: 936: 933: 932: 928: 926: 923: 922: 918: 916: 913: 912: 908: 906: 903: 902: 898: 896: 893: 892: 888: 886: 883: 882: 877: 872: 871: 861: 859: 856: 855: 851: 849: 846: 845: 841: 839: 836: 835: 831: 829: 826: 825: 817: 816: 806: 804: 801: 800: 796: 794: 791: 790: 786: 784: 781: 780: 776: 774: 771: 770: 766: 764: 761: 760: 756: 754: 751: 750: 746: 744: 741: 740: 736: 734: 731: 730: 725: 724:Ancient Egypt 720: 719: 709: 707: 704: 703: 698: 693: 692: 688: 684: 683: 680: 674: 673: 668: 663: 662: 642: 640: 637: 636: 633: 627: 624: 617: 616: 613: 610: 603: 602: 599: 596: 589: 588: 585: 582: 575: 574: 571: 568: 561: 560: 557: 554: 547: 546: 543: 540: 533: 532: 529: 526: 519: 518: 515: 514: 511: 508: 506: 503: 502: 498: 494: 490: 487: 481: 478:November 1382 477: 473: 469: 465: 459: 455: 452: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 423: 417: 414: 411: 405: 402: 399: 393: 389: 386: 380: 376: 372: 370: 366: 362: 358: 355: 349: 346: 343: 337: 334: 331: 325: 321: 318: 312: 308: 304: 302: 298: 295: 292: 289: 286: 282: 279: 276: 274: 270: 263: 260: 257: 254: 251: 248: 245: 242: 239: 235: 232: 231: 229: 225: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 200: 198: 194: 191: 188: 184: 181: 177: 174: 170: 166: 160: 155: 151: 145: 139: 137: 136:Mamluk Sultan 133: 127: 115: 114: 113:Catalan Atlas 105: 98: 91: 86: 79: 72: 64:دولة الجراكسة 53: 46: 38:دولة الأتراك‎ 29: 26: 22: 12774:Coat of arms 12744:Architecture 12633:Christianity 12613:Prostitution 12559:Human rights 12518:Abaza family 12506:Universities 12471:Demographics 12424:Billionaires 12068:Constitution 12063:Conscription 12046:Governorates 11927:Halfaya Pass 11797:1954–present 11757:Constitution 11712:2010s Crisis 11624:World War II 11586:Urabi revolt 11534: 11503:Islamization 11437:31st Dynasty 11432:27th Dynasty 11326: 11308: 11269: 11256: 11239: 11225: 11197: 11193: 11180: 11176: 11157: 11134: 11115: 11094: 11073: 11049: 11028: 11008: 10985: 10966: 10941: 10937: 10914: 10893: 10873: 10845: 10834: 10813: 10793: 10774: 10751: 10731: 10710: 10690: 10670: 10649: 10629: 10605: 10584: 10563: 10542: 10521: 10511: 10501: 10480: 10459: 10438: 10418: 10390: 10370: 10363: 10327: 10304: 10280: 10260: 10240: 10220: 10200: 10179: 10159: 10140: 10125: 10104: 10081: 10061: 10037: 10016: 9996: 9976: 9955: 9934: 9913: 9889: 9868: 9848: 9824: 9803: 9767: 9763: 9740: 9731: 9714: 9707: 9657: 9633: 9613: 9602:Bibliography 9588: 9576: 9505: 9493: 9481: 9450:. Retrieved 9446: 9437: 9425: 9418:Sanders 2008 9413: 9401: 9389: 9377: 9365: 9353: 9341: 9329: 9317: 9305: 9293: 9266: 9239: 9227: 9215: 9172: 9162: 9150: 9138: 9126: 9114: 9087: 9075: 9063: 9051: 9015: 9008: 8996: 8984: 8972: 8960: 8951: 8939: 8927: 8915: 8869: 8857: 8830: 8818: 8777: 8768: 8756: 8729: 8717: 8712:, p. 9. 8690: 8678: 8673:, p. 8. 8651: 8622: 8595: 8583: 8537: 8493: 8481: 8469: 8427: 8415: 8403: 8391: 8379: 8367: 8355: 8343: 8331: 8319: 8264: 8245: 8226: 8199: 8180: 8161: 8134: 8107: 8095: 8083: 8071: 8059: 8015: 7966: 7954: 7942: 7930: 7886: 7874: 7847: 7835: 7823: 7811: 7799: 7787: 7775:. Retrieved 7760: 7753: 7692: 7686: 7674: 7662: 7650: 7638: 7626: 7599:. Retrieved 7595: 7586: 7574: 7562: 7527: 7515: 7503: 7493: 7487: 7475: 7463: 7451: 7439: 7427: 7398:. Retrieved 7394: 7385: 7373: 7361: 7303: 7291: 7249: 7222: 7210:. 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Retrieved 5304: 5295: 5276: 5270: 5245: 5241: 5231: 5222: 5212: 5205:Fischel 1967 5200: 5188: 5176: 5115:fleur-de-lis 5108: 5100: 5065: 5030:sabil-kuttab 5025: 4993: 4965: 4942:Architecture 4932: 4904: 4887: 4879: 4851: 4843:French Kings 4796: 4776: 4770:, Genoa and 4746: 4740: 4722: 4718: 4708: 4646: 4595: 4580: 4479: 4446: 4412: 4390: 4372: 4368: 4291: 4236: 4230: 4208: 4184:Awlad al-nas 4180: 4142:al-Mustansir 4130:al-Musta'sim 4119: 4090:amir al-hajj 4084: 4027: 4001: 3958: 3936: 3933:frontispiece 3931:Illuminated 3890: 3880: 3860: 3811: 3796: 3770: 3762: 3741:Pact of Umar 3737: 3701:Ibn Taymiyya 3653: 3586: 3578:Shia Muslims 3560: 3519:awlad al-nas 3506: 3494: 3486: 3472:Muhammad Ali 3461: 3442:awlad al-nas 3438: 3418: 3372: 3355: 3332: 3302:Salman Ra'is 3277:Indian Ocean 3274: 3251: 3238:awlad al-nas 3227: 3223: 3200: 3186: 3164: 3150:Ala al-Dawla 3139: 3131: 3107: 3091: 3057: 3039: 3007: 2980: 2953: 2917: 2890: 2873: 2850: 2816: 2809: 2759:Qara Qoyunlu 2740: 2699: 2679:Burji regime 2668: 2647: 2607:perform the 2594: 2573:awlad al-nas 2562:. The emirs 2549: 2475: 2466: 2415: 2395: 2368: 2335: 2324: 2277:such as the 2275: 2252: 2213: 2157: 2149: 2145: 2068: 2053:Golden Horde 2037: 1979: 1960: 1954: 1924: 1909: 1896: 1860: 1849: 1814: 1711: 1660:GOLDEN HORDE 1582: 1562: 1552:)-based son 1521: 1488: 1478: 1435:Central Asia 1405:Ayyubid rule 1366: 1309: 1293: 1214: 1210:Burji period 1202:Bahri period 1161: 1157: 1154: 1130: 1128: 1074:1953–present 973:Early modern 954: 852:30 BC–641 AD 787:1550–1069 BC 777:1650–1550 BC 767:2055–1650 BC 757:2181–2055 BC 747:2686–2181 BC 737:3150–2686 BC 710:6000–3000 BC 510:Succeeded by 509: 504: 474:rule begins 425:Tuman Bay II 383:• 1250 320:Al-Mustansir 315:• 1261 291:stratocratic 256:Christianity 218:Oghuz Turkic 129: 111: 25: 12938:WikiProject 12699:Scientology 12569:LGBT rights 12491:Law schools 12275:Lighthouses 12218:Agriculture 11947:Mount Sinai 11907:Earthquakes 11707:Mubarak era 11678:Six-Day War 11668:Suez Crisis 11663:Land reform 11410:Prehistoric 11280:Gaston Wiet 11222:Abu al-Fida 10360:Pellat, Ch. 9704:Pellat, Ch. 9696:Schacht, J. 9552:Nickel 1972 9510:Nickel 1972 9155:Varlik 2015 9143:Christ 2012 9131:Christ 2012 9092:Christ 2012 9080:Christ 2012 9068:Islahi 1988 9056:Islahi 1988 8874:Salibi 1967 8823:Islahi 1988 8811:Islahi 1988 8761:Binbaş 2014 8749:Popper 1955 8064:Rabbat 2001 8052:Rabbat 2001 8037:Powell 2012 8008:Winter 1998 7049:Garcin 1998 7022:Garcin 1998 6963:Garcin 1998 6948:Garcin 1998 6933:Garcin 1998 6921:Garcin 1998 6909:Garcin 1998 6897:Garcin 1998 6825:Garcin 1998 6231:Amitai 2006 6219:Amitai 2006 6151:Rabbat 1995 6052:Welsby 2002 5483:Ayalon 1960 5312:13 November 5223:Turcologica 5193:Rabbat 2001 5087:Amir Qawsun 5083:Mosque lamp 5069:Bohemund VI 4935:glassmaking 4891:illuminated 4749:Middle Ages 4739:(d. 1206), 4700: 1500 4687:Agriculture 4590:grain trade 4406:and copper 4286:amir majlis 4256:amir jandar 3894:paramountcy 3873:Lower Egypt 3766:persecution 3719:Mamluk-era 3656:Shadhiliyya 3413: 1550 3384:Bab Zuwayla 3343:janissaries 3157: 1483 3120:A shirt of 2823:al-Musta'in 2568:Sirghitmish 2463:(1318–1335) 2431:al-Mustakfi 2304:Circassians 2162:kingdom of 1963:Hulagu Khan 1879: 1300 1441:and taught 1439:Sunni Islam 803:Late Period 797:1069–664 BC 783:New Kingdom 743:Old Kingdom 676:History of 505:Preceded by 466:overthrows 288:Semi-feudal 234:Sunni Islam 121: 1375 12963:Categories 12850:Newspapers 12840:Mass media 12692:Synagogues 12660:Irreligion 12608:Literature 12603:Liberalism 12542:Healthcare 12444:Corruption 12127:Parliament 12058:Corruption 12053:Civil Code 11996:Suez Canal 11954:Nile Delta 11839:Alexandria 11809:Population 11804:Parliament 11772:Healthcare 11653:Nasser era 11427:Achaemenid 11402:Chronology 11233:Al-Maqrizi 11194:Al-Qanṭara 10369:Volume VI: 9581:Petry 2022 9119:Petry 1981 9107:Stilt 2011 8944:Stilt 2011 8656:Stilt 2011 8644:Stilt 2011 8615:Stilt 2011 8588:Stilt 2011 8542:Petry 1998 8486:James 1983 8447:Stilt 2011 8348:Teule 2013 8336:Teule 2013 8324:Teule 2013 8312:Stilt 2011 8288:Britannica 8269:Teule 2013 8250:Britannica 8231:Britannica 8219:Stilt 2011 8185:Britannica 8166:Britannica 8088:Yosef 2012 8076:Yosef 2012 8020:Petry 1981 7986:Britannica 7746:Petry 2022 7725:Petry 2022 7643:Paine 2015 7619:Petry 2022 7555:Petry 2022 7532:Petry 2022 7520:Petry 2022 7508:Petry 2022 7480:Petry 1993 7468:Muslu 2014 7456:Petry 1993 7432:Petry 2022 7420:Fuess 2022 7354:Petry 2022 7325:Muslu 2014 7296:Petry 2022 7284:Petry 2022 7269:Petry 2022 7254:Petry 2022 7227:Petry 2022 7212:22 January 7188:Petry 2022 7176:Petry 2022 7164:Petry 2022 7140:Petry 2022 7121:Petry 2022 7109:Petry 2022 7097:Petry 2022 7085:Petry 2022 7073:Petry 2022 7037:Petry 2022 6999:Petry 2022 6649:Petry 1998 6531:Drory 2006 6519:Drory 2006 6507:Drory 2006 6495:Drory 2006 5566:Irwin 1986 5405:Petry 2022 5393:Yosef 2013 5169:References 4916:arabesques 4896:scrollwork 4824:See also: 4798:treasury ( 4274:amir akhur 3991:Abu'l Fida 3887:Government 3877:Banu Hilal 3543:copied by 3394:See also: 3270:Portuguese 3142:Bayezid II 2755:Aq Qoyunlu 2736:Nile Delta 2364:Baybars II 2310:regiment. 2273:fortress. 2227:See also: 2200:Qasr Ibrim 1920:Alexandria 1673:GREAT KHAN 1536:al-Mansura 1516:See also: 1373:manumitted 1357:See also: 1206:Circassian 832:332–310 BC 807:664–332 BC 456:2 May 1250 333:Al-Hakim I 284:Government 273:Demonym(s) 264:(minority) 258:(minority) 252:(minority) 246:(minority) 244:Shia Islam 213:Circassian 152:map, 1413) 12845:Magazines 12835:Egyptians 12670:Ahmadiyya 12581:Languages 12547:Hospitals 12481:Education 12348:Transport 12307:Aswan Dam 12235:Companies 12176:Terrorism 12142:President 12105:Massacres 12095:Judiciary 12073:Elections 11942:Mountains 11871:Geography 11849:Port Said 11792:1939–1954 11787:1928–1938 11742:Anarchism 11685:Sadat era 11629:Sultanate 11576:Khedivate 11476:Christian 11444:Ptolemaic 11330:. Brill. 11317:1873-9830 11076:. Brill. 10897:. Brill. 10876:. Brill. 10546:. Brill. 10525:. Brill. 10348:"Mamlūks" 9959:. Brill. 9786:0732-2992 9723:495469456 9713:Volume I: 9700:Lewis, B. 9043:248169243 8627:Holt 2005 8561:Holt 2005 8530:Holt 2005 8515:Holt 2005 8498:Holt 2005 8462:Holt 2005 8204:King 1999 7971:Clot 2009 7923:Clot 2009 7908:Holt 1991 7891:Clot 2009 7879:Clot 2009 7867:Clot 2009 7852:Clot 2009 7840:Clot 2009 7828:Clot 2009 7777:22 August 7701:cite book 7667:Clot 2009 7655:Clot 2009 7579:Clot 2009 7567:Clot 2009 7444:Clot 2009 7378:Clot 2009 7366:Clot 2009 7152:Clot 2009 7061:Clot 2009 6987:Clot 2009 6873:Heng 2018 6810:Holt 1986 6789:Holt 1986 6765:Holt 1986 6543:Holt 1986 5262:0035-869X 5143:Furusiyya 5000:hypostyle 4772:Barcelona 4737:Al-Jazarī 4532:Buhturids 4458:muhtasibs 4437:al-Fustat 4402:, silver 4377:Al-Jazari 4262:khazindar 4245:majordomo 4134:caliphate 4109:wafidiyya 3943:Al-Busiri 3721:astrolabe 3689:Badawiyya 3685:Rifa'iyya 3474:in 1811. 3351:Khayr Bak 3207:Tuman Bay 2992:Mehmed II 2966:from the 2442:al-Wathiq 2243:Crusaders 2170:areas of 2154:headgear. 2151:kallawtah 2119:Assassins 2090:from the 2040:Ilkhanate 1982:Palestine 1818:SULTANATE 1751:BYZANTIUM 1693:SULTANATE 1682:ILKHANATE 1401:Ikhshidid 1277:Cyrenaica 1190:conquered 1144:romanized 1064:1922–1953 1054:1914–1922 1044:1882–1922 1017:1867–1914 1007:1805–1953 997:1798–1801 987:1517–1867 959:1250–1517 949:1171–1250 842:310–30 BC 451:Turanshah 227:Religion 176:Sultanate 88:1250–1517 12918:Category 12882:Olympics 12818:Football 12650:Hinduism 12618:Religion 12525:Feminism 12513:Families 12476:Diaspora 12439:Censuses 12429:Cannabis 12414:Abortion 12358:Airports 12353:Airlines 12329:Internet 12132:Passport 12110:Military 12083:Missions 12030:Politics 12011:Wildlife 11735:By topic 11648:Republic 11483:Sassanid 11307:(eds.). 11276:Ibn Iyas 10371:Mahk–Mid 10362:(eds.). 9911:(1996). 9794:27811138 9764:Muqarnas 9706:(eds.). 9678:(1960). 5137:See also 5104:heraldic 5021:Minarets 5015:muqarnas 4969:madrasas 4854:enameled 4464:muhtasib 4447:muhtasib 4442:muhtasib 4432:muhtasib 4425:muhtasib 4387:in 1354. 4146:al-Hakim 4009:al-malik 3881:de facto 3869:Sharqiya 3773:Maronite 3757:poll tax 3575:Ismai'li 3526:Religion 3483:Language 3324:al-Ghuri 3254:Ismail I 3229:Corps' ( 2909:Lusignan 2883:port of 2721:Damanhur 2412:descent. 2308:Burjiyya 2209:al-Abwab 2174:and the 2135:Anatolia 2131:Elbistan 1990:Nazareth 1975:Damascus 1796:MARINIDS 1649:CHAGATAI 1593:al-Karak 1565:Bahriyya 1528:Damietta 1461:al-Kamil 1281:Anatolia 1172:and the 1070:Republic 939:969–1171 667:a series 665:Part of 12948:Commons 12867:Museums 12811:regions 12779:Cuisine 12764:Castles 12736:Culture 12706:Smoking 12687:Judaism 12675:Mosques 12554:Housing 12501:Schools 12407:General 12396:Society 12336:Tourism 12265:Fishing 12223:Banking 12207:Economy 11932:Islands 11922:Geology 11917:Fossils 11902:Deserts 11897:Climate 11887:Borders 11833:By city 11819:Saladin 11767:Genetic 11747:Capital 11634:Kingdom 11549:Ottoman 11415:Ancient 11390:History 10958:4055631 10938:Arabica 10872:(ed.). 10417:(ed.). 9452:10 June 7596:Qantara 5119:shields 5111:charges 4926:thuluth 4875:minbars 4860:glass, 4815:Culture 4792:bullion 4702:–1550. 4680:iqtaʿat 4668:iqtaʿat 4567:iqta'at 4561:iqtaʿat 4543:iqtaʿat 4489:Iqtaʿat 4404:dirhams 4360:Economy 4353:ustadar 4344:s. The 4341:ustadar 4323:ustadar 4309: 4295:ustadar 4268:dawadar 4240:ustadar 4213:iqtaʿat 3947:Qaitbay 3864:iqtaʿat 3847:iqtaʿat 3841:iqtaʿat 3831:iqtaʿat 3825:iqtaʿat 3819:iqtaʿat 3807:Bahrayn 3799:Al Fadl 3671:ziyarat 3609:Hanbali 3590:Shafi'i 3478:Society 3457:Georgia 3368:Bahnasa 3334:Selim I 3328:Selim I 3213:dawadar 3111:Erzurum 3103:Zamantı 3086:al-Aqsa 3068:Qaitbay 3036:Qaitbay 3026:Qaitbay 3002:iqta'at 2978:coins. 2976:debased 2901:Genoese 2897:Catalan 2869:Barsbay 2788:(right) 2732:Hawwara 2716:niyabat 2707:(sing. 2704:niyabat 2671:Malatya 2564:Shaykhu 2459:in the 2426:iqta'at 2420:iqta'at 2402:Kipchak 2359:iqtaʿat 2255:Qalawun 2249:in 1289 2247:Qalawun 2229:Qalawun 2194:in the 2168:Red Sea 2164:Makuria 2104:Antioch 2032:Baybars 2018:Baybars 1992:at the 1986:Kitbuqa 1939:Jericho 1778:ENGLAND 1760:MUSCOVY 1742:BEYLIKS 1702:YADAVAS 1651:KHANATE 1569:Baybars 1558:Kurdish 1493:iqtaʿat 1412:Saladin 1397:Tulunid 1353:Origins 1342:History 1300:Barsbay 1269:Makuria 1243:Qalawun 1239:Mongols 1232:Baybars 1192:by the 1178:mamluks 1160:or the 1146:: 929:935–969 919:868–905 909:750–935 899:661–750 889:641–661 862:619–629 598:Makuria 484:• 462:• 436:History 413:Baybars 390:(first) 322:(first) 262:Judaism 250:Alawite 186:Capital 134:of the 12928:Portal 12769:Cinema 12623:Baháʼí 12537:Health 12285:Mining 12255:Energy 11979:Rivers 11892:Cities 11814:Postal 11595:Modern 11540:Mamluk 11498:Fustat 11488:Muslim 11420:topics 11378:topics 11334: 11315: 11278:, and 11249: 11164: 11141: 11122: 11103: 11080: 11057: 11036: 11015: 10992: 10973: 10956: 10922: 10901: 10880: 10853: 10821: 10800: 10781: 10758: 10739: 10718: 10697: 10678: 10657: 10636: 10613: 10592: 10571: 10550: 10529: 10488: 10467: 10446: 10425: 10398: 10377: 10358:& 10335: 10311: 10288: 10267: 10248: 10227: 10208: 10187: 10166: 10147: 10111: 10089: 10068: 10045: 10024: 10003: 9984: 9963: 9942: 9921: 9897: 9876: 9855: 9832: 9811: 9792: 9784: 9747: 9721: 9702:& 9664: 9641: 9620: 9041: 9031: 7768: 7601:13 May 7400:12 May 7208:. 2004 6693:UNESCO 6671: 6589: 6390: 6363: 6338: 6311: 6286:hiyasa 6275: 5369: 5335: 5283: 5260: 5091:blazon 5054:wikala 5043:kuttab 4974:zawiya 4912:Louvre 4862:inlaid 4858:gilded 4847:Louvre 4788:ducats 4782:, and 4768:Venice 4757:Ceylon 4656:kharaj 4626:. The 4610:feddan 4476:system 4400:dinars 4122:caliph 4079:qarani 4073:qarani 4066:nuwwab 4054:ustadh 4016:khutba 3996:nuwwab 3986:nuwwab 3747:dhimmi 3725:Coptic 3695:zawiya 3665:hadith 3661:Qur'an 3648:madhab 3636:madhab 3630:madhab 3613:Hanafi 3605:Maliki 3600:madhab 3594:madhab 3565:madhab 3553:UNESCO 3541:Qur'an 3489:Arabic 3453:Bosnia 3448:ustadh 3361:. 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In 9039:S2CID 7206:(PDF) 5981:(PDF) 5841:(PDF) 5164:Notes 5036:sabil 5007:ablaq 4981:sabil 4870:China 4807:iqtaʿ 4780:India 4762:iqtaʿ 4753:Genoa 4713:iqtaʿ 4674:iqtaʿ 4662:iqtaʿ 4650:iqtaʿ 4635:iqtaʿ 4623:iqtaʿ 4584:iqtaʿ 4573:iqtaʿ 4555:Iqtaʿ 4549:iqtaʿ 4537:halqa 4527:iqtaʿ 4523:Druze 4514:iqtaʿ 4508:iqtaʿ 4501:iqtaʿ 4495:iqtaʿ 4483:iqtaʿ 4473:Iqtaʿ 4417:hisba 4408:fulus 4395:iqtaʿ 4385:Cairo 4250:hajib 4219:iqtaʿ 4203:halqa 4197:halqa 4191:halqa 4098:Kiswa 3980:na'ib 3974:na'ib 3898:Cairo 3814:Salar 3753:jizya 3723:with 3705:Sunna 3679:dhikr 3512:nisba 3292:. 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