Electric power transmission

656: 508: 3964: 668: 837: 384: 181: 494: 1073: 256: 722: 1676: 1453: 145: 3778:, with margins for safety and fault tolerance. Peak load times vary by region largely due to the industry mix. In hot and cold climates home air conditioning and heating loads affect the overall load. They are typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-mornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. Power requirements vary by season and time of day. Distribution system designs always take the base load and the peak load into consideration. 1684: 4600: 82: 6963: 928: 7542: 1576:. Their voltage ranges overlap. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV, and 138 kV are often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point-to-point. 1476: 1016: 4833: 4499: 4415: 3859: 3705: 3560: 2464: 1612: 1489: 1363: 1099: 530: 41: 4042:, issued in 1996. In the United States and parts of Canada, electric transmission companies operate independently of generation companies, but in the Southern United States vertical integration is intact. In regions of separation, transmission owners and generation owners continue to interact with each other as market participants with voting rights within their RTO. RTOs in the United States are regulated by the 3688:) allows lines to operate at higher temperatures, with less sag, and doubled transmission capacity. Lowering line sag at high temperatures can prevent wildfires from starting when power lines touch dry vegetation. Although advanced lines can cost 2-4x more than steel, total reconductoring costs are less than half of a new line, given savings in time, land acquisition, permitting, and construction. 3823:, and other locally distributed storage and generation systems can interact with the grid to improve system operation. Internationally, a slow move from a centralized to decentralized power system has taken place. The main draw of locally distributed generation systems is that they reduce transmission losses by leading to consumption of electricity closer to where it was produced. 2848: 794:. It was powered by a steam engine-driven 500 V Siemens generator. Voltage was stepped down to 100 volts using the Stanley transformer to power incandescent lamps at 23 businesses over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). This practical demonstration of a transformer and alternating current lighting system led Westinghouse to begin installing AC systems later that year. 775:, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30 hp (22 kW), 2 kV at 120 Hz and used 19 km of cables and 200 parallel-connected 2 kV to 20 V step-down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. A few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, serving 1213:, which varies by conductor type, the current, and the transmission distance. For example, a 100 mi (160 km) span at 765 kV carrying 1000 MW of power can have losses of 0.5% to 1.1%. A 345 kV line carrying the same load across the same distance has losses of 4.2%. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the 700:(usually an oil) that is either static or circulated via pumps. If an electric fault damages the pipe and leaks dielectric, liquid nitrogen is used to freeze portions of the pipe to enable draining and repair. This extends the repair period and increases costs. The temperature of the pipe and surroundings are monitored throughout the repair period. 1284:(by increasing its cross-sectional area), larger conductors are heavier and more expensive. And since conductance is proportional to cross-sectional area, resistive power loss is only reduced proportionally with increasing cross-sectional area, providing a much smaller benefit than the squared reduction provided by multiplying the voltage. 3029: 2681: 1298:. Resistance increases with temperature. Spiraling, which refers to the way stranded conductors spiral about the center, also contributes to increases in conductor resistance. The skin effect causes the effective resistance to increase at higher AC frequencies. Corona and resistive losses can be estimated using a mathematical model. 2525: 3409: 3657:

Reconductoring has the potential to double the amount of electricity that can travel across a transmission line. A 2024 report found the United States behind countries like Belgium and the Netherlands in adoption of this technique to accommodate electrification and renewable energy. In April 2022, the

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rates and low commodity costs, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal. Otherwise, thinner conductors are indicated. Since power lines are designed for long-term use, Kelvin's law is used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates.

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in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3 μT (3 mG) to 0.4 μT (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential

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A major barrier to wider adoption of merchant transmission is the difficulty in identifying who benefits from the facility so that the beneficiaries pay the toll. Also, it is difficult for a merchant transmission line to compete when the alternative transmission lines are subsidized by utilities with

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For overhead cables the fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire. The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR)/Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution makes it possible to run the network to its maximum. It allows the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system to reflect major

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between source end voltage and destination ends increases, but too large a phase angle allows the systems at either end to fall out of step. Since the power flow in a DC link is controlled independently of the phases of the AC networks that it connects, this phase angle limit does not exist, and a DC

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Hydro and wind sources cannot be moved closer to big cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are nominal. Connection costs can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically realistic. Costs can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but high

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conducted a study to evaluate potential health effects of electric fields. The study measured the electric field strength at the edge of an existing right-of-way on a 765 kV transmission line. The field strength was 1.6 kV/m, and became the interim maximum strength standard for new transmission

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the generators are geographically distributed and the process to bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled. The load control signals can either be sent on separate lines or on the power lines themselves. Voltage and frequency can be used as signaling mechanisms to balance the loads.

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Unbalanced inductance among the three conductors is problematic because it may force the middle line to carry a disproportionate amount of the total power transmitted. Similarly, an unbalanced load may occur if one line is consistently closest to the ground and operates at a lower impedance. Because

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Transmission voltages increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914, fifty-five transmission systems operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest voltage then used was 150 kV. Interconnecting multiple generating plants over a wide area reduced costs. The most efficient plants

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In voltage signaling, voltage is varied to increase generation. The power added by any system increases as the line voltage decreases. This arrangement is stable in principle. Voltage-based regulation is complex to use in mesh networks, since the individual components and setpoints would need to be

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High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and it is less expensive to use

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of the surrounding conductors of other phases. The conductors' mutual inductance is partially dependent on the physical orientation of the lines with respect to each other. Three-phase lines are conventionally strung with phases separated vertically. The mutual inductance seen by a conductor of the

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in the US. These companies developed AC systems, but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems required a much longer technical merger. Alternating current's economies of scale with large generating plants and long-distance transmission slowly added the ability to link

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to the high main transmission voltage, because that equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high voltage. Voltage is stepped down before the current is sent to smaller substations. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a

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US transmission and distribution losses were estimated at 6.6% in 1997, 6.5% in 2007 and 5% from 2013 to 2019. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between power produced (as reported by power plants) and power sold; the difference constitutes transmission and distribution losses,

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Long-distance transmission (hundreds of kilometers) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$ 0.005–0.02 per kWh, compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$ 0.01–0.025 per kWh, retail rates upwards of US$ 0.10 per kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted

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Commercial electric power was initially transmitted at the same voltage used by lighting and mechanical loads. This restricted the distance between generating plant and loads. In 1882, DC voltage could not easily be increased for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example,

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The Earth's natural geomagnetic field strength varies over the surface of the planet between 0.035 mT and 0.07 mT (35 μT – 70 μT or 350 mG – 700 mG) while the international standard for continuous exposure is set at 40 mT (400,000 mG or 400 G) for the general public.

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The rate of transmission expansion needs to double to support ongoing electrification and reach emission reduction targets. As of 2022, more than 10,000 power plant and energy storage projects were awaiting permission to connect to the US grid — 95% were zero-carbon resources. New power lines can

474:, alternative routes for power to flow should such shutdowns occur. Transmission companies determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure that spare capacity is available in the event of a failure in another part of the network. 4257:

has made the concept of superconducting power lines commercially feasible, at least for high-load applications. It has been estimated that waste would be halved using this method, since the necessary refrigeration equipment would consume about half the power saved by the elimination of resistive

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This angle varies depending on system loading. It is undesirable for the angle to approach 90 degrees, as the power flowing decreases while resistive losses remain. The product of line length and maximum load is approximately proportional to the square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or

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The characteristic impedance is pure real, which means resistive for that impedance, and it is often called surge impedance. When a lossless line is terminated by surge impedance, the voltage does not drop. Though the phase angles of voltage and current are rotated, the magnitudes of voltage and

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The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's law for conductor size, which states that size is optimal when the annual cost of energy wasted in resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At times of lower interest

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In November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a cable climber 1 km vertically using a ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to 1 kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010, NASA contracted with private companies to pursue the

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The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line varies with the length of the line. The heating of short line conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors and equipment may overheat. For

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alloy, formed of several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter, reduces yields only marginally and costs much less. Overhead conductors are supplied by several companies. Conductor material and shapes are

411:(typically longer than 30 miles (50 km)), and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links stabilize power distribution networks where sudden new loads, or blackouts, in one part of a network might otherwise result in synchronization problems and 1027:

While the price of generating capacity is high, energy demand is variable, making it often cheaper to import needed power than to generate it locally. Because loads often rise and fall together across large areas, power often comes from distant sources. Because of the economic benefits of load

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would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two regional electrical grids. This is an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can become disrupted when AC system components fail and place unexpected loads on the grid. With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would:

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all the loads. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high-voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what became a universal system, these technological differences were temporarily bridged via the

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The long line model is used when a higher degree of accuracy is needed or when the line under consideration is more than 250 km (160 mi) long. Series resistance and shunt conductance are considered to be distributed parameters, such that each differential length of the line has a

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Overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, requiring that lines maintain minimum clearances. Adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, interrupt transmission. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating

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Some utilities have embraced reconductoring to handle the increase in electricity production. Reconductoring is the replacement-in-place of existing transmission lines with higher-capacity lines. Adding transmission lines is difficult due to cost, permit intervals, and local opposition.

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The medium line approximation is used for lines running between 80 and 250 km (50 and 155 mi). The series impedance and the shunt (current leak) conductance are considered, placing half of the shunt conductance at each end of the line. This circuit is often referred to as a

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To ensure safe and predictable operation, system components are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance.

693:. Underground cables take up no right-of-way, have lower visibility, and are less affected by weather. However, cables must be insulated. Cable and excavation costs are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. 990:(HVDC) systems require relatively costly conversion equipment that may be economically justified for particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity point-to-point transmission. HVDC is necessary for sending energy between unsynchronized grids. 442:

closely matches demand. If demand exceeds supply, the imbalance can cause generation plant(s) and transmission equipment to automatically disconnect or shut down to prevent damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a cascading series of shutdowns and a major regional

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of this phenomenon, conductors must be periodically transposed along the line so that each phase sees equal time in each relative position to balance out the mutual inductance seen by all three phases. To accomplish this, line position is swapped at specially designed

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flow, which transmits no power to the load. These reactive currents, however, cause extra heating losses. The ratio of real power transmitted to the load to apparent power (the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase angle) is the

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Some studies failed to find any link between living near power lines and developing any sickness or diseases, such as cancer. A 1997 study reported no increased risk of cancer or illness from living near a transmission line. Other studies, however, reported

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high demand moments. New York often buys over 1000 MW of low-cost hydropower from Canada. Local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can protect the power supply from weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.

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The cost of high voltage transmission is comparatively low, compared to all other costs constituting consumer electricity bills. In the UK, transmission costs are about 0.2 p per kWh compared to a delivered domestic price of around 10 p per kWh.

4159:. This policy established a magnetic field standard of 200 mG at the edge of the right-of-way using the winter-normal conductor rating. As a comparison with everyday items, a hair dryer or electric blanket produces a 100 mG – 500 mG magnetic field. 904:

could be used to supply varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital costs were reduced, because stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as

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The lossless line approximation is the least accurate; it is typically used on short lines where the inductance is much greater than the resistance. For this approximation, the voltage and current are identical at the sending and receiving ends.

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to customers. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 to 138 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to end-user voltage (100 to 4160 volts).

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decreases the voltage of incoming electricity, allowing it to connect from long-distance high-voltage transmission, to local lower voltage distribution. It also reroutes power to other transmission lines that serve local markets. This is the

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Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized power generation, only local control of generation is necessary. This involves

3640:(DTS) systems that measure temperatures all along the cable. Without them maximum current was typically set as a compromise between understanding of operation conditions and risk minimization. This monitoring solution uses passive 2172: 4138:

Mainstream scientific evidence suggests that low-power, low-frequency, electromagnetic radiation associated with household currents and high transmission power lines does not constitute a short- or long-term health hazard.

3060: 1012:. In the 19th century, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three wires with unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver little or no benefit. 4155:

lines in New York State. The opinion also limited the voltage of new transmission lines built in New York to 345 kV. On September 11, 1990, after a similar study of magnetic field strengths, the NYSPSC issued their

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at each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of power so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from

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states that energy losses are proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of two lowers the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of four for any given size of conductor.

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alternator and featured several Gaulard transformers with primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission over long distances.

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The four main models are the short line approximation, the medium line approximation, the long line approximation (with distributed parameters), and the lossless line. In such models, a capital letter such as

1349:, FACTS) throughout the system help to compensate for the reactive power flow, reduce the losses in power transmission and stabilize system voltages. These measures are collectively called 'reactive support'. 3542:(and possibly in other cooperating cities along the transmission route). Such a system could be less prone to failure if parts of it were suddenly shut down. One example of a long DC transmission line is the 434:

has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but lowers maintenance costs. Underground transmission is more common in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations.

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As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for DC transmission was 7,000 kilometres (4,300 miles). For AC it was 4,000 kilometres (2,500 miles), though US transmission lines are substantially shorter.

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The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to match loads with generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to the load, to prevent overloading generation equipment.

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Rarely, and for short distances, pilot-wires are strung along the transmission line path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred since availability is not under control of the operator.

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A reconductoring project in southeastern Texas upgraded 240 miles of transmission lines at a cost of $ 900,000 per mile, versus a 3,600-mile greenfield project that averaged $ 1.9 million per mile.

3024:{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {S} }\\I_{\mathrm {S} }\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&Z\\0&1\\\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {R} }\\I_{\mathrm {R} }\\\end{bmatrix}}} 2676:{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {S} }\\I_{\mathrm {S} }\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}A&B\\C&D\\\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {R} }\\I_{\mathrm {R} }\\\end{bmatrix}}} 1053:

have the potential to provide firm power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered to be firm. The remaining or

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Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single-wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power to remote areas at low cost. It is principally used for

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are ignored. The final result is that A = D = 1 per unit, B = Z Ohms, and C = 0. The associated transition matrix for this approximation is therefore:

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losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include larger conductor diameter, hollow cores or conductor bundles.

3065: 267:. Four circuits are shown. Two additional circuits are obscured by trees on the far right. The entire 6809 MW nameplate generation capacity of the dam is accommodated by these six circuits. 2440:(i.e. conversion of high voltage to low voltage near the consumption point), a larger fraction of the generator's power is transmitted to the consumption point and a lesser fraction is lost to 5028: 1247:

losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is decreased ten-fold to match the lower current, the

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Long-distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At higher voltages, where more than 2,000 kV exists between conductor and ground,

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Promoting Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-discriminatory Transmission Services by Public Utilities; Recovery of Stranded Costs by Public Utilities and Transmitting Utilities

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direct current instead. For a long transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the cost of the required converter stations at each end.

5476: 4253:(HTS) promise to revolutionize power distribution by providing lossless transmission. The development of superconductors with transition temperatures higher than the boiling point of 3516:

link is always able to transfer its full rated power. A DC link therefore stabilizes the AC grid at either end, since power flow and phase angle can then be controlled independently.

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phase-shifting transformers are used on long lines to improve stability. HVDC lines are restricted only by thermal and voltage drop limits, since the phase angle is not material.

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telecommunications are insufficiently reliable, while in some remote areas no common carrier is available. Communication systems associated with a transmission project may use:

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For transmission systems with low power factor, losses are higher than for systems with high power factor. Utilities add capacitor banks, reactors and other components (such as

1163:, power is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The voltage is then stepped up by the power station 6201: 2744: 2164: 1672:

High-voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive losses over long distances. This efficiency delivers a larger proportion of the generated power to the loads.

470:. Electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national, and even continent-wide networks to reduce the risk of such a failure by providing multiple 6656: 2686:

The line is assumed to be a reciprocal, symmetrical network, meaning that the receiving and sending labels can be switched with no consequence. The transmission matrix

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in the secondary branch, compared to the primary branch), then the circuit is again equivalent to a voltage divider, but the wires now have apparent resistance of only

4112:'s Order 1000, issued in 2010, attempted to reduce barriers to third party investment and creation of merchant transmission lines where a public policy need is found. 3629:

becomes the limiting factor. Approximately, the power flowing over an AC line is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and current at the ends.

3404:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&=D=\cosh(\gamma x){\text{ per unit}}\\B&=Z_{c}\sinh(\gamma x)\Omega \\C&={\frac {1}{Z_{c}}}\sinh(\gamma x)S\end{aligned}}} 2532:

The terminal characteristics of the transmission line are the voltage and current at the sending (S) and receiving (R) ends. The transmission line can be modeled as a

3241: 2438: 1275: 1245: 3809:, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.) 1787: 1740: 1569:, in urban areas buried cable may be used. The lower-voltage subtransmission lines use less right-of-way and simpler structures; undergrounding is less difficult. 2771: 2050:{\displaystyle P_{R}=V_{2}\times I=V{\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}\times {\frac {V}{R+R_{C}}}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}\times {\frac {V^{2}}{R+R_{C}}}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}P_{V}} 3452: 3432: 2122: 2102: 2082: 1760: 1713: 4147:

between various diseases and living or working near power lines. No adverse health effects have been substantiated for people not living close to power lines.

4066: 6403: 4963: 6429: 5003: 4910: 889: 2404:{\displaystyle P_{R}=V_{2}\times I_{2}={\frac {a^{2}R\times V^{2}}{(a^{2}R+R_{C})^{2}}}={\frac {a^{2}R}{a^{2}R+R_{C}}}P_{V}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}/a^{2}}}P_{V}} 880:

The first transmission of single-phase alternating current using high voltage came in Oregon in 1890 when power was delivered from a hydroelectric plant at

6473: 5050: 667: 6270: 6093: 779:. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4 kV to 100 V step-down transformers – one per user – with shunt-connected primaries. 5177: 6310: 5512: 3192:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&=D=1+{\frac {GZ}{2}}{\text{ per unit}}\\B&=Z\Omega \\C&=G{\Big (}1+{\frac {GZ}{4}}{\Big )}S\end{aligned}}} 1170:

In the United States, power transmission is, variously, 230 kV to 500 kV, with less than 230 kV or more than 500 kV as exceptions.

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corresponding differential series impedance and shunt admittance. The following result can be applied at any point along the transmission line, where

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Underground lines are limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating lines. Long underground AC cables have significant

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New York City streets in 1890. Besides telegraph lines, multiple electric lines were required for each class of device requiring different voltages.

6514: 5823: 3845:(also called load shedding) are intentionally engineered electrical power outages, used to distribute insufficient power to various loads in turn. 1032:

may span countries and even continents. Interconnections between producers and consumers enables power to flow even if some links are inoperative.

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Electrical energy must typically be generated at the same rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure that

6588: 6518: 707:, which reduces their ability to provide useful power beyond 50 miles (80 kilometres). DC cables are not limited in length by their capacitance. 5538: 4479:, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water pumps. Single-wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables. 4228:

are operated by the railways. Prime examples are countries such as Austria, Germany and Switzerland that utilize AC technology based on 16

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power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 μT (0.7 mG) in Europe and 0.11 μT (1.1 mG) in North America.

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Today, transmission-level voltages are usually 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered

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Superconducting cables are particularly suited to high load density areas such as the business district of large cities, where purchase of an

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Applications for a new transmission line typically include an analysis of electric and magnetic field levels at the edge of rights-of-way.

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Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as

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that allowed the legacy systems to connect to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.

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attempted to devise systems for large scale wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s, without commercial success.

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Grid operators require reliable communications to manage the grid and associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing

3677: 610:. For large conductors (more than a few centimetres in diameter), much of the current flow is concentrated near the surface due to the 514: 6673: 6385: 6194: 4703:

planned: 1.20 MV (Ultra-High Voltage) on Wardha-Aurangabad line (India) – under construction. Initially will operate at 400 kV.

4151: 3054:) that is taken on when leak conductance is placed on both sides of the circuit diagram. The analysis of the medium line produces: 6367: 5607: 730:

lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.

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Historically, transmission and distribution lines were often owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries

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has two primary interchange voltages: 500 kV AC at 60 Hz, and ±500 kV (1,000 kV net) DC from North to South (

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The first long distance AC line was 34 kilometres (21 miles) long, built for the 1884 International Exhibition of Electricity in

5565: 5649: 5615: 4942: 4235: Hz. Norway and Sweden also use this frequency but use conversion from the 50 Hz public supply; Sweden has a 16 716: 361: 20: 6649: 3661:

streamlined environmental reviews for such projects, and in May 2022 announced competitive grants for them funded by the 2021

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runs through the wire resistance and the powered device. As a consequence, the useful power (at the point of consumption) is:

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The level of capital expenditure in the electric power T&D equipment market was estimated to be $ 128.9 bn in 2011.

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The short line approximation is normally used for lines shorter than 80 km (50 mi). There, only a series impedance

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14 miles (23 km) down river. The first three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the

614:. The center of the conductor carries little current but contributes weight and cost. Thus, multiple parallel cables (called 423: 6274: 7566: 7545: 6962: 4133: 4043: 4027:(REE) and the wholesale electricity market operator is Operador del Mercado Ibérico de Energía – Polo Español, S.A. (OMEL) 1217:. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the 463: 294:. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as 7384: 4857: 4571:

design of laser power beaming systems to power low earth orbit satellites and to launch rockets using laser power beams.

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in California. Additional projects are in development or have been proposed throughout the United States, including the

4016:, but one that is not inherently linked to generation. Many countries regulate transmission separately from generation. 3990:, prohibit energy transmission companies from selling surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a telecommunications 7492: 6807: 4996: 4937: 4020: 3484:

are used. Submarine HVDC systems are often used to interconnect the electricity grids of islands, for example, between

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voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for

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International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, 1984 Session, 29 August – 6 September

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works with industry to identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks.

7112: 6776: 6742: 6725: 6031: 5870: 5700: 5374: 5305: 5116: 4999: 4785:, (Australia) – (length of submarine cable: 290 kilometres or 180 miles, total length: 370.1 kilometres or 230 miles) 4644: 4546: 4462: 4023:. In that country, transmission operations and electricity markets are separate. The transmission system operator is 3906: 3752: 3607: 2856:

current remain constant along the line. For load > SIL, the voltage drops from sending end and the line

2511: 1659: 1536: 1410: 1146: 967:

Transmission efficiency is improved at higher voltage and lower current. The reduced current reduces heating losses.

577: 242: 224: 202: 126: 68: 4967: 4528: 4444: 3888: 3734: 3589: 2493: 1641: 1518: 1392: 1128: 661:

A five-hundred kilovolt (500 kV) three-phase transmission tower in Washington State, the line is bundled 3-ways

559: 195: 6407: 4989: 4877: 4622: 104: 60: 6695: 6496: 6433: 7571: 7275: 7200: 7071: 5895: 5490: 4894: 4888: 4847: 4330: 4250: 3637: 2064:

convert high-voltage, low-current electricity into low-voltage, high-current electricity with a voltage ratio of

1346: 845: 791: 6481: 5850: 4920: 4524: 4440: 3963: 3884: 3730: 3585: 2489: 1637: 1514: 1388: 1124: 555: 455: 431: 400: 5170: 7576: 7447: 7379: 7369: 7245: 7145: 6800: 6532: 6299: 4707: 3662: 826: 5806:"FACT SHEET: Biden-⁠Harris Administration Launches Federal-State Initiative to Bolster America's Power Grid" 5516: 1803: 897: 618:) are used for higher capacity. Bundle conductors are used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by 7300: 7260: 6837: 5785: 5069:"Investigation of the September 2013 Electric Outage of a Portion of Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line" 4742: 4673: 4024: 961: 865: 590:

High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always an

3644:

as temperature sensors, either inside a high-voltage cable or externally mounted on the cable insulation.

3636:

Understanding the temperature distribution along the cable route became possible with the introduction of

507: 7527: 7522: 7240: 7205: 7181: 6882: 4905: 4796: 4681: 4163: 3467: 1588: 1573: 1461: 987: 404: 396: 295: 5827: 3831:

Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail incrementally rather than all at once.

1317:

can be significant. Currents that flow solely in reaction to these properties, (which together with the

1008:. Single-phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase 836: 7581: 7442: 7160: 7130: 6907: 6596: 6124:, The Health Report / ABC Science - Broadcast on 7 June 1997 (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) 3787: 3455: 1565:

where substations can switch to a backup supply. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on

1046: 1029: 1020: 1002: 822: 818: 459: 451: 392: 368: 333: 260: 4194: 3805:

In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission system. In

3511:

HVDC links can be used to control grid problems. The power transmitted by an AC line increases as the

7497: 6986: 6947: 6629: 6237: 5549: 4618: 4193:

Tree growth regulators and herbicides may be used in transmission line right of ways, which may have

2696: 1432:

phase in the middle of the other two phases is different from the inductance seen on the top/bottom.

1201:(APS) line) are local standards, both of which were implemented before 500 kV became practical. 852:

In the late 1880s and early 1890s smaller electric companies merged into larger corporations such as

607: 100: 6055: 829:. Widespread use of such motors were delayed many years by development problems and the scarcity of 7472: 7280: 7220: 6877: 6000: 4926: 4872: 4626: 4509: 4425: 4404: 4349: 3957: 3941: 3869: 3715: 3570: 3512: 2474: 1622: 1499: 1373: 1109: 630: 540: 471: 403:. DC technology is used for greater efficiency over longer distances, typically hundreds of miles. 189: 108: 7411: 7401: 7391: 6241: 5642:"How much electricity is lost in electricity transmission and distribution in the United States?" 4932: 4513: 4488: 4429: 4263: 4144: 4028: 3873: 3719: 3666: 3574: 2478: 2127: 1626: 1503: 1377: 1174: 1113: 919:, when large electrical generating plants were built by governments to power munitions factories. 912: 544: 467: 349: 345: 6114: 5956: 5756: 5475:

Paris, L.; Zini, G.; Valtorta, M.; Manzoni, G.; Invernizzi, A.; De Franco, N.; Vian, A. (1984).

5440: 848:, part of their Tesla Poly-phase System. Such polyphase innovations revolutionized transmission. 7332: 7195: 6978: 6867: 6455: 5366: 4862: 4731: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4062: 4058: 3832: 3794: 3626: 2817: 1342: 1281: 1198: 782:

Working to improve what he considered an impractical Gaulard-Gibbs design, electrical engineer

734: 353: 206: 5926: 5051:"After the Attacks: The Workers; Con Edison Crews Improvise as They Rewire a Truncated System" 956:. The transmission network is usually administered on a regional basis by an entity such as a 7467: 7235: 7230: 7210: 6745:, an excellent overview of development during the first 50 years of commercial electric power 5619: 4990:"A Primer on Electric Utilities, Deregulation, and Restructuring of U.S. Electricity Markets" 4575: 4476: 4031:. Spain's transmission system is interconnected with those of France, Portugal, and Morocco. 3621:

intermediate-length lines on the order of 100 kilometres (62 miles), the limit is set by the

3477: 3226: 1584: 1550: 1318: 998: 932: 911:

The 20th century's rapid industrialization made electrical transmission lines and grids

408: 357: 287: 5358: 2860:

VARs. For load < SIL, the voltage increases from the sending end, and the line

2417: 1250: 1220: 1076:

A high-power electrical transmission tower, 230 kV, double-circuit, also double-bundled

915:. Interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was spurred by 7061: 6823: 6343: 6300:"Transmission Vegetation Management NERC Standard FAC-003-2 Technical Reference Page 14/50" 4720: 4093: 3658: 3244: 1765: 1718: 1692: 1322: 968: 857: 783: 299: 6681: 517:. The conductor consists of seven strands of steel surrounded by four layers of aluminium. 340:

in North America, directly connects generators delivering AC power with the same relative

8: 7432: 7265: 7165: 7140: 7093: 6902: 6892: 6857: 6090:"The Electric Power Transmission & Distribution (T&D) Equipment Market 2011–2021" 5583: 5579: 4259: 4217: 4078: 4074: 3972: 3820: 3806: 3775: 3543: 3508:. Submarine connections up to 600 kilometres (370 mi) in length have been deployed. 3496:

and the Australian mainland, between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, between

2750: 1566: 1437: 1182: 1058: 1045:. Such facilities are nuclear, coal or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as 1005: 787: 786:

developed the first practical series AC transformer in 1885. Working with the support of

764: 741: 599: 483: 427: 383: 318: 27: 6347: 6328: 5641: 4077:, an underwater transmission line proposed by ITC Holdings Corp., connecting Ontario to 1554:

single line failure does not stop service to many customers for more than a short time.

158:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

7306: 6917: 6359: 5876: 5790: 5730: 5224: 5152: 4900: 4727: 4054: 4007: 3489: 3481: 3454:(the line length) in all parameters of the transmission matrix. This model applies the 3437: 3417: 2107: 2087: 2067: 1745: 1698: 771:

The first commercial AC distribution system entered service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi,

690: 634: 372: 6138: 2536:

and a 2 by 2 transmission matrix is used to model its behavior, as follows:

1334:. As reactive current increases, reactive power increases and power factor decreases. 7457: 7337: 6942: 6772: 6754: 6738: 6721: 6508: 6027: 5880: 5866: 5696: 5675: 5370: 5359: 5322: 5301: 5112: 5032: 4181:) (1,000 mG). In a residential setting, one study reported "limited evidence of 4050: 2061: 1601: 1549:

Subtransmission runs at relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all

1294:

Factors that affect resistance and thus loss include temperature, spiraling, and the

776: 412: 275: 6551: 6363: 5734: 5228: 5156: 4765:, (Norway/United Kingdom) – (length of submarine cable: 720 kilometres or 447 miles) 4586:. Major engineering and economic challenges face any solar power satellite project. 3956:

Transmission lines can be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or

1072: 733:

Thus, generators were sited near their loads, a practice that later became known as

7406: 7347: 7051: 7046: 7023: 6932: 6872: 6730: 6634: 6351: 5858: 5722: 5245: 5216: 5144: 5102: 4013: 3920: 3842: 1572:

No fixed cutoff separates subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and

1288: 1061:, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as 1050: 905: 885: 881: 870: 861: 841: 830: 810: 806: 749: 697: 646: 619: 615: 493: 439: 329:. The voltage is stepped up for transmission, then reduced for local distribution. 314: 279: 264: 255: 6263: 5319:

Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World

1041:

and is generally served by large facilities with constant operating costs, termed

7437: 7396: 7374: 7255: 7225: 7190: 7150: 6952: 6121: 5207:

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part Two".

5135:

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part One".

4852: 4254: 3994:. Where the regulatory structure permits, the utility can sell capacity in extra 3816: 3207: 2831:

refers to the total quantity summed over the line and a lowercase letter such as

1797: 1009: 949: 874: 802: 721: 696:

In some metropolitan areas, cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with

303: 5862: 1209:

Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to

7462: 7452: 7250: 6862: 6610: 6048:"FERC: Industries – Order No. 1000 – Transmission Planning and Cost Allocation" 5280: 4799:

length: 250 kilometres or 155 miles, total length: 262 kilometres or 163 miles)

4775:(Norway/Netherlands) – (length of submarine cable: 580 kilometres or 360 miles) 4762: 4684:

planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.

4564: 4170: 3991: 3960:(PLC). PLC signals can be easily received with a radio in the long wave range. 3929: 3685: 3641: 3535:

Use HVDC for the 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of cross-country transmission; and

1424: 1326: 1214: 1185:) and Northeast to Southwest (Utah to Southern California). The 287.5 kV ( 1178: 1062: 745: 684: 375:

in ways that led to separate companies handling transmission and distribution.

322: 2524: 1675: 7560: 7482: 7270: 7155: 7135: 7066: 7056: 7013: 6897: 6852: 6786: 5979:"How ITC Holdings plans to connect PJM demand with Ontario's rich renewables" 5851:"Strengths and weaknesses of traditional arrangements for electricity supply" 5726: 5220: 5148: 4838: 4749: 4662: 3946: 3925: 3519:

As an example, to adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between

3501: 3485: 3480:

where AC cannot be used because of cable capacitance. In these cases special

2441: 1452: 1338: 1210: 1160: 994: 5713:

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Alternating Evolution of DC Power Transmission".

5608:"Where can I find data on electricity transmission and distribution losses?" 5285:

Evolving Technology and Market Structure: Studies in Schumpeterian Economics

4795:(Germany/Sweden) – (length of submarine cable: 238 kilometres or 148 miles, 4574:

Wireless power transmission has been studied for transmission of power from

7502: 7477: 7342: 7311: 7125: 6927: 4915: 4788: 4560: 4178: 4174: 3836: 3812: 3681: 3680:). Replacing the steel with a lighter, stronger composite material such as 3622: 1469: 1465: 1331: 814: 760: 642: 603: 444: 419: 5337: 5335: 1683: 387:

A diagram of an electric power system. The transmission system is in blue.

7327: 7295: 7088: 7076: 6996: 6922: 6912: 6842: 5809: 4867: 4782: 3979:). Sometimes a standalone cable is used, all-dielectric self-supporting ( 3676:

Traditional power lines use a steel core surrounded by aluminum strands (

3505: 3043: 2809: 1457: 1314: 1295: 1194: 1190: 1164: 982: 953: 927: 916: 772: 753: 704: 611: 326: 283: 6404:"Superconducting cables will be used to supply electricity to consumers" 6329:"Energy losses of superconducting power transmission cables in the grid" 4818:(Australia) – (length of underground cable: 170 kilometres or 106 miles) 7290: 7285: 7098: 7081: 6937: 6792: 5361:

Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations

5332: 4807: 4792: 4738: 4711: 4182: 4101: 4097: 3995: 3497: 2801: 1428: 1310: 1186: 1082: 1042: 941: 937: 896:. A 15 kV transmission line, approximately 175 km long, connected 853: 6355: 5923:"Rethink the Natural Monopoly Justification of Electricity Regulation" 1475: 1167:

to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC) for transmission.

1085:

transmission network costs could be recovered with modest usage fees.

645:

and loss of supply. Oscillatory motion of the physical line is termed

426:

that occurs over long distances. Power is usually transmitted through

7006: 7001: 6887: 6847: 4815: 4811: 4772: 4753: 4579: 3987: 3936: 2533: 1793: 1037: 908:

power or mine-mouth coal, could be exploited to further lower costs.

893: 309:

Efficient long-distance transmission of electric power requires high

6650:"Development of UHV Transmission and Insulation Technology in China" 4498: 4414: 3967:

High-voltage pylons carrying additional optical fibre cable in Kenya

3858: 3704: 3559: 2463: 1611: 1488: 1362: 1098: 790:, in 1886 he demonstrated a transformer-based AC lighting system in 529: 7120: 5263: 4778: 4583: 4270: 4089: 4085: 3493: 798: 591: 499:

A four-circuit, two-voltage power transmission line; Bundled 2-ways

310: 4034:

The establishment of RTOs in the United States was spurred by the

1762:, when the wires are long enough to have a significant resistance 1015: 344:

to many consumers. North America has four major interconnections:

7041: 7031: 6079:/ National Grid in the UK (note this excludes distribution costs) 4832: 4108:

a monopolized and regulated rate base. In the United States, the

4096:. Two DC links originally implemented as market interconnectors, 4070: 3520: 1561:, where loss of one circuit should result in no interruption, or 756:

provided with 1:1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881.

5757:"There Is a Stupidly Easy Way To Expand the Grid - Heatmap News" 5344:

Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930

5108:

Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930

4049:

Merchant transmission projects in the United States include the

3202:

Counterintuitive behaviors of medium-length transmission lines:

298:. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of 290:. The interconnected lines that facilitate this movement form a 7036: 6735:

Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880–1930

6264:"Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Power" 5786:"The U.S. Urgently Needs a Bigger Grid. Here's a Fast Solution" 5470: 5468: 5111:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 119–122. 4768: 3524: 2847: 6751:

Connecting the Country – New Zealand's National Grid 1886–2007

6533:"Operation of longest superconducting cable worldwide started" 5441:"Distribution Substations - Michigan Technological University" 3802:

reconfigured every time a new generator is added to the mesh.

1280:

While power loss can also be reduced by increasing the wire's

1065:

or combustion turbine plants typically fueled by natural gas.

26:"Power lines" redirects here. For power lines in general, see 6589:"UPDATE 2-US concerned power grid vulnerable to cyber-attack" 5484: 4748:

Longest span of power line: 5,376 m (17,638 ft) at

3414:

To find the voltage and current at the end of the long line,

2792:

differ depending on how the desired model handles the line's

1742:) to a single point of consumption, modelled by a resistance 1691:

In a simplified model, the grid delivers electricity from an

5465: 5390:

Argersinger, R.E. (1915). "Electric Transmission of Power".

1277:

losses are still reduced ten-fold using the higher voltage.

6991: 6783:

Electric power transmission patents; Tesla polyphase system

5477:"Present Limits of Very Long Distance Transmission Systems" 5421:

Bureau of Census data reprinted in Hughes, pp. 282–283

5357:

Garud, Raghu; Kumaraswamy, Arun; Langlois, Richard (2009).

5264:"William Stanley – Engineering and Technology History Wiki" 4882: 4109: 4035: 948:

These networks use components such as power lines, cables,

5350: 5027:

Hans Dieter Betz, Ulrich Schumann, Pierre Laroche (2009).

6383: 4672:

In June 2019, Russia conceded that it was "possible" its

4084:

Australia has one unregulated or market interconnector –

4012:

Electricity transmission is generally considered to be a

1595: 752:

built what they called the secondary generator, an early

649:

depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.

5474: 5408:

Kiessling F, Nefzger P, Nolasco JF, Kaintzyk U. (2003).

5356: 4242: Hz traction grid but only for part of the system. 391:

Most North American transmission lines are high-voltage

6497:"High-Temperature Superconductor Technology Stepped Up" 5693:

Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition

5240: 5238: 3983:) cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms. 2851:

Voltage on sending and receiving ends for lossless line

1796:

with no intervening transformer, the circuit acts as a

1427:

that surrounds the lines of each phase and affects the

6386:"Superconducting power line to shore up New York grid" 5515:. New York Independent System Operator. Archived from 4173:

high level exposure to magnetic fields above 100

3538:

Convert the HVDC to locally synchronized AC in Boston,

2982: 2946: 2899: 2634: 2598: 2551: 6737:, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1983 6570:"Hackers reportedly have embedded code in power grid" 4911:

List of high-voltage underground and submarine cables

4266:

began commercial production of such systems in 2007.

4224:

run on low frequency AC power, separate single phase

3440: 3420: 3256: 3229: 3063: 2893: 2753: 2699: 2545: 2420: 2175: 2130: 2110: 2090: 2070: 1857: 1806: 1768: 1748: 1721: 1701: 1587:

transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for

1423:

Current flowing through transmission lines induces a

1253: 1223: 1035:

The slowly varying portion of demand is known as the

979:

Higher voltage is achieved in AC circuits by using a

6587:

Holland, Steve; Mikkelsen, Randall (April 8, 2009).

5602: 5600: 5235: 5029:

Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications.

4828: 3213:

receiving-end current can exceed sending-end current

6611:"US and Russia clash over power grid 'hack attacks" 6271:

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

5896:"Power transmission business is a natural monopoly" 5893: 5412:. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, p. 5 3774:The transmission system provides for base load and 1001:. Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with 6753:. Wellington: Steele Roberts. pp. 376 pages. 6224: 6222: 3835:occur when power supplied drops below the demand. 3446: 3426: 3403: 3235: 3191: 3023: 2765: 2738: 2675: 2432: 2403: 2158: 2116: 2096: 2076: 2049: 1840: 1781: 1754: 1734: 1707: 1440:at regular intervals along the line using various 1269: 1239: 817:. Westinghouse licensed Tesla's design. Practical 6326: 5597: 3177: 3149: 673:Three abreast electrical pylons in Webster, Texas 7558: 6586: 6495:Patel, 03/01/2012 | Sonal (March 1, 2012). 6135:"WHO | Electromagnetic fields and public health" 5274: 5202: 5200: 5198: 5101: 4706:worldwide: 1.15 MV (Ultra-High Voltage) on 2700: 6219: 5130: 5128: 4104:, were converted to regulated interconnectors. 6336:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 5920: 4482: 3461: 6808: 6785:". (Transmission of power; polyphase system; 6748: 6077:What is the cost per kWh of bulk transmission 5750: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5706: 5195: 4734:(China) (height: 345 m or 1,132 ft) 4667:United States Department of Homeland Security 4661:stated that the power grid is susceptible to 4607:The examples and perspective in this article 4169:Biological effects have been established for 3928:and other faults is usually so critical that 3648:changes to its initial operating conditions. 3492:, between Great Britain and Ireland, between 763:. It was powered by a 2 kV, 130 Hz 462:, and major blackouts in other US regions in 313:. This reduces the losses produced by strong 89:The examples and perspective in this article 6513:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5577: 5341: 5125: 4966:. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Archived from 4676:is under cyber-attack by the United States. 4582:or laser transmitters would beam power to a 4166:typically do not comment on health impacts. 2454:Performance and modelling of AC transmission 633:. Voltages above 765 kV are considered 362:One grid connects most of continental Europe 6630:"How Not To Prevent a Cyberwar With Russia" 6474:"IBM100 - High-Temperature Superconductors" 6021: 5848: 5826:. EnPowered. March 28, 2016. Archived from 5783: 5670:Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty. (2007), 5389: 4745:) (length: 1,700 kilometres or 1,056 miles) 4527:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4443:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4398: 4200: 4157:Interim Policy Statement on Magnetic Fields 4019:Spain was the first country to establish a 3887:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3733:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3588:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2492:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1640:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1517:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1391:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1127:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 558:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 69:Learn how and when to remove these messages 6815: 6801: 6517:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 6384:New Scientist and Reuters (May 22, 2007). 6230:"Electromagnetic fields and public health" 5754: 5741: 5672:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 5176:. National Council on Electricity Policy. 3678:Aluminium-conductor steel-reinforced cable 3673:take 10 years to plan, permit, and build. 3206:voltage rise at no load or small current ( 1456:A 115 kV subtransmission line in the 598:Conductor sizes range from 12 mm (#6 6627: 6200:. Transpower New Zealand Ltd. p. 2. 5779: 5777: 5712: 5206: 5134: 4645:Learn how and when to remove this message 4547:Learn how and when to remove this message 4463:Learn how and when to remove this message 4245: 3907:Learn how and when to remove this message 3753:Learn how and when to remove this message 3608:Learn how and when to remove this message 2512:Learn how and when to remove this message 1660:Learn how and when to remove this message 1579: 1537:Learn how and when to remove this message 1411:Learn how and when to remove this message 1147:Learn how and when to remove this message 737:using large numbers of small generators. 595:regularly improved to increase capacity. 578:Learn how and when to remove this message 243:Learn how and when to remove this message 225:Learn how and when to remove this message 127:Learn how and when to remove this message 6822: 5646:Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity 5612:Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity 5097: 5095: 5048: 4680:reported that American hackers from the 4152:New York State Public Service Commission 3962: 2846: 2835:refers to the per-unit-length quantity. 2523: 1682: 1674: 1474: 1451: 1071: 1014: 926: 835: 720: 382: 325:(DC). The voltage level is changed with 254: 188:This article includes a list of general 6718:The Electric Power Engineering Handbook 6327:Jacob Oestergaard; et al. (2001). 6195:"Electric and Magnetic Field Strengths" 5949:"FERC: Landmark Orders – Order No. 888" 5894:Raghuvir Srinivasan (August 15, 2004). 5857:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 16. 5824:"The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation" 5755:Pontecorvo, Emily (February 20, 2024). 5634: 4659:Federal government of the United States 3788:synchronization of the generation units 2528:"Black box" model for transmission line 7559: 6549: 5774: 5650:U.S. Energy Information Administration 5616:U.S. Energy Information Administration 5566:California Public Utilities Commission 5049:Banerjee, Neela (September 16, 2001). 4943:Wheeling (electric power transmission) 3839:occur when the grid fails completely. 3546:located in the Western United States. 1841:{\displaystyle I={\frac {V}{R+R_{C}}}} 1596:Advantage of high-voltage transmission 717:History of electric power transmission 21:Electric transmission (disambiguation) 6796: 6700:Transmission & Distribution World 6662:from the original on October 9, 2022. 6494: 6373:from the original on October 9, 2022. 6316:from the original on October 9, 2022. 6256: 6026:. Pennwell Books. pp. 226, 247. 5298:Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age 5092: 4982: 4719:Largest double-circuit transmission, 4205: 4115: 4061:, Neptune RTS Transmission Line from 3826: 1679:Electrical grid without a transformer 689:Electric power can be transmitted by 6781:Westinghouse Electric Corporation, " 6280:from the original on October 9, 2022 6207:from the original on October 9, 2022 5715:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5453:from the original on October 9, 2022 5209:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5183:from the original on October 9, 2022 5171:"Electricity Transmission: A primer" 5163: 5137:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5009:from the original on October 9, 2022 4593: 4578:to the earth. A high power array of 4525:adding citations to reliable sources 4492: 4441:adding citations to reliable sources 4408: 4134:Electromagnetic radiation and health 4044:Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 3885:adding citations to reliable sources 3852: 3731:adding citations to reliable sources 3698: 3586:adding citations to reliable sources 3553: 2490:adding citations to reliable sources 2457: 1638:adding citations to reliable sources 1605: 1515:adding citations to reliable sources 1482: 1389:adding citations to reliable sources 1356: 1125:adding citations to reliable sources 1092: 993:A transmission grid is a network of 922: 890:international electricity exhibition 626: 556:adding citations to reliable sources 523: 450:The US Northeast faced blackouts in 174: 138: 75: 34: 6430:"Superconductivity's First Century" 6137:. December 24, 2007. Archived from 5925:. Reason Foundation. Archived from 5618:. November 19, 2009. Archived from 4956: 4858:List of energy storage power plants 4700:Highest transmission voltage (AC): 4081:in the PJM Interconnection region. 4001: 809:current, independently invented by 606:area), with varying resistance and 13: 7493:Renewable energy commercialization 6710: 6552:"Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'" 5921:Lynne Kiesling (August 18, 2003). 4997:United States Department of Energy 4938:Radio frequency power transmission 4883:Electromagnetic Transients Program 4127: 4021:regional transmission organization 3625:in the line. For longer AC lines, 3342: 3127: 3007: 2991: 2924: 2908: 2659: 2643: 2576: 2560: 1687:Electrical grid with a transformer 1447: 1302:assuming no utility theft occurs. 958:regional transmission organization 844:generators on display at the 1893 407:(HVDC) technology is also used in 194:it lacks sufficient corresponding 16:Bulk movement of electrical energy 14: 7593: 6628:Greenberg, Andy (June 18, 2019). 6480:. August 10, 2017. Archived from 5691:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty, 5578:Curt Harting (October 24, 2010). 5365:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5321:. Random House Trade Paperbacks. 5000:Federal Energy Management Program 3848: 3769: 3651: 2104:and the current is multiplied by 2084:(i.e., the voltage is divided by 1479:115 kV H-frame transmission tower 840:Westinghouse alternating current 797:In 1888 the first designs for an 602:) to 750 mm (1,590,000 422:to reduce the energy loss due to 50:This article has multiple issues. 7541: 7540: 6961: 6550:Shiels, Maggie (April 9, 2009). 5039:. Retrieved on 13 May 2009. 4878:Double-circuit transmission line 4831: 4598: 4497: 4413: 4251:High-temperature superconductors 3857: 3703: 3558: 3532:Convert AC in Seattle into HVDC; 2838: 2462: 1610: 1487: 1361: 1352: 1347:flexible AC transmission systems 1097: 666: 654: 528: 506: 492: 317:. Transmission lines use either 179: 143: 80: 39: 6767:Pansini, Anthony J, E.E., P.E. 6688: 6666: 6642: 6621: 6603: 6580: 6562: 6543: 6525: 6488: 6466: 6448: 6422: 6396: 6377: 6320: 6292: 6187: 6175:. TRC. March 2010. pp. 1–4 6165: 6153: 6127: 6108: 6082: 6070: 6040: 6015: 5999:. July 18, 2008. Archived from 5989: 5971: 5941: 5914: 5887: 5855:Handbook on Electricity Markets 5842: 5816: 5798: 5685: 5664: 5571: 5559: 5539:"Transmission Facts, p. 4" 5531: 5505: 5491:Global Energy Network Institute 5433: 5424: 5415: 5402: 5383: 5311: 5290: 5256: 4895:Geomagnetically induced current 4889:Flexible AC transmission system 4848:Dynamic demand (electric power) 3638:distributed temperature sensing 2739:{\displaystyle \det(T)=AD-BC=1} 792:Great Barrington, Massachusetts 637:and require different designs. 401:railway electrification systems 259:Five-hundred kilovolt (500 kV) 58:or discuss these issues on the 5997:"NEMMCO Power System Planning" 5784:Brad Plumer (April 14, 2024). 5674:(15th ed.). McGraw-Hill. 5346:. JHU Press. pp. 120–121. 5300:. Princeton University Press. 5083: 5061: 5042: 5021: 3391: 3382: 3339: 3330: 3292: 3283: 3050:circuit because of the shape ( 3034: 2816:), and shunt (parallel, leak) 2709: 2703: 2276: 2246: 678: 432:Underground power transmission 418:Electricity is transmitted at 1: 7488:Renewable Energy Certificates 7448:Cost of electricity by source 7370:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 7246:High-voltage shore connection 6769:undergrounding electric lines 6024:Global Transmission Expansion 5849:Schmalensee, Richard (2021). 5580:"AC Transmission Line Losses" 5342:Parke Hughes, Thomas (1993). 5246:"Great Barrington Experiment" 4949: 3663:Bipartisan Infrastructure Law 3504:, and between New Jersey and 2867: 1088: 1057:power demand, is supplied by 827:Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown 7503:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 7301:Transmission system operator 7261:Mains electricity by country 6838:Automatic generation control 6771:. US: Hayden Book Co, 1978. 5296:Carlson, W. Bernard (2013). 5071:. documents.dps.ny.gov. 2014 5031:Springer, pp. 202–203. 4804:Longest underground cables: 4743:Democratic Republic of Congo 3986:Some jurisdictions, such as 3795:distributed power generation 3217: 2166:. The useful power is then: 1030:wide area transmission grids 962:transmission system operator 7: 7567:Electric power transmission 7528:List of electricity sectors 7523:Electric energy consumption 7241:High-voltage direct current 7216:Electric power transmission 7206:Electric power distribution 6883:Energy return on investment 6674:"准东-皖南±1100千伏特高压直流输电工程竣工投运" 6240:. June 2007. Archived from 5863:10.4337/9781788979955.00008 5568:Corona and induced currents 4906:Grid-tied electrical system 4824: 4682:United States Cyber Command 4621:, discuss the issue on the 4589: 4483:Wireless power transmission 4029:OMEL Holding | Omel Holding 3549: 3468:High-voltage direct current 3462:High-voltage direct current 2447: 2159:{\displaystyle R_{C}/a^{2}} 1800:, because the same current 988:High-voltage direct current 744:(AC) became possible after 647:conductor gallop or flutter 641:clearances, resulting in a 477: 405:High-voltage direct current 296:electric power distribution 272:Electric power transmission 103:, discuss the issue on the 10: 7598: 7443:Carbon offsets and credits 7161:Three-phase electric power 4759:Longest submarine cables: 4697:(准东-皖南)±1100 kV HVDC. 4687: 4486: 4402: 4379: 4365: 4348: 4312: 4258:losses. Companies such as 4209: 4164:Public utility commissions 4131: 4005: 3694: 3465: 2451: 1599: 1309:In any AC line, conductor 1047:concentrated solar thermal 997:, transmission lines, and 823:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky 714: 710: 682: 481: 334:wide area synchronous grid 261:Three-phase electric power 25: 18: 7536: 7511: 7498:Renewable Energy Payments 7421: 7358: 7320: 7174: 7111: 7022: 6987:Fossil fuel power station 6977: 6970: 6959: 6830: 6720:. US: CRC Press. (2001). 6238:World Health Organization 6173:"EMF Report for the CHPE" 5089:NYSPSC case no. 13-E-0529 4964:"Grand Coulee Powerplant" 4927:Power-line communications 4693:Highest capacity system: 1204: 608:current-carrying capacity 378: 152:This article needs to be 7281:Single-wire earth return 7221:Electrical busbar system 6878:Energy demand management 6456:"HTS Transmission Cable" 5727:10.1109/MIE.2013.2272238 5430:Hughes, pp. 293–295 5221:10.1109/MIE.2013.2256297 5149:10.1109/MIE.2012.2236484 4873:Conductor marking lights 4708:Ekibastuz-Kokshetau line 4405:Single-wire earth return 4399:Single-wire earth return 4366:Manhattan: Project Hydra 4216:In some countries where 4201:Specialized transmission 4145:statistical correlations 3958:power-line communication 3942:Power-line communication 3434:should be replaced with 1551:distribution substations 1468:, all mounted on a wood 1460:, along with 20 kV 1081:capacity, long distance 821:motors were designed by 691:underground power cables 399:AC is sometimes used in 274:is the bulk movement of 7412:Residual-current device 7402:Power system protection 7392:Generator interlock kit 6716:Grigsby, L. L., et al. 6234:Fact sheet No. 322 6120:April 17, 2011, at the 5900:The Hindu Business Line 5703:, pages 15–57 and 15–58 5546:American Electric Power 5392:General Electric Review 4933:Power system simulation 4489:Wireless power transfer 4277:HTS transmission lines 4264:American Superconductor 4226:traction power networks 4222:electric multiple units 4025:Red Eléctrica de España 3667:Inflation Reduction Act 3456:Telegrapher's equations 3236:{\displaystyle \gamma } 1792:If the resistances are 1343:static VAR compensators 1175:Western Interconnection 933:transmission substation 913:critical infrastructure 846:World's Fair in Chicago 831:polyphase power systems 209:more precise citations. 7572:Electrical engineering 7196:Distributed generation 6868:Electric power quality 6749:Reilly, Helen (2008). 6684:on September 30, 2019. 6460:www.superpower-inc.com 6162:(issued June 19, 1978) 6115:Power Lines and Cancer 4863:Traction power network 4732:Yangtze River Crossing 4576:solar power satellites 4273:for cables is costly. 4246:Superconducting cables 4212:Traction power network 4063:Sayreville, New Jersey 4059:New Haven, Connecticut 3968: 3476:HVDC is used for long 3448: 3428: 3405: 3237: 3193: 3025: 2852: 2767: 2740: 2677: 2529: 2434: 2433:{\displaystyle a>1} 2405: 2160: 2118: 2098: 2078: 2051: 1842: 1783: 1756: 1736: 1709: 1688: 1680: 1580:Transmission grid exit 1480: 1472: 1271: 1270:{\displaystyle I^{2}R} 1241: 1240:{\displaystyle I^{2}R} 1199:Arizona Public Service 1077: 1024: 945: 849: 833:needed to power them. 735:distributed generation 726: 409:submarine power cables 388: 371:the regulation of the 268: 263:Transmission Lines at 7468:Fossil fuel phase-out 7236:Electricity retailing 7231:Electrical substation 7211:Electric power system 5695:, McGraw Hill, 1978, 5317:Jonnes, Jill (2004). 4695:12 GW Zhundong–Wannan 4477:rural electrification 4331:Holbrook, Long Island 4079:load serving entities 3998:to a common carrier. 3966: 3449: 3429: 3406: 3238: 3194: 3026: 2876:is considered, while 2850: 2768: 2741: 2678: 2527: 2435: 2406: 2161: 2119: 2099: 2079: 2052: 1843: 1784: 1782:{\displaystyle R_{C}} 1757: 1737: 1735:{\displaystyle P_{V}} 1715:, delivering a power 1710: 1686: 1678: 1478: 1455: 1442:transposition schemes 1272: 1242: 1075: 1018: 930: 898:Lauffen on the Neckar 866:Westinghouse Electric 839: 801:appeared. These were 724: 386: 288:electrical substation 258: 7577:Monopoly (economics) 6824:Electricity delivery 6599:on January 13, 2016. 6141:on December 24, 2007 6022:Fiona Woolf (2003). 5959:on December 19, 2016 5929:on February 13, 2008 5622:on December 12, 2012 5410:Overhead power lines 5250:edisontechcenter.org 4737:Longest power line: 4721:Kita-Iwaki Powerline 4627:create a new article 4619:improve this article 4609:may not represent a 4521:improve this section 4437:improve this section 4218:electric locomotives 4067:New Bridge, New York 3881:improve this section 3821:virtual power plants 3776:peak load capability 3727:improve this section 3659:Biden Administration 3582:improve this section 3438: 3418: 3254: 3245:propagation constant 3227: 3061: 2891: 2751: 2697: 2690:has the properties: 2543: 2486:improve this section 2418: 2173: 2128: 2108: 2088: 2068: 1855: 1804: 1766: 1746: 1719: 1699: 1693:ideal voltage source 1634:improve this section 1511:improve this section 1470:subtransmission pole 1438:transposition towers 1385:improve this section 1251: 1221: 1121:improve this section 1059:peaking power plants 784:William Stanley, Jr. 765:Siemens & Halske 552:improve this section 428:overhead power lines 300:electricity delivery 292:transmission network 109:create a new article 101:improve this article 91:may not represent a 19:For other uses, see 7433:Availability factor 7385:Sulfur hexafluoride 7266:Overhead power line 7166:Virtual power plant 7141:Induction generator 7094:Sustainable biofuel 6903:Home energy storage 6893:Grid energy storage 6858:Droop speed control 6696:"India Steps It Up" 6348:2001ITAS...11.2375O 6058:on October 30, 2018 5985:. December 8, 2014. 5584:Stanford University 5519:on December 2, 2018 4299:Carrollton, Georgia 4278: 4260:Consolidated Edison 4075:Lake Erie Connector 3973:optical ground wire 3807:droop speed control 3544:Pacific DC Intertie 3482:high-voltage cables 2766:{\displaystyle A=D} 1197:) and 345 kV ( 1183:Southern California 788:George Westinghouse 742:alternating current 600:American wire gauge 484:Overhead power line 319:alternating current 28:Overhead power line 7307:Transmission tower 6918:Nameplate capacity 6436:on August 12, 2012 5791:The New York Times 5055:The New York Times 5002:(FEMP). May 2002. 4901:Graphene-clad wire 4678:The New York Times 4276: 4206:Grids for railways 4116:Transmission costs 4055:Shoreham, New York 4008:Electricity market 3969: 3827:Failure protection 3490:continental Europe 3444: 3424: 3401: 3399: 3233: 3189: 3187: 3021: 3015: 2971: 2932: 2853: 2763: 2736: 2673: 2667: 2623: 2584: 2530: 2430: 2401: 2156: 2114: 2094: 2074: 2047: 1838: 1779: 1752: 1732: 1705: 1689: 1681: 1481: 1473: 1267: 1237: 1078: 1025: 946: 850: 727: 635:extra high voltage 413:cascading failures 389: 373:electricity market 269: 7582:Electrical safety 7554: 7553: 7458:Environmental tax 7338:Cascading failure 7107: 7106: 6943:Utility frequency 6760:978-1-877448-40-9 6731:Hughes, Thomas P. 6484:on April 3, 2012. 6356:10.1109/77.920339 6160:Opinion No. 78-13 5682:section 18.5 5680:978-0-07-144146-9 5652:. January 9, 2019 5513:"NYISO Zone Maps" 5327:978-0-375-75884-3 5270:. August 8, 2017. 5037:978-1-4020-9078-3 4970:on April 29, 2014 4655: 4654: 4647: 4629:, as appropriate. 4557: 4556: 4549: 4473: 4472: 4465: 4396: 4395: 4051:Cross Sound Cable 3921:protective relays 3917: 3916: 3909: 3843:Rolling blackouts 3763: 3762: 3755: 3618: 3617: 3610: 3447:{\displaystyle l} 3427:{\displaystyle x} 3374: 3298: 3173: 3108: 3103: 2522: 2521: 2514: 2389: 2336: 2286: 2117:{\displaystyle a} 2097:{\displaystyle a} 2077:{\displaystyle a} 2062:ideal transformer 2035: 2007: 1972: 1944: 1916: 1836: 1755:{\displaystyle R} 1708:{\displaystyle V} 1670: 1669: 1662: 1602:Ideal transformer 1547: 1546: 1539: 1421: 1420: 1413: 1157: 1156: 1149: 1021:synchronous grids 969:Joule's first law 940:Hale Substation, 923:Bulk transmission 871:rotary converters 777:Grosvenor Gallery 616:bundle conductors 588: 587: 580: 276:electrical energy 253: 252: 245: 235: 234: 227: 173: 172: 137: 136: 129: 111:, as appropriate. 73: 7589: 7544: 7543: 7453:Energy subsidies 7407:Protective relay 7348:Rolling blackout 6975: 6974: 6965: 6933:Power-flow study 6873:Electrical fault 6817: 6810: 6803: 6794: 6793: 6764: 6704: 6703: 6692: 6686: 6685: 6680:. Archived from 6678:xj.xinhuanet.com 6670: 6664: 6663: 6661: 6654: 6646: 6640: 6639: 6625: 6619: 6618: 6617:. June 18, 2019. 6607: 6601: 6600: 6595:. Archived from 6584: 6578: 6577: 6576:. April 9, 2009. 6566: 6560: 6559: 6547: 6541: 6540: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6512: 6504: 6492: 6486: 6485: 6470: 6464: 6463: 6452: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6441: 6432:. Archived from 6426: 6420: 6419: 6417: 6415: 6410:on July 14, 2014 6406:. Archived from 6400: 6394: 6393: 6381: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6333: 6324: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6304: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6285: 6279: 6268: 6260: 6254: 6253: 6251: 6249: 6226: 6217: 6216: 6214: 6212: 6206: 6199: 6191: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6169: 6163: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6148: 6146: 6131: 6125: 6112: 6106: 6105: 6103: 6101: 6096:on June 18, 2011 6092:. Archived from 6086: 6080: 6074: 6068: 6067: 6065: 6063: 6054:. Archived from 6044: 6038: 6037: 6019: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6008: 6003:on July 18, 2008 5993: 5987: 5986: 5975: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5964: 5955:. Archived from 5945: 5939: 5938: 5936: 5934: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5907: 5891: 5885: 5884: 5846: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5830:on April 7, 2017 5820: 5814: 5813: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5781: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5752: 5739: 5738: 5710: 5704: 5689: 5683: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5657: 5638: 5632: 5631: 5629: 5627: 5604: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5575: 5569: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5555:on June 4, 2011. 5554: 5548:. Archived from 5543: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5524: 5509: 5503: 5501: 5499: 5497: 5481: 5472: 5463: 5462: 5460: 5458: 5452: 5445: 5437: 5431: 5428: 5422: 5419: 5413: 5406: 5400: 5399: 5387: 5381: 5380: 5364: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5339: 5330: 5315: 5309: 5294: 5288: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5260: 5254: 5253: 5242: 5233: 5232: 5204: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5182: 5175: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5132: 5123: 5122: 5103:Thomas P. Hughes 5099: 5090: 5087: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5076: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5046: 5040: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5008: 4994: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4960: 4923:(disambiguation) 4841: 4836: 4835: 4650: 4643: 4639: 4636: 4630: 4602: 4601: 4594: 4552: 4545: 4541: 4538: 4532: 4501: 4493: 4468: 4461: 4457: 4454: 4448: 4417: 4409: 4313:Albany, New York 4279: 4275: 4014:natural monopoly 4002:Market structure 3912: 3905: 3901: 3898: 3892: 3861: 3853: 3758: 3751: 3747: 3744: 3738: 3707: 3699: 3627:system stability 3613: 3606: 3602: 3599: 3593: 3562: 3554: 3478:submarine cables 3453: 3451: 3450: 3445: 3433: 3431: 3430: 3425: 3410: 3408: 3407: 3402: 3400: 3375: 3373: 3372: 3360: 3323: 3322: 3299: 3296: 3242: 3240: 3239: 3234: 3198: 3196: 3195: 3190: 3188: 3181: 3180: 3174: 3169: 3161: 3153: 3152: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3099: 3091: 3030: 3028: 3027: 3022: 3020: 3019: 3012: 3011: 3010: 2996: 2995: 2994: 2976: 2975: 2937: 2936: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2913: 2912: 2911: 2772: 2770: 2769: 2764: 2745: 2743: 2742: 2737: 2682: 2680: 2679: 2674: 2672: 2671: 2664: 2663: 2662: 2648: 2647: 2646: 2628: 2627: 2589: 2588: 2581: 2580: 2579: 2565: 2564: 2563: 2517: 2510: 2506: 2503: 2497: 2466: 2458: 2439: 2437: 2436: 2431: 2410: 2408: 2407: 2402: 2400: 2399: 2390: 2388: 2387: 2386: 2377: 2372: 2371: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2337: 2335: 2334: 2333: 2318: 2317: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2292: 2287: 2285: 2284: 2283: 2274: 2273: 2258: 2257: 2244: 2243: 2242: 2227: 2226: 2216: 2211: 2210: 2198: 2197: 2185: 2184: 2165: 2163: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2154: 2145: 2140: 2139: 2123: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2103: 2101: 2100: 2095: 2083: 2081: 2080: 2075: 2056: 2054: 2053: 2048: 2046: 2045: 2036: 2034: 2033: 2032: 2013: 2008: 2006: 2005: 2004: 1988: 1987: 1978: 1973: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1950: 1945: 1943: 1942: 1941: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1894: 1880: 1879: 1867: 1866: 1847: 1845: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1834: 1833: 1814: 1788: 1786: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1777: 1761: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1741: 1739: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1730: 1714: 1712: 1711: 1706: 1665: 1658: 1654: 1651: 1645: 1614: 1606: 1542: 1535: 1531: 1528: 1522: 1491: 1483: 1416: 1409: 1405: 1402: 1396: 1365: 1357: 1289:corona discharge 1276: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1262: 1246: 1244: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1232: 1215:resistive losses 1152: 1145: 1141: 1138: 1132: 1101: 1093: 1051:geothermal power 1010:induction motors 950:circuit breakers 882:Willamette Falls 875:motor-generators 862:General Electric 811:Galileo Ferraris 803:induction motors 750:John Dixon Gibbs 740:Transmission of 698:dielectric fluid 670: 658: 620:corona discharge 583: 576: 572: 569: 563: 532: 524: 510: 496: 440:power generation 282:site, such as a 265:Grand Coulee Dam 248: 241: 230: 223: 219: 216: 210: 205:this article by 196:inline citations 183: 182: 175: 168: 165: 159: 147: 146: 139: 132: 125: 121: 118: 112: 84: 83: 76: 65: 43: 42: 35: 7597: 7596: 7592: 7591: 7590: 7588: 7587: 7586: 7557: 7556: 7555: 7550: 7532: 7516: 7514: 7507: 7438:Capacity factor 7426: 7424: 7417: 7397:Numerical relay 7375:Circuit breaker 7363: 7361: 7354: 7316: 7256:Load management 7226:Electrical grid 7191:Demand response 7184: 7179: 7170: 7151:Microgeneration 7103: 7018: 6966: 6957: 6953:Vehicle-to-grid 6826: 6821: 6761: 6713: 6711:Further reading 6708: 6707: 6702:. January 2013. 6694: 6693: 6689: 6672: 6671: 6667: 6659: 6652: 6648: 6647: 6643: 6626: 6622: 6609: 6608: 6604: 6585: 6581: 6568: 6567: 6563: 6548: 6544: 6531: 6530: 6526: 6506: 6505: 6493: 6489: 6472: 6471: 6467: 6454: 6453: 6449: 6439: 6437: 6428: 6427: 6423: 6413: 6411: 6402: 6401: 6397: 6382: 6378: 6370: 6331: 6325: 6321: 6313: 6302: 6298: 6297: 6293: 6283: 6281: 6277: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6257: 6247: 6245: 6244:on July 1, 2007 6228: 6227: 6220: 6210: 6208: 6204: 6197: 6193: 6192: 6188: 6178: 6176: 6171: 6170: 6166: 6158: 6154: 6144: 6142: 6133: 6132: 6128: 6122:Wayback Machine 6113: 6109: 6099: 6097: 6088: 6087: 6083: 6075: 6071: 6061: 6059: 6046: 6045: 6041: 6034: 6020: 6016: 6006: 6004: 5995: 5994: 5990: 5977: 5976: 5972: 5962: 5960: 5947: 5946: 5942: 5932: 5930: 5919: 5915: 5905: 5903: 5892: 5888: 5873: 5847: 5843: 5833: 5831: 5822: 5821: 5817: 5812:. May 28, 2024. 5804: 5803: 5799: 5782: 5775: 5765: 5763: 5753: 5742: 5711: 5707: 5690: 5686: 5669: 5665: 5655: 5653: 5640: 5639: 5635: 5625: 5623: 5606: 5605: 5598: 5588: 5586: 5576: 5572: 5564: 5560: 5552: 5541: 5537: 5536: 5532: 5522: 5520: 5511: 5510: 5506: 5495: 5493: 5479: 5473: 5466: 5456: 5454: 5450: 5443: 5439: 5438: 5434: 5429: 5425: 5420: 5416: 5407: 5403: 5388: 5384: 5377: 5355: 5351: 5340: 5333: 5316: 5312: 5295: 5291: 5283:, Mark Perlman 5279: 5275: 5262: 5261: 5257: 5244: 5243: 5236: 5205: 5196: 5186: 5184: 5180: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5164: 5133: 5126: 5119: 5100: 5093: 5088: 5084: 5074: 5072: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5047: 5043: 5026: 5022: 5012: 5010: 5006: 4992: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4973: 4971: 4962: 4961: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4853:Demand response 4837: 4830: 4827: 4690: 4674:electrical grid 4651: 4640: 4634: 4631: 4616: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4553: 4542: 4536: 4533: 4518: 4502: 4491: 4485: 4469: 4458: 4452: 4449: 4434: 4418: 4407: 4401: 4255:liquid nitrogen 4248: 4241: 4234: 4214: 4208: 4203: 4183:carcinogenicity 4136: 4130: 4128:Health concerns 4118: 4010: 4004: 3913: 3902: 3896: 3893: 3878: 3862: 3851: 3829: 3817:vehicle-to-grid 3772: 3759: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3724: 3708: 3697: 3654: 3614: 3603: 3597: 3594: 3579: 3563: 3552: 3470: 3464: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3419: 3416: 3415: 3398: 3397: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3352: 3346: 3345: 3318: 3314: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3295: 3264: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3228: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3208:Ferranti effect 3186: 3185: 3176: 3175: 3162: 3160: 3148: 3147: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3105: 3092: 3090: 3071: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3058: 3037: 3014: 3013: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2998: 2997: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2978: 2977: 2970: 2969: 2964: 2958: 2957: 2952: 2942: 2941: 2931: 2930: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2915: 2914: 2907: 2906: 2902: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2870: 2841: 2776:The parameters 2752: 2749: 2748: 2698: 2695: 2694: 2666: 2665: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2629: 2622: 2621: 2616: 2610: 2609: 2604: 2594: 2593: 2583: 2582: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2567: 2566: 2559: 2558: 2554: 2547: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2518: 2507: 2501: 2498: 2483: 2467: 2456: 2450: 2419: 2416: 2415: 2395: 2391: 2382: 2378: 2373: 2367: 2363: 2356: 2351: 2342: 2338: 2329: 2325: 2313: 2309: 2308: 2298: 2294: 2293: 2291: 2279: 2275: 2269: 2265: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2234: 2222: 2218: 2217: 2215: 2206: 2202: 2193: 2189: 2180: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2150: 2146: 2141: 2135: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2069: 2066: 2065: 2041: 2037: 2028: 2024: 2017: 2012: 2000: 1996: 1989: 1983: 1979: 1977: 1965: 1961: 1954: 1949: 1937: 1933: 1926: 1921: 1909: 1905: 1898: 1893: 1875: 1871: 1862: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1829: 1825: 1818: 1813: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1798:voltage divider 1773: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1763: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1726: 1722: 1720: 1717: 1716: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1666: 1655: 1649: 1646: 1631: 1615: 1604: 1598: 1582: 1559:normally closed 1543: 1532: 1526: 1523: 1508: 1492: 1450: 1448:Subtransmission 1417: 1406: 1400: 1397: 1382: 1366: 1355: 1258: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1228: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1207: 1153: 1142: 1136: 1133: 1118: 1102: 1091: 952:, switches and 925: 900:and Frankfurt. 884:to the city of 719: 713: 687: 681: 674: 671: 662: 659: 627:subtransmission 584: 573: 567: 564: 549: 533: 522: 521: 520: 519: 518: 511: 502: 501: 500: 497: 486: 480: 381: 338:interconnection 304:electrical grid 302:, known as the 249: 238: 237: 236: 231: 220: 214: 211: 201:Please help to 200: 184: 180: 169: 163: 160: 157: 148: 144: 133: 122: 116: 113: 98: 85: 81: 44: 40: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7595: 7585: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7552: 7551: 7549: 7548: 7537: 7534: 7533: 7531: 7530: 7525: 7519: 7517: 7513:Statistics and 7512: 7509: 7508: 7506: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7463:Feed-in tariff 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7429: 7427: 7422: 7419: 7418: 7416: 7415: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7372: 7366: 7364: 7359: 7356: 7355: 7353: 7352: 7351: 7350: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7324: 7322: 7318: 7317: 7315: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7251:Interconnector 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7201:Dynamic demand 7198: 7193: 7187: 7185: 7175: 7172: 7171: 7169: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7131:Combined cycle 7128: 7123: 7117: 7115: 7109: 7108: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7028: 7026: 7020: 7019: 7017: 7016: 7011: 7010: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6983: 6981: 6972: 6968: 6967: 6960: 6958: 6956: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6908:Load-following 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6863:Electric power 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6834: 6832: 6828: 6827: 6820: 6819: 6812: 6805: 6797: 6791: 6790: 6779: 6765: 6759: 6746: 6728: 6712: 6709: 6706: 6705: 6687: 6665: 6641: 6620: 6602: 6579: 6561: 6542: 6524: 6501:POWER Magazine 6487: 6478:www-03.ibm.com 6465: 6447: 6421: 6395: 6376: 6319: 6291: 6255: 6218: 6186: 6164: 6152: 6126: 6107: 6081: 6069: 6039: 6032: 6014: 5988: 5970: 5940: 5913: 5886: 5871: 5841: 5815: 5797: 5773: 5740: 5705: 5684: 5663: 5633: 5596: 5570: 5558: 5530: 5504: 5464: 5432: 5423: 5414: 5401: 5382: 5375: 5349: 5331: 5310: 5289: 5281:Arnold Heertje 5273: 5255: 5234: 5194: 5162: 5124: 5117: 5091: 5082: 5060: 5041: 5020: 4981: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4892: 4886: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4826: 4823: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4819: 4802: 4801: 4800: 4786: 4776: 4766: 4763:North Sea Link 4757: 4746: 4735: 4724: 4717: 4716: 4715: 4704: 4698: 4689: 4686: 4653: 4652: 4613:of the subject 4611:worldwide view 4606: 4604: 4597: 4591: 4588: 4565:Hidetsugu Yagi 4555: 4554: 4505: 4503: 4496: 4487:Main article: 4484: 4481: 4471: 4470: 4421: 4419: 4412: 4403:Main article: 4400: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4390: 4387: 4384: 4381: 4380:Essen, Germany 4377: 4376: 4375:Proposed 2014 4373: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4363: 4362: 4361:Proposed 2013 4359: 4356: 4354: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4336: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4323: 4320: 4317: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4292: 4289: 4286: 4283: 4247: 4244: 4239: 4232: 4210:Main article: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4195:health effects 4132:Main article: 4129: 4126: 4117: 4114: 4038:'s Order 888, 4006:Main article: 4003: 4000: 3992:common carrier 3950: 3949: 3947:Optical fibers 3944: 3939: 3930:common carrier 3926:short circuits 3915: 3914: 3865: 3863: 3856: 3850: 3849:Communications 3847: 3828: 3825: 3771: 3770:Load balancing 3768: 3761: 3760: 3711: 3709: 3702: 3696: 3693: 3686:ACCC conductor 3653: 3652:Reconductoring 3650: 3642:optical fibers 3616: 3615: 3566: 3564: 3557: 3551: 3548: 3540: 3539: 3536: 3533: 3466:Main article: 3463: 3460: 3443: 3423: 3412: 3411: 3396: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3329: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3303: 3302: 3297: per unit 3294: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3232: 3219: 3216: 3215: 3214: 3211: 3200: 3199: 3184: 3179: 3172: 3168: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3143: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3132: 3129: 3126: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3113: 3112: 3107: per unit 3102: 3098: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3066: 3036: 3033: 3032: 3031: 3018: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2999: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2983: 2981: 2974: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2916: 2910: 2905: 2901: 2900: 2898: 2869: 2866: 2840: 2837: 2774: 2773: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2746: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2717: 2714: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2684: 2683: 2670: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2635: 2633: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2599: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2552: 2550: 2520: 2519: 2470: 2468: 2461: 2452:Main article: 2449: 2446: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2412: 2411: 2398: 2394: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2341: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2290: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2261: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2230: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2183: 2179: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2138: 2134: 2113: 2093: 2073: 2058: 2057: 2044: 2040: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1992: 1986: 1982: 1976: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1953: 1948: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1809: 1776: 1772: 1751: 1729: 1725: 1704: 1668: 1667: 1618: 1616: 1609: 1597: 1594: 1581: 1578: 1567:overhead lines 1545: 1544: 1495: 1493: 1486: 1449: 1446: 1425:magnetic field 1419: 1418: 1369: 1367: 1360: 1354: 1351: 1339:phase-shifters 1327:reactive power 1266: 1261: 1257: 1236: 1231: 1227: 1206: 1203: 1179:Columbia River 1161:power stations 1155: 1154: 1105: 1103: 1096: 1090: 1087: 1063:combined cycle 995:power stations 924: 921: 860:in Europe and 746:Lucien Gaulard 715:Main article: 712: 709: 685:Undergrounding 683:Main article: 680: 677: 676: 675: 672: 665: 663: 660: 653: 586: 585: 536: 534: 527: 512: 505: 504: 503: 498: 491: 490: 489: 488: 487: 482:Main article: 479: 476: 380: 377: 336:, known as an 323:direct current 251: 250: 233: 232: 187: 185: 178: 171: 170: 151: 149: 142: 135: 134: 95:of the subject 93:worldwide view 88: 86: 79: 74: 48: 47: 45: 38: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7594: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7564: 7562: 7547: 7539: 7538: 7535: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7510: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7483:Pigouvian tax 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7430: 7428: 7420: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7380:Earth-leakage 7378: 7377: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7365: 7357: 7349: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7323: 7321:Failure modes 7319: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7271:Power station 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7156:Rankine cycle 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7136:Cooling tower 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7114: 7110: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7059: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7029: 7027: 7025: 7021: 7015: 7012: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6988: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6980: 6979:Non-renewable 6976: 6973: 6969: 6964: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6898:Grid strength 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6853:Demand factor 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6818: 6813: 6811: 6806: 6804: 6799: 6798: 6795: 6788: 6787:Tesla patents 6784: 6780: 6778: 6777:0-8104-0827-9 6774: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6756: 6752: 6747: 6744: 6743:0-8018-2873-2 6740: 6736: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6726:0-8493-8578-4 6723: 6719: 6715: 6714: 6701: 6697: 6691: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6669: 6658: 6651: 6645: 6637: 6636: 6631: 6624: 6616: 6612: 6606: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6583: 6575: 6571: 6565: 6557: 6553: 6546: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6520: 6516: 6510: 6502: 6498: 6491: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6469: 6461: 6457: 6451: 6435: 6431: 6425: 6409: 6405: 6399: 6391: 6390:New Scientist 6387: 6380: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6330: 6323: 6312: 6308: 6301: 6295: 6276: 6273:. June 2002. 6272: 6265: 6259: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6225: 6223: 6203: 6196: 6190: 6174: 6168: 6161: 6156: 6140: 6136: 6130: 6123: 6119: 6116: 6111: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6078: 6073: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6043: 6035: 6033:0-87814-862-0 6029: 6025: 6018: 6002: 5998: 5992: 5984: 5980: 5974: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5944: 5928: 5924: 5917: 5901: 5897: 5890: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5872:9781788979955 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5845: 5829: 5825: 5819: 5811: 5807: 5801: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5780: 5778: 5762: 5758: 5751: 5749: 5747: 5745: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5709: 5702: 5701:0-07-020974-X 5698: 5694: 5688: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5667: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5637: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5603: 5601: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5567: 5562: 5551: 5547: 5540: 5534: 5518: 5514: 5508: 5492: 5488: 5486: 5478: 5471: 5469: 5449: 5442: 5436: 5427: 5418: 5411: 5405: 5397: 5393: 5386: 5378: 5376:9781405141949 5372: 5368: 5363: 5362: 5353: 5345: 5338: 5336: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5307: 5306:1-4008-4655-2 5303: 5299: 5293: 5286: 5282: 5277: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5239: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5187:September 17, 5179: 5172: 5166: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5131: 5129: 5120: 5118:0-8018-4614-5 5114: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5098: 5096: 5086: 5070: 5064: 5056: 5052: 5045: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5024: 5005: 5001: 4998: 4991: 4985: 4969: 4965: 4959: 4955: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4928: 4925: 4922: 4921:National Grid 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4896: 4893: 4890: 4887: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4840: 4839:Energy portal 4834: 4829: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4787: 4784: 4780: 4777: 4774: 4770: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4751: 4750:Ameralik Span 4747: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4722: 4718: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4692: 4691: 4685: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4668: 4664: 4663:cyber-warfare 4660: 4649: 4646: 4638: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4614: 4612: 4605: 4596: 4595: 4587: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4551: 4548: 4540: 4537:November 2022 4530: 4526: 4522: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4506:This section 4504: 4500: 4495: 4494: 4490: 4480: 4478: 4467: 4464: 4456: 4453:November 2022 4446: 4442: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4427: 4422:This section 4420: 4416: 4411: 4410: 4406: 4391: 4388: 4385: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4324: 4321: 4318: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4293: 4291:Capacity (GW) 4290: 4287: 4284: 4281: 4280: 4274: 4272: 4267: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4243: 4238: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4213: 4198: 4196: 4191: 4187: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4167: 4165: 4160: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4146: 4140: 4135: 4125: 4122: 4113: 4111: 4105: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4047: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4017: 4015: 4009: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3965: 3961: 3959: 3954: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3934: 3933: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3911: 3908: 3900: 3897:November 2022 3890: 3886: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3871: 3866:This section 3864: 3860: 3855: 3854: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3838: 3834: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3813:Wind turbines 3810: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3796: 3791: 3789: 3783: 3779: 3777: 3767: 3757: 3754: 3746: 3743:November 2022 3736: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3712:This section 3710: 3706: 3701: 3700: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3649: 3645: 3643: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3628: 3624: 3612: 3609: 3601: 3598:November 2022 3591: 3587: 3583: 3577: 3576: 3572: 3567:This section 3565: 3561: 3556: 3555: 3547: 3545: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3530: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3514: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3502:New York City 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3486:Great Britain 3483: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3459: 3457: 3441: 3421: 3394: 3388: 3385: 3379: 3376: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3349: 3336: 3333: 3327: 3324: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3309: 3304: 3289: 3286: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3266: 3261: 3250: 3249: 3248: 3246: 3230: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3204: 3203: 3182: 3170: 3166: 3163: 3157: 3154: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3134: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3114: 3100: 3096: 3093: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3078: 3075: 3073: 3068: 3057: 3056: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3016: 3002: 2986: 2979: 2972: 2966: 2961: 2954: 2949: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2919: 2903: 2896: 2887: 2886: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2865: 2863: 2859: 2849: 2845: 2839:Lossless line 2836: 2834: 2830: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2747: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2715: 2712: 2706: 2693: 2692: 2691: 2689: 2668: 2654: 2638: 2631: 2624: 2618: 2613: 2606: 2601: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2571: 2555: 2548: 2539: 2538: 2537: 2535: 2526: 2516: 2513: 2505: 2502:November 2022 2495: 2491: 2487: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2471:This section 2469: 2465: 2460: 2459: 2455: 2445: 2443: 2442:Joule heating 2427: 2424: 2421: 2396: 2392: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2280: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2169: 2168: 2167: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2136: 2132: 2111: 2091: 2071: 2063: 2042: 2038: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1946: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1863: 1859: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1807: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1774: 1770: 1749: 1727: 1723: 1702: 1695:with voltage 1694: 1685: 1677: 1673: 1664: 1661: 1653: 1650:November 2022 1643: 1639: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1624: 1619:This section 1617: 1613: 1608: 1607: 1603: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1577: 1575: 1570: 1568: 1564: 1563:normally open 1560: 1557:Loops can be 1555: 1552: 1541: 1538: 1530: 1527:November 2022 1520: 1516: 1512: 1506: 1505: 1501: 1496:This section 1494: 1490: 1485: 1484: 1477: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1433: 1430: 1426: 1415: 1412: 1404: 1401:November 2022 1394: 1390: 1386: 1380: 1379: 1375: 1370:This section 1368: 1364: 1359: 1358: 1353:Transposition 1350: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1328: 1325:) constitute 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1285: 1283: 1278: 1264: 1259: 1255: 1234: 1229: 1225: 1216: 1212: 1211:Joule heating 1202: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1151: 1148: 1140: 1137:November 2022 1130: 1126: 1122: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1106:This section 1104: 1100: 1095: 1094: 1086: 1084: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1039: 1033: 1031: 1022: 1017: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1004: 1000: 996: 991: 989: 985: 984: 977: 973: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 951: 943: 939: 934: 929: 920: 918: 914: 909: 907: 906:hydroelectric 901: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 878: 876: 872: 867: 863: 859: 855: 847: 843: 838: 834: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 795: 793: 789: 785: 780: 778: 774: 769: 766: 762: 757: 755: 751: 747: 743: 738: 736: 731: 723: 718: 708: 706: 701: 699: 694: 692: 686: 669: 664: 657: 652: 651: 650: 648: 644: 638: 636: 632: 628: 623: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 604:circular mils 601: 596: 593: 582: 579: 571: 568:November 2022 561: 557: 553: 547: 546: 542: 537:This section 535: 531: 526: 525: 516: 509: 495: 485: 475: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 448: 446: 441: 436: 433: 429: 425: 421: 420:high voltages 416: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 395:AC, although 394: 385: 376: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 330: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 307: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 266: 262: 257: 247: 244: 229: 226: 218: 208: 204: 198: 197: 191: 186: 177: 176: 167: 155: 150: 141: 140: 131: 128: 120: 110: 106: 102: 96: 94: 87: 78: 77: 72: 70: 63: 62: 57: 56: 51: 46: 37: 36: 33: 29: 22: 7478:Net metering 7425:and policies 7343:Power outage 7312:Utility pole 7276:Pumped hydro 7215: 7182:distribution 7177:Transmission 7176: 7126:Cogeneration 6928:Power factor 6782: 6768: 6750: 6734: 6717: 6699: 6690: 6682:the original 6677: 6668: 6644: 6633: 6623: 6614: 6605: 6597:the original 6592: 6582: 6573: 6564: 6555: 6545: 6536: 6527: 6500: 6490: 6482:the original 6477: 6468: 6459: 6450: 6438:. 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Retrieved 4968:the original 4958: 4916:Load profile 4789:Baltic Cable 4677: 4671: 4656: 4641: 4632: 4608: 4573: 4569: 4561:Nikola Tesla 4558: 4543: 4534: 4519:Please help 4507: 4474: 4459: 4450: 4435:Please help 4423: 4288:Voltage (kV) 4268: 4249: 4236: 4229: 4215: 4192: 4188: 4168: 4161: 4156: 4149: 4141: 4137: 4123: 4119: 4106: 4083: 4048: 4039: 4033: 4018: 4011: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3955: 3951: 3918: 3903: 3894: 3879:Please help 3867: 3841: 3830: 3811: 3804: 3800: 3792: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3764: 3749: 3740: 3725:Please help 3713: 3690: 3682:carbon fiber 3675: 3671: 3655: 3646: 3635: 3631: 3623:voltage drop 3619: 3604: 3595: 3580:Please help 3568: 3541: 3518: 3510: 3475: 3471: 3413: 3221: 3201: 3051: 3044: 3041: 3038: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2871: 2861: 2857: 2854: 2842: 2832: 2828: 2825: 2820: 2813: 2805: 2797: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2775: 2687: 2685: 2531: 2508: 2499: 2484:Please help 2472: 2413: 2059: 1791: 1690: 1671: 1656: 1647: 1632:Please help 1620: 1589:distribution 1583: 1574:distribution 1571: 1562: 1558: 1556: 1548: 1533: 1524: 1509:Please help 1497: 1466:street light 1464:lines and a 1462:distribution 1434: 1422: 1407: 1398: 1383:Please help 1371: 1336: 1332:power factor 1308: 1304: 1300: 1293: 1286: 1279: 1208: 1172: 1169: 1158: 1143: 1134: 1119:Please help 1107: 1079: 1067: 1054: 1036: 1034: 1026: 992: 980: 978: 974: 966: 954:transformers 947: 910: 902: 879: 851: 815:Nikola Tesla 796: 781: 770: 761:Turin, Italy 758: 739: 732: 728: 702: 695: 688: 639: 631:distribution 624: 597: 589: 574: 565: 550:Please help 538: 449: 437: 417: 397:single phase 390: 366: 341: 337: 331: 327:transformers 308: 291: 271: 270: 239: 221: 212: 193: 161: 153: 123: 114: 90: 66: 59: 53: 52:Please help 49: 32: 7473:Load factor 7328:Black start 7296:Transformer 6997:Natural gas 6948:Variability 6923:Peak demand 6913:Merit order 6843:Backfeeding 6342:(1): 2375. 6284:January 29, 6248:January 23, 6211:November 9, 6179:November 9, 6062:October 30, 5963:December 7, 5933:January 31, 5906:January 31, 5902:. The Hindu 5810:White House 5523:January 10, 5013:October 30, 4868:Backfeeding 4783:Bass Strait 4350:Tres Amigas 4285:Length (km) 3996:dark fibers 3513:phase angle 3506:Long Island 3035:Medium line 2818:conductance 2810:capacitance 1458:Philippines 1321:define the 1315:capacitance 1296:skin effect 1282:conductance 1195:Victorville 1191:Los Angeles 1165:transformer 1003:three-phase 999:substations 983:transformer 917:World War I 819:three-phase 805:running on 773:Rome, Italy 754:transformer 705:capacitance 679:Underground 612:skin effect 393:three-phase 369:liberalized 284:power plant 215:August 2022 207:introducing 164:August 2022 117:August 2022 7561:Categories 7515:production 7360:Protective 7291:Super grid 7286:Smart grid 7113:Generation 7047:Geothermal 6938:Repowering 4950:References 4808:Murraylink 4793:Baltic Sea 4756:, Denmark) 4739:Inga-Shaba 4712:Kazakhstan 4635:March 2013 4102:Murraylink 4098:Directlink 4088:– between 3937:Microwaves 3498:New Jersey 2868:Short line 2802:inductance 2794:resistance 2060:Should an 1600:See also: 1585:Substation 1429:inductance 1319:resistance 1311:inductance 1193:line, via 1187:Hoover Dam 1089:Grid input 1083:super grid 1043:firm power 942:Orem, Utah 938:PacifiCorp 513:A typical 424:resistance 280:generating 190:references 55:improve it 7423:Economics 7146:Micro CHP 7024:Renewable 7007:Petroleum 7002:Oil shale 6888:Grid code 6848:Base load 6440:August 9, 5881:244796440 5626:March 29, 5496:March 29, 5457:April 20, 5329:, p. 161. 4974:March 11, 4816:Sunraysia 4812:Riverland 4773:North Sea 4754:Greenland 4623:talk page 4580:microwave 4508:does not 4424:does not 3988:Minnesota 3868:does not 3837:Blackouts 3833:Brownouts 3714:does not 3665:and 2022 3569:does not 3386:γ 3380:⁡ 3343:Ω 3334:γ 3328:⁡ 3287:γ 3281:⁡ 3231:γ 3218:Long line 3128:Ω 2862:generates 2722:− 2534:black box 2473:does not 2232:× 2200:× 1975:× 1919:× 1882:× 1794:in series 1621:does not 1498:does not 1372:does not 1323:impedance 1108:does not 1038:base load 1028:sharing, 1023:of Europe 894:Frankfurt 842:polyphase 807:polyphase 643:flashover 539:does not 472:redundant 342:frequency 105:talk page 61:talk page 7546:Category 7333:Brownout 7121:AC power 6831:Concepts 6657:Archived 6615:BBC News 6556:BBC News 6537:phys.org 6509:cite web 6414:June 12, 6368:Archived 6364:55086502 6311:Archived 6307:nerc.com 6275:Archived 6202:Archived 6118:Archived 5834:April 6, 5766:March 6, 5735:23610440 5589:June 10, 5448:Archived 5308:, p. 130 5287:, p. 138 5268:ethw.org 5229:42790906 5178:Archived 5157:45909123 5105:(1993). 5004:Archived 4825:See also 4779:Basslink 4726:Highest 4723:(Japan). 4617:You may 4590:Security 4584:rectenna 4282:Location 4271:easement 4177:(1 4094:Victoria 4090:Tasmania 4086:Basslink 3550:Capacity 3494:Tasmania 3042:nominal 2858:consumes 2448:Modeling 981:step-up 886:Portland 799:AC motor 592:aluminum 478:Overhead 445:blackout 321:(AC) or 315:currents 311:voltages 286:, to an 99:You may 7362:devices 7072:Thermal 7067:Osmotic 7062:Current 7042:Biomass 7032:Biofuel 7014:Nuclear 6971:Sources 6593:Reuters 6344:Bibcode 6100:June 4, 4897:, (GIC) 4891:(FACTS) 4688:Records 4529:removed 4514:sources 4445:removed 4430:sources 4071:Path 15 3889:removed 3874:sources 3735:removed 3720:sources 3695:Control 3590:removed 3575:sources 3521:Seattle 3243:is the 2494:removed 2479:sources 1642:removed 1627:sources 1519:removed 1504:sources 1393:removed 1378:sources 1129:removed 1114:sources 711:History 560:removed 545:sources 350:Eastern 346:Western 278:from a 203:improve 154:updated 7057:Marine 7037:Biogas 6775: 6757: 6741: 6724: 6362: 6030: 5879: 5869: 5808:. 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