899:. Although it is the most expensive, these gases are a much more effective insulator than air. GIS require only 10 to 20 percent of the land area as AIS, which can save on land acquisition cost in urban areas, and allow the substation to be built at the exact location where its power is being used in an industrial or urban area—which can be a significant cost savings. On the generation side, GIS can be installed closer to the generator which allows cost savings in cabling, bus duct connections, and civil construction and can increase reliability. GIS can replace AIS if power requirements increase without requiring additional land area. Additionally, GIS is commonly installed in an enclosed building that keeps the equipment protected from pollution and salt. Unless the substation is often used for switching, maintenance cost can be very low or even zero for many years. Because SF
622:
505:
493:
170:
477:
296:
27:
470:, which is the connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching events may be planned or unplanned. A transmission line or other component may need to be de-energized for maintenance or for new construction, for example, adding or removing a transmission line or a transformer. To maintain reliability of supply, companies aim at keeping the system up and running while performing maintenance. All work to be performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, should be done while keeping the whole system running.
199:
681:
190:. Most commonly, the utility does the engineering and procurement while hiring a contractor for actual construction. Major design constraints for construction of substations include land availability and cost, limitations on the construction period, transportation restrictions, and the need to get the substation running quickly. Prefabrication is a common way to reduce the construction cost. For connecting the new substation, a partial outage at another substation may be required, but the utility often tries to minimize downtime.
699:. In some cases, the lines will not have both, with either a switch or a circuit breaker being all that is considered necessary. A disconnect switch is used to provide isolation, since it cannot interrupt load current. A circuit breaker is used as a protection device to interrupt fault currents automatically, and may be used to switch loads on and off, or to cut off a line when power is flowing in the 'wrong' direction. When a large fault current flows through the circuit breaker, this is detected through the use of
634:
344:
87:
606:
2235:
107:
2814:
703:. The magnitude of the current transformer outputs may be used to trip the circuit breaker resulting in a disconnection of the load supplied by the circuit break from the feeding point. This seeks to isolate the fault point from the rest of the system, and allow the rest of the system to continue operating with minimal impact. Both switches and circuit breakers may be operated locally (within the substation) or remotely from a supervisory control center.
753:
215:
692:, which shows in simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many electrical utilities to prepare one-line diagrams with principal elements (lines, switches, circuit breakers, transformers) arranged on the page similarly to the way the apparatus would be laid out in the actual station.
336:
770:. To this is added the necessary space for employees to work safely and vehicles to pass. Sometimes it is necessary to work on parts of the substation while energized, but employees must maintain a safe distance of at least 3 metres (9.8 ft). The aim to reduce substation footprints comes into conflict with ease of maintenance enhanced by including gaps where employees can safely work.
979:
when there is any unusual activity, to help reconstruct what happened after the fact. These control rooms typically are heated and air conditioned to ensure the reliable operation of this equipment. Additional equipment is necessary to handle power surges associated with intermittent renewable energy such as dispersed generation from wind or solar.
913:(called OCB for oil circuit breaker) provides a high resistance between the opened contacts, effectively stopping the flow of current. Although oil circuit breakers are suitable for a wide range of voltages, the oil becomes contaminated during the suppression of arcs and must be filtered or replaced periodically.
1001:
finds hot spots in the substation where electrical energy is being converted to heat, which indicates a problem and can cause additional damage from the high heat. Dissolved gas analysis can tell when an oil-insulated transformer needs to have the oil filtered or replace, and also detect other issues.
1015:
Early electrical substations required manual switching or adjustment of equipment, and manual collection of data for load, energy consumption, and abnormal events. As the complexity of distribution networks grew, it became economically necessary to automate supervision and control of substations from
1000:
Maintenance of substations involves inspections, data collection and analysis, and routine scheduled work. Using methods such as infrared scanning and dissolved gas analysis, it can be predicted when the substation will need maintenance and predict dangers before they materialize. Infrared technology
978:
Larger substations have control rooms for the equipment used to monitor, control, and protect the rest of the substation equipment. It often contains protective relays, meters, breaker controls, communications, batteries, and recorders that save detailed data about substation operations, particularly
834:
Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or special-purpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from transformers, improve appearance, or protect switchgear from extreme
987:
Most transformers lose between 5 and 1.5 percent of their input as heat and noise. Iron losses are no-load and constant whenever the transformer is energized, while copper and auxiliary losses are proportionate to the square of the current. Auxiliary losses are due to running fans and pumps which is
879:
Air at atmospheric pressure (air-insulated switchgear (AIS)), which is the most common worldwide. Air is the cheapest insulator and is easy to modify, but AIS takes up more space, and leaves equipment exposed to the outside environment. One drawback of AIS is the visual impact of a larger substation
781:
in some countries, is used to ground circuits that are being worked on to prevent accidental re-energization while workers are in contact with a de-energized circuit. Often, earth rods are driven deeper into the ground from the grounding grid for lower resistance grounding, and may be surrounded by
766:
Based on the jurisdiction or company, there are safety standards with minimum required clearance between different live equipment or conductors or between live metal and the ground, which often varies with higher clearance being required for higher voltages because of the greater ability to generate
451:
A switching station is a substation without transformers and operating only at a single voltage level. Switching stations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations. Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for parallelizing circuits in case of failure. An
363:
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and
845:
Outdoor, above-ground substation structures include wood pole, lattice metal tower, and tubular metal structures, although other variants are available. Where space is plentiful and appearance of the station is not a factor, steel lattice towers provide low-cost supports for transmission lines and
765:
Because of the risk of electrical shock, substations are inherently dangerous to electrical workers. To mitigate this hazard, substations are designed with various safety features. Live conductors and bare equipment are kept separate, either with protected equipment, or using screens or distance.
748:
The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers, and buses used affects the cost and reliability of the substation. For important substations a ring bus, double bus, or so-called "breaker and a half" setup can be used, so that the failure of any one circuit breaker does not interrupt power to other
652:
Selection of the location of a substation must consider many factors. Sufficient land area is required for installation of equipment with necessary clearances for electrical safety, and for access to maintain large apparatus such as transformers. The site must have room for expansion due to load
870:
are commonly used to interrupt the flow of current in substation equipment. At the time of interruption, current could be normal, too high due to excessive load, unusual due to a fault, or tripped by protective relays prior to anticipated trouble. The most common technologies to extinguish the
790:
to further reduce resistance and ensure effective grounding for the lifetime of the substation. Above ground, the grounding conductors may be steel, aluminum, or copper. They must be thick enough to carry the expected current of a fault for 1-3 seconds and remain undamaged. Substation fences,
359:
transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local
930:
are similar to breakers, and can be cheaper because they do not require separate protective relays. Often used in distribution, they often are programmed to trip when the amps exceed a certain amount over a period of time. Reclosers will attempt to re-energize the circuit after a delay. If
403:
up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, although some collector systems are 12 kV, and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also provide
374:
The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side.
271:
connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have
660:
The substation site must be reasonably central to the distribution area to be served. The site must be secure from intrusion by passers-by, both to protect people from injury by electric shock or arcs, and to protect the electrical system from misoperation due to vandalism.
538:
The function of the switching station is to isolate the faulty portion of the system in the shortest possible time. De-energizing faulty equipment protects it from further damage, and isolating a fault helps keep the rest of the electrical grid operating with stability.
991:
Oil-based transformers are often built with bunded areas to prevent the escape of flaming or leaking oil. Fire separation areas or firewalls are built around the transformer to stop the spread of fire. Firefighting vehicles are allowed a path to access the area.
791:
typically at least 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in height, both protect the public from electrical hazards and also protect the substation from vandalism. Internal fences can also be incorporated to protect employees from areas that are unsafe when energized.
143:
to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages. They are a common component of the infrastructure. There are 55,000 substations in the United States.
162:. As central generation stations became larger, smaller generating plants were converted to distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead of using their own generators. The first substations were connected to only one
492:
850:(at high voltages, with gas insulated switchgear), or use metal-enclosed or metal-clad switchgear at lower voltages. Urban and suburban indoor substations may be finished on the outside so as to blend in with other buildings in the area.
364:
33 kV, depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead (or underground, in some cases) and power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.
138:
from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include
1016:
a centrally attended point, to allow overall coordination in case of emergencies and to reduce operating costs. Early efforts to remote control substations used dedicated communication wires, often run alongside power circuits.
463:. In this case the generators from the power station supply their power into the yard onto the generator bus on one side of the yard, and the transmission lines take their power from a Feeder Bus on the other side of the yard.
351:, Canada, disguised as a house, complete with a driveway, front walk and a mown lawn and shrubs in the front yard. A warning notice can be clearly seen on the "front door". Disguises for substations are common in many cities.
569:(AC) at frequencies other than that of the public grid. Sometimes they are also transmission substations or collector substations if the railway network also operates its own grid and generators to supply the other stations.
749:
circuits, and so that parts of the substation may be de-energized for maintenance and repairs. Substations feeding only a single industrial load may have minimal switching provisions, especially for small installations.
1048:, to list a few, are used to allow multiple intelligent electronic devices to communicate with each other and supervisory control centers. Distributed automatic control at substations is one element of the so-called
857:
is generally an outdoor substation built in a metal enclosure, in which each item of the electrical equipment is located very near to each other to create a relatively smaller footprint size of the substation.
439:, or interconnected non-synchronous networks. These stations contain power electronic devices to change the frequency of current, or else convert from alternating to direct current or the reverse. Formerly
922:
Mixed, including both gas and air insulation. Although it’s the least common option it can be useful when an air-insulated substation needs to be expanded but there is very limited location for additional
1407:
756:
This single-line diagram illustrates the breaker-and-a-half configuration often used in switchyards of small utilities. In large utilities the double-bus-double-breaker configuration is often preferred.
1069:
966:
or enabling extra power to be sent through the conductors. Capacitors may be left on in response to constant inductive load or turned on when inductive load is increased, such as in the summer for
311:. The largest transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers, and a large amount of protection and control equipment (
919:
is a better insulator than air but less than gas or oil. Vacuum circuit breakers (VCB) are smaller than air circuit breakers and are commonly used in distribution and other switchgear under 35kv.
367:
In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations are typically the points of
988:
noisy when the transformer is operating at maximum capacity. To reduce noise, enclosures are often built around the transformer and can also be added after the substation is built.
476:
880:
with overhead power lines entering and exiting, which may be unacceptable in scenic or urban areas. AIS requires additional bracing in a seismically active area, and emits more
147:
Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are unattended, relying on
504:
411:
Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of comparable output power are in proximity. Examples for such substations are
1036:
made for an exponential increase in the number of points that could be economically controlled and monitored. Today, standardized communication protocols such as
726:
are used to protect substation equipment accordingly. Insulation
Coordination studies are carried out extensively to ensure equipment failure (and associated
625:
Substation in a castle-like building from the 1910s serves as distribution point next to the Lésna dam. It is one of several hydroelectric stations at the
641:
Substation design is aimed at minimizing cost while ensuring power availability and reliability, and enabling changes to the substation in the future.
773:
Underneath a substation, a mat or grid of conductors laid around 0.5 or 0.6 metres (1 ft 8 in or 2 ft 0 in) underground provides
553:
Electrified railways also use substations, often distribution substations. In some cases a conversion of the current type takes place, commonly with
498:
Former high-voltage substation in
Stuttgart, Germany, now 110 kV switching station. The 220 kV level is eliminated for grid simplification.
1280:
597:. Mobile substations are usually rated much lower than permanent installations, and may be built in several units to meet road travel limitations.
903:
turns to solid around −40 °C (−40 °F), in some climates these circuit breakers require heaters to function in extremely cold weather. SF
408:
if it is needed, metering, and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC converter station.
947:
2086:
423:-fired power plants. If no transformers are required for increasing the voltage to transmission level, the substation is a switching station.
395:, a collector substation may be required. It resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many
2759:
371:, although on long distribution circuits (of several miles/kilometers), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
842:
as conductors between electrical equipment. Busbars may be aluminum tubing 3–6 inches (76–152 mm) thick, or else wires (strain bus).
110:
A 115 kV to 41.6/12.47 kV 5 MVA 60 Hz substation with circuit switcher, regulators, reclosers and control building at
872:
846:
apparatus. Low-profile substations may be specified in suburban areas where appearance is more critical. Indoor substations may be
617:
is Canada's oldest substation. It has a facade in clay brick with gray stone ornaments to blend in to its downtown environment.
99:
2055:
2036:
1961:
1939:
1845:
1811:
1792:
1773:
1754:
1728:
1700:
1613:
1594:
1563:
1393:
1374:
1184:
1165:
1146:
1127:
281:
2817:
2234:
102:, each with a capacity of 150 MVA. This substation uses steel lattice structures to support strain bus wires and apparatus.
1096:
2656:
2764:
2079:
459:
A switching station may also be known as a switchyard, and these are commonly located directly adjacent to or nearby a
1328:
2384:
1438:
621:
2838:
2547:
2472:
2343:
799:
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and transformers. In a large substation,
303:
Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be little more than a
1070:"Joint Consultation Paper: Western Metropolitan Melbourne Transmission Connection and Subtransmission Capacity"
308:
653:
growth or planned transmission additions. Environmental effects of the substation must be considered, such as
2719:
2651:
2641:
2517:
2417:
2072:
589:. They are designed to be compact for travel on public roads, and are used for temporary backup in times of
2572:
2532:
2109:
815:
for protection of distribution circuits. Substations themselves do not usually have generators, although a
169:
2799:
2794:
2512:
2487:
2477:
2453:
2448:
2154:
432:
244:
231:
159:
131:
127:
20:
2714:
2432:
2402:
2179:
962:) are added to the system. Capacitors can reduce the current in wires, helping stem system losses from
707:
392:
581:
is a substation on wheels, containing a transformer, breakers and buswork mounted on a self-contained
2769:
2258:
2219:
516:
227:
2744:
2552:
2492:
2149:
1017:
955:
931:
unsuccessful for a few times, the recloser will have to be manually reset by an electrical worker.
847:
644:
Substations may be built outdoors, indoors, or underground or in a combination of these locations.
316:
610:
2683:
2673:
2663:
1010:
719:
405:
339:
Transformer tower in
Germany. Medium voltage supply at the front, low voltage output on the side.
2604:
2467:
2250:
2139:
1021:
881:
384:
312:
285:
123:
1408:
Electricity
Substation Leases: Considerations for Utility Companies, Landowners and Developers
1301:
295:
114:. It shows elements of low-profile construction, with apparatus mounted on individual columns.
2739:
2507:
2502:
2482:
664:
If not owned and operated by a utility company, substations are typically occupied on a long
2333:
2095:
1250:
951:
774:
277:
807:
or overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use
26:
8:
2704:
2537:
2437:
2412:
2365:
2174:
2164:
2129:
1412:
888:
700:
566:
548:
251:
198:
733:
Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage connect to one or more
2578:
2189:
828:
669:
531:
368:
289:
187:
323:
systems). Modern substations may be implemented using international standards such as
2729:
2609:
2214:
2051:
2032:
1434:
824:
812:
416:
111:
680:
2678:
2619:
2323:
2318:
2295:
2204:
2144:
1028:
cables as well as dedicated wired remote control circuits have all been applied to
689:
590:
562:
483:
443:
changed frequency to interconnect two systems; nowadays such substations are rare.
440:
436:
2709:
2668:
2646:
2527:
2497:
2462:
2422:
2224:
967:
887:
Gas (gas circuit breaker (GCB) or gas-insulated switchgear (GIS)), most commonly
867:
800:
778:
696:
237:
166:, where the generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.
2734:
2724:
2522:
2134:
1097:"Attacks on Pacific north-west power stations raise fears for US electric grid"
1033:
943:
723:
558:
467:
453:
255:
633:
2832:
2754:
2542:
2427:
2407:
2338:
2328:
2285:
2169:
2124:
1025:
804:
715:
460:
343:
163:
86:
98:, showing three of the five 220 kV/66 kV transformers, as well as
2774:
2749:
2614:
2583:
2397:
2199:
963:
959:
808:
727:
614:
605:
586:
582:
524:
396:
2599:
2567:
2360:
2348:
2268:
2194:
2184:
2114:
1281:"Lights On but Nobody Home: Behind the Fake Buildings that Power Chicago"
970:. The switching may be remote and can be done manually or automatically.
946:(such as motors, transformers, and some industrial equipment) with their
910:
816:
742:
273:
140:
106:
2562:
2557:
2370:
2353:
2209:
2064:
2046:
Finn, John (2019). "Introduction to
Substation Planning and Concepts".
1049:
942:
banks are used in substations to balance the lagging current draw from
688:
The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a
412:
183:
2278:
2273:
2159:
2119:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1041:
939:
820:
787:
783:
767:
752:
745:
electrical power distribution is largely universal around the world.
711:
554:
400:
388:
324:
95:
91:
222:
Substations typically serve at least one of the following purposes:
214:
2392:
927:
654:
186:
or alternately all phases of its development may be handled by the
1237:
695:
In a common design, incoming lines have a disconnect switch and a
2313:
2303:
420:
348:
135:
626:
2308:
2029:
1601:
1582:
1076:. Powercor Australia, Jemena, Australian Energy Market Operator
1045:
916:
839:
738:
734:
304:
203:
1951:
1949:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1381:
1362:
668:
such as a renewable 99-year lease, giving the utility company
335:
1029:
665:
320:
148:
519:
in a transmission line or any other component, for example:
419:
in the Czech
Republic, where power is collected from nearby
158:
comes from the days before the distribution system became a
2263:
1946:
1927:
1833:
1546:
1431:
Standard
Handbook for Electrical Engineers Eleventh Edition
1037:
684:
Tottenham
Substation, set in wild parkland in North London.
510:
High-voltage switching station in
Washington, United States
207:
16:
Part of an electrical transmission, and distribution system
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
777:. This grid, which is typically copper although it may be
292:
to control power flow between two adjacent power systems.
594:
2031:. IEEE Press Series on Power and Energy Systems. Wiley.
243:
Reducing the voltage from transmission to lower-voltage
1799:
1780:
1761:
1735:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1690:
1688:
1686:
875:
from separating the conductors in the breaker include:
1903:
1881:
1879:
1823:
1821:
1673:
1671:
1474:
1534:
1498:
1486:
1464:
1462:
1227:
1225:
173:
220 kV/110 kV/20 kV station in Germany
2050:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 7–10.
1707:
1683:
819:
may have a substation nearby. Other devices such as
2004:
1992:
1876:
1864:
1852:
1818:
1668:
1656:
1644:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1172:
1153:
1134:
1115:
486:, United States, 2006. This is a 500 kV switchyard.
466:An important function performed by a substation is
1980:
1968:
1915:
1891:
1632:
1620:
1570:
1522:
1510:
1459:
1447:
1392:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlaubitz_et_al.2018 (
1373:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlaubitz_et_al.2018 (
1350:
1320:
1222:
1191:
722:failures into substation equipment. Line entrance
950:. Additional capacitor capacity may be needed if
2830:
1203:
1032:(SCADA) for substations. The development of the
247:lines that supply individual homes or businesses
1960:sfn error: no target: CITEREFNixon_et_al.2018 (
1938:sfn error: no target: CITEREFNixon_et_al.2018 (
1844:sfn error: no target: CITEREFNixon_et_al.2018 (
1612:sfn error: no target: CITEREFNixon_et_al.2018 (
1593:sfn error: no target: CITEREFNixon_et_al.2018 (
1562:sfn error: no target: CITEREFNixon_et_al.2018 (
1387:
1368:
234:over long distances, using step-up transformers
55:Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
276:to convert between two transmission voltages,
2080:
431:Converter substations may be associated with
1955:
1933:
1839:
1607:
1588:
1557:
907:has been used in switchgear since the 1960s.
1810:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlaubitz2018 (
1791:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlaubitz2018 (
1772:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlaubitz2018 (
1753:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlaubitz2018 (
523:a line is hit by lightning and develops an
515:Unplanned switching events are caused by a
182:Substations may be designed and built by a
2087:
2073:
1420:, 26 January 2018, accessed 22 August 2023
954:(such as small diesel generators, rooftop
452:example is the switching stations for the
330:
262:
1727:sfn error: no target: CITEREFTwomey2018 (
1699:sfn error: no target: CITEREFTwomey2018 (
1278:
1260:. United States Department of Agriculture
2094:
1805:
1786:
1767:
1748:
1183:sfn error: no target: CITEREFOkada2018 (
1164:sfn error: no target: CITEREFOkada2018 (
1145:sfn error: no target: CITEREFOkada2018 (
1126:sfn error: no target: CITEREFOkada2018 (
1094:
1030:Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
884:and noise than alternative technologies.
751:
679:
637:15 kV/400 V distribution tower in Poland
632:
620:
609:In continuous operation since 1901, the
604:
426:
342:
334:
294:
284:devices such as capacitors, reactors or
213:
197:
168:
105:
85:
25:
1326:
741:, usually in multiples of three, since
378:
2831:
1722:
1694:
100:high-voltage transformer fire barriers
90:A 50 Hz electrical substation in
2068:
2026:
2010:
1998:
1909:
1885:
1870:
1858:
1827:
1677:
1662:
1650:
1423:
1231:
1178:
1159:
1140:
1121:
831:may also be located at a substation.
647:
2045:
1986:
1974:
1921:
1897:
1638:
1626:
1576:
1540:
1528:
1516:
1504:
1492:
1480:
1468:
1453:
1356:
1279:Steinberg, Neil (13 December 2013).
1251:"Design Guide for Rural Substations"
1248:
1216:
1197:
895:) or a mixture of gases including SF
572:
446:
151:for remote supervision and control.
1095:Anguiano, Dani (10 December 2022).
226:Increasing the voltage produced by
13:
2765:Renewable energy commercialization
2020:
675:
657:, noise and road traffic effects.
14:
2850:
2813:
2812:
2233:
1429:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty
973:
503:
491:
475:
313:voltage and current transformers
1400:
1338:. IEEE Power and Energy Society
1294:
1272:
982:
848:gas insulated substations (GIS)
177:
1088:
1062:
995:
134:system. Substations transform
1:
2760:Renewable Energy Certificates
2720:Cost of electricity by source
2642:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
2518:High-voltage shore connection
1055:
1004:
934:
861:
794:
347:A distribution substation in
299:Minimal HV station in Germany
2775:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
2573:Transmission system operator
2533:Mains electricity by country
2110:Automatic generation control
7:
2800:List of electricity sectors
2795:Electric energy consumption
2513:High-voltage direct current
2488:Electric power transmission
2478:Electric power distribution
2155:Energy return on investment
1406:Chapman, A. and Broom, R.,
708:overhead transmission lines
542:
534:is blown down by high wind.
290:phase shifting transformers
202:High-voltage substation in
122:is a part of an electrical
39:Secondary power lines' side
21:Substation (disambiguation)
10:
2855:
2715:Carbon offsets and credits
2433:Three-phase electric power
1416:, originally published by
1327:Boyd, Dan; Rampaul, Glen.
1008:
803:are used to interrupt any
585:, meant to be pulled by a
546:
393:photovoltaic power station
18:
2808:
2783:
2770:Renewable Energy Payments
2693:
2630:
2592:
2446:
2383:
2294:
2259:Fossil fuel power station
2249:
2242:
2231:
2102:
1336:IEEE Winnipeg PES Chapter
956:photovoltaic solar panels
809:recloser circuit breakers
760:
600:
228:electric power generation
36:Primary power lines' side
2553:Single-wire earth return
2493:Electrical busbar system
2150:Energy demand management
1302:"Transformer Fire Video"
240:of different power grids
193:
31:Elements of a substation
2684:Residual-current device
2674:Power system protection
2664:Generator interlock kit
1011:Power-system automation
406:power factor correction
357:distribution substation
331:Distribution substation
286:static VAR compensators
282:power factor correction
269:transmission substation
263:Transmission substation
2839:Electrical substations
2468:Distributed generation
2140:Electric power quality
1258:USDA Rural Development
882:electromagnetic fields
838:Substations often use
835:climate or pollution.
757:
685:
638:
630:
618:
385:distributed generation
352:
340:
300:
288:and equipment such as
219:
211:
174:
115:
103:
83:
2740:Fossil fuel phase-out
2508:Electricity retailing
2503:Electrical substation
2483:Electric power system
755:
710:, the propagation of
683:
636:
624:
608:
427:Converter substations
346:
338:
298:
217:
201:
172:
109:
89:
79:Secondary power lines
29:
2096:Electricity delivery
2027:Blume, S.W. (2016).
1388:Glaubitz et al. 2018
1369:Glaubitz et al. 2018
1329:"Mobile Substations"
952:dispersed generation
737:. These are sets of
701:current transformers
379:Collector substation
218:Substation in Russia
19:For other uses, see
2705:Availability factor
2657:Sulfur hexafluoride
2538:Overhead power line
2438:Virtual power plant
2413:Induction generator
2366:Sustainable biofuel
2175:Home energy storage
2165:Grid energy storage
2130:Droop speed control
1610:, pp. 314–315.
1591:, pp. 313–314.
1433:, McGraw Hill 1978
1413:Squire Patton Boggs
889:sulfur hexafluoride
567:alternating current
549:Traction substation
456:transmission line.
387:projects such as a
252:alternating current
64:Current transformer
46:Primary power lines
2579:Transmission tower
2190:Nameplate capacity
1483:, pp. 46, 53.
1249:Stockton, Blaine.
1018:Power-line carrier
855:compact substation
825:voltage regulators
758:
686:
670:security of tenure
648:Location selection
639:
631:
619:
435:converter plants,
369:voltage regulation
353:
341:
325:IEC Standard 61850
301:
220:
212:
188:electrical utility
175:
116:
104:
84:
67:Lightning arrester
2826:
2825:
2730:Environmental tax
2610:Cascading failure
2379:
2378:
2215:Utility frequency
2057:978-3-319-49574-3
2038:978-1-119-18019-7
1956:Nixon et al. 2018
1934:Nixon et al. 2018
1912:, pp. 87–88.
1840:Nixon et al. 2018
1608:Nixon et al. 2018
1589:Nixon et al. 2018
1558:Nixon et al. 2018
1543:, pp. 55–56.
1507:, pp. 48–49.
1495:, pp. 46–47.
1443:Substation Design
579:mobile substation
573:Mobile substation
565:for trains using
563:rotary converters
447:Switching station
441:rotary converters
112:Warren, Minnesota
58:Disconnect switch
2846:
2816:
2815:
2725:Energy subsidies
2679:Protective relay
2620:Rolling blackout
2247:
2246:
2237:
2205:Power-flow study
2145:Electrical fault
2089:
2082:
2075:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2042:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1953:
1944:
1943:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1895:
1889:
1883:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1816:
1815:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1746:
1733:
1732:
1720:
1705:
1704:
1692:
1681:
1675:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1555:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1427:
1421:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1333:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1308:. User Eagle Eye
1298:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1255:
1246:
1235:
1229:
1220:
1214:
1201:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1066:
968:air conditioners
868:circuit breakers
801:circuit breakers
690:one-line diagram
591:natural disaster
561:(DC) trains, or
507:
495:
484:Grand Coulee Dam
479:
437:traction current
309:circuit breakers
250:Converting from
73:Control building
70:Main transformer
2854:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2804:
2788:
2786:
2779:
2710:Capacity factor
2698:
2696:
2689:
2669:Numerical relay
2647:Circuit breaker
2635:
2633:
2626:
2588:
2528:Load management
2498:Electrical grid
2463:Demand response
2456:
2451:
2442:
2423:Microgeneration
2375:
2290:
2238:
2229:
2225:Vehicle-to-grid
2098:
2093:
2058:
2039:
2023:
2021:Further reading
2018:
2017:
2009:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1985:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1959:
1954:
1947:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1920:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1896:
1892:
1884:
1877:
1869:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1826:
1819:
1809:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1752:
1747:
1736:
1726:
1721:
1708:
1698:
1693:
1684:
1676:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1621:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1556:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1527:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1503:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1479:
1475:
1467:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1428:
1424:
1405:
1401:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1341:
1339:
1331:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1309:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1285:
1283:
1277:
1273:
1263:
1261:
1253:
1247:
1238:
1230:
1223:
1215:
1204:
1200:, pp. 7 8.
1196:
1192:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1106:
1104:
1093:
1089:
1079:
1077:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1022:microwave radio
1013:
1007:
998:
985:
976:
944:inductive loads
937:
906:
902:
898:
894:
864:
797:
779:galvanized iron
763:
724:surge arrestors
697:circuit breaker
678:
676:Design diagrams
650:
611:Adélard-Godbout
603:
575:
551:
545:
511:
508:
499:
496:
487:
480:
454:HVDC Inga–Shaba
449:
429:
415:in Germany and
381:
333:
278:voltage control
265:
238:Interconnection
196:
180:
82:
61:Circuit breaker
42:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2852:
2842:
2841:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2789:
2785:Statistics and
2784:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2735:Feed-in tariff
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2701:
2699:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2644:
2638:
2636:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2523:Interconnector
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2473:Dynamic demand
2470:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2403:Combined cycle
2400:
2395:
2389:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2300:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2255:
2253:
2244:
2240:
2239:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2180:Load-following
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2135:Electric power
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2092:
2091:
2084:
2077:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2056:
2043:
2037:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2003:
1991:
1979:
1967:
1958:, p. 322.
1945:
1936:, p. 321.
1926:
1914:
1902:
1890:
1875:
1863:
1851:
1842:, p. 329.
1832:
1817:
1808:, p. 368.
1798:
1789:, p. 361.
1779:
1770:, p. 365.
1760:
1751:, p. 363.
1734:
1706:
1682:
1667:
1655:
1643:
1631:
1619:
1600:
1581:
1569:
1560:, p. 313.
1545:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1485:
1473:
1458:
1446:
1422:
1399:
1390:, p. 422.
1380:
1371:, p. 375.
1361:
1349:
1319:
1293:
1271:
1236:
1221:
1202:
1190:
1181:, p. 342.
1171:
1162:, p. 341.
1152:
1143:, p. 335.
1133:
1124:, p. 334.
1114:
1087:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1034:microprocessor
1009:Main article:
1006:
1003:
997:
994:
984:
981:
975:
972:
936:
933:
925:
924:
920:
914:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
885:
863:
860:
805:short circuits
796:
793:
762:
759:
730:) is minimal.
714:and switching
677:
674:
649:
646:
613:substation in
602:
599:
574:
571:
559:direct current
547:Main article:
544:
541:
536:
535:
528:
513:
512:
509:
502:
500:
497:
490:
488:
482:Switchyard at
481:
474:
448:
445:
428:
425:
380:
377:
360:distribution.
332:
329:
264:
261:
260:
259:
256:direct current
248:
241:
235:
230:for efficient
195:
192:
179:
176:
81:
80:
77:
76:Security fence
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
59:
56:
53:
52:Overhead lines
50:
47:
43:
41:
40:
37:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2851:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2819:
2811:
2810:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2782:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2755:Pigouvian tax
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2692:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2652:Earth-leakage
2650:
2649:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2629:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:Failure modes
2591:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2543:Power station
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2428:Rankine cycle
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2408:Cooling tower
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2287:
2284:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2251:Non-renewable
2248:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2170:Grid strength
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2125:Demand factor
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2059:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2024:
2013:, p. 89.
2012:
2007:
2001:, p. 88.
2000:
1995:
1989:, p. 63.
1988:
1983:
1977:, p. 62.
1976:
1971:
1963:
1957:
1952:
1950:
1941:
1935:
1930:
1924:, p. 77.
1923:
1918:
1911:
1906:
1900:, p. 76.
1899:
1894:
1888:, p. 83.
1887:
1882:
1880:
1873:, p. 74.
1872:
1867:
1861:, p. 71.
1860:
1855:
1847:
1841:
1836:
1830:, p. 72.
1829:
1824:
1822:
1813:
1807:
1806:Glaubitz 2018
1802:
1794:
1788:
1787:Glaubitz 2018
1783:
1775:
1769:
1768:Glaubitz 2018
1764:
1756:
1750:
1749:Glaubitz 2018
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1730:
1725:, p. 13.
1724:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1702:
1697:, p. 12.
1696:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1680:, p. 70.
1679:
1674:
1672:
1665:, p. 69.
1664:
1659:
1653:, p. 81.
1652:
1647:
1641:, p. 65.
1640:
1635:
1629:, p. 64.
1628:
1623:
1615:
1609:
1604:
1596:
1590:
1585:
1579:, p. 56.
1578:
1573:
1565:
1559:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1542:
1537:
1531:, p. 54.
1530:
1525:
1519:, p. 51.
1518:
1513:
1506:
1501:
1494:
1489:
1482:
1477:
1471:, p. 42.
1470:
1465:
1463:
1456:, p. 41.
1455:
1450:
1444:
1440:
1439:0-07-020974-X
1436:
1432:
1426:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1409:
1403:
1395:
1389:
1384:
1376:
1370:
1365:
1359:, p. 68.
1358:
1353:
1337:
1330:
1323:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1282:
1275:
1259:
1252:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1234:, p. 54.
1233:
1228:
1226:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1199:
1194:
1186:
1180:
1175:
1167:
1161:
1156:
1148:
1142:
1137:
1129:
1123:
1118:
1103:. Los Angeles
1102:
1098:
1091:
1075:
1071:
1065:
1061:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1002:
993:
989:
980:
974:Control rooms
971:
969:
965:
961:
960:wind turbines
957:
953:
949:
948:reactive load
945:
941:
932:
929:
923:construction.
921:
918:
915:
912:
909:
890:
886:
883:
878:
877:
876:
874:
869:
866:High-voltage
859:
856:
851:
849:
843:
841:
836:
832:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
792:
789:
785:
780:
776:
771:
769:
754:
750:
746:
744:
740:
736:
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
704:
702:
698:
693:
691:
682:
673:
671:
667:
662:
658:
656:
645:
642:
635:
628:
623:
616:
612:
607:
598:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
550:
540:
533:
529:
526:
522:
521:
520:
518:
506:
501:
494:
489:
485:
478:
473:
472:
471:
469:
464:
462:
461:power station
457:
455:
444:
442:
438:
434:
424:
422:
418:
414:
409:
407:
402:
398:
397:wind turbines
394:
390:
386:
376:
372:
370:
365:
361:
358:
350:
345:
337:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
297:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
270:
257:
253:
249:
246:
242:
239:
236:
233:
229:
225:
224:
223:
216:
209:
205:
200:
191:
189:
185:
171:
167:
165:
164:power station
161:
157:
152:
150:
145:
142:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
113:
108:
101:
97:
93:
88:
78:
75:
72:
69:
66:
63:
60:
57:
54:
51:
48:
45:
44:
38:
35:
34:
32:
28:
22:
2750:Net metering
2697:and policies
2615:Power outage
2584:Utility pole
2548:Pumped hydro
2454:distribution
2449:Transmission
2398:Cogeneration
2200:Power factor
2047:
2028:
2006:
1994:
1982:
1970:
1929:
1917:
1905:
1893:
1866:
1854:
1835:
1801:
1782:
1763:
1658:
1646:
1634:
1622:
1603:
1584:
1572:
1536:
1524:
1512:
1500:
1488:
1476:
1449:
1442:
1430:
1425:
1418:Utility Week
1417:
1411:
1402:
1383:
1364:
1352:
1340:. Retrieved
1335:
1322:
1310:. Retrieved
1305:
1296:
1284:. Retrieved
1274:
1262:. Retrieved
1257:
1219:, p. 7.
1193:
1174:
1155:
1136:
1117:
1105:. Retrieved
1101:The Guardian
1100:
1090:
1078:. Retrieved
1073:
1064:
1014:
999:
990:
986:
983:Transformers
977:
964:voltage drop
938:
926:
865:
854:
852:
844:
837:
833:
798:
772:
764:
747:
732:
705:
694:
687:
663:
659:
651:
643:
640:
615:Old Montreal
583:semi-trailer
578:
576:
552:
537:
514:
465:
458:
450:
430:
410:
382:
373:
366:
362:
356:
354:
302:
274:transformers
268:
266:
245:distribution
232:transmission
221:
181:
178:Construction
155:
153:
146:
141:transformers
132:distribution
128:transmission
119:
117:
30:
2745:Load factor
2600:Black start
2568:Transformer
2269:Natural gas
2220:Variability
2195:Peak demand
2185:Merit order
2115:Backfeeding
2048:Substations
1723:Twomey 2018
1695:Twomey 2018
1441:Chapter 17
1286:14 December
1107:10 December
1026:fiber optic
996:Maintenance
911:Mineral oil
817:power plant
743:three-phase
49:Ground wire
2787:production
2632:Protective
2563:Super grid
2558:Smart grid
2385:Generation
2319:Geothermal
2210:Repowering
2011:Blume 2016
1999:Blume 2016
1910:Blume 2016
1886:Blume 2016
1871:Blume 2016
1859:Blume 2016
1828:Blume 2016
1678:Blume 2016
1663:Blume 2016
1651:Blume 2016
1342:11 October
1312:4 February
1264:4 February
1232:Blume 2016
1179:Okada 2018
1160:Okada 2018
1141:Okada 2018
1122:Okada 2018
1080:4 February
1056:References
1050:smart grid
1005:Automation
935:Capacitors
862:Switchgear
821:capacitors
795:Components
720:insulation
718:can cause
555:rectifiers
413:Brauweiler
307:plus some
184:contractor
156:substation
124:generation
120:substation
2695:Economics
2418:Micro CHP
2296:Renewable
2279:Petroleum
2274:Oil shale
2160:Grid code
2120:Base load
1987:Finn 2019
1975:Finn 2019
1922:Finn 2019
1898:Finn 2019
1639:Finn 2019
1627:Finn 2019
1577:Finn 2019
1541:Finn 2019
1529:Finn 2019
1517:Finn 2019
1505:Finn 2019
1493:Finn 2019
1481:Finn 2019
1469:Finn 2019
1454:Finn 2019
1357:Finn 2019
1217:Finn 2019
1198:Finn 2019
1042:IEC 61850
940:Capacitor
928:Reclosers
873:power arc
788:marconite
784:bentonite
775:grounding
768:flashover
712:lightning
468:switching
401:inverters
389:wind farm
210:, Finland
154:The word
96:Australia
92:Melbourne
2833:Category
2818:Category
2605:Brownout
2393:AC power
2103:Concepts
1306:metacafe
829:reactors
655:drainage
543:Railways
254:(AC) to
2634:devices
2344:Thermal
2339:Osmotic
2334:Current
2314:Biomass
2304:Biofuel
2286:Nuclear
2243:Sources
840:busbars
739:busbars
728:outages
421:lignite
349:Toronto
136:voltage
2329:Marine
2309:Biogas
2054:
2035:
1437:
1074:Jemena
1046:Modbus
917:Vacuum
827:, and
761:Safety
716:surges
629:river.
601:Design
417:Hradec
317:relays
204:Kaanaa
130:, and
2686:(GFI)
2575:(TSO)
2361:Solar
2349:Tidal
2324:Hydro
1332:(PDF)
1254:(PDF)
958:, or
813:fuses
735:buses
706:With
666:lease
587:truck
532:tower
517:fault
321:SCADA
194:Types
149:SCADA
2452:and
2371:Wind
2354:Wave
2264:Coal
2052:ISBN
2033:ISBN
1962:help
1940:help
1846:help
1812:help
1793:help
1774:help
1755:help
1729:help
1701:help
1614:help
1595:help
1564:help
1435:ISBN
1394:help
1375:help
1344:2017
1314:2016
1288:2013
1266:2016
1185:help
1166:help
1147:help
1128:help
1109:2022
1082:2016
1044:and
1038:DNP3
627:Bóbr
557:for
433:HVDC
319:and
258:(DC)
208:Pori
160:grid
891:(SF
811:or
786:or
595:war
593:or
525:arc
399:or
391:or
383:In
305:bus
2835::
1948:^
1878:^
1820:^
1737:^
1709:^
1685:^
1670:^
1548:^
1461:^
1410:,
1334:.
1304:.
1256:.
1239:^
1224:^
1205:^
1099:.
1072:.
1052:.
1040:,
1024:,
1020:,
853:A
823:,
672:.
577:A
530:a
355:A
327:.
315:,
267:A
206:,
126:,
118:A
94:,
2088:e
2081:t
2074:v
2060:.
2041:.
1964:)
1942:)
1848:)
1814:)
1795:)
1776:)
1757:)
1731:)
1703:)
1616:)
1597:)
1566:)
1396:)
1377:)
1346:.
1316:.
1290:.
1268:.
1187:)
1168:)
1149:)
1130:)
1111:.
1084:.
905:6
901:6
897:6
893:6
527:,
280:/
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.PNG)
