Stem-cell therapy - Knowledge

727:, which is characterized in the skin by disorganized collagen structure, loss of hair follicles and irregular vascular structure. In the case of wounded fetal tissue, however, wounded tissue is replaced with normal tissue through the activity of stem cells. A possible method for tissue regeneration in adults is to place adult stem cell "seeds" inside a tissue bed "soil" in a wound bed and allow the stem cells to stimulate differentiation in the tissue bed cells. This method elicits a regenerative response more similar to fetal wound-healing than adult scar tissue formation. As of 2018, researchers were still investigating different aspects of the "soil" tissue that are conducive to regeneration. Because of the general healing capabilities of stem cells, they have gained interest for the treatment of cutaneous wounds, such as in 223:

tissue may alter the efficacy of treatment. Accordingly, stem cells derived from bone marrow aspirates, for instance, are cultured in specialized laboratories for expansion to millions of cells. Although adipose-derived tissue also requires processing prior to use, the culturing methodology for adipose-derived stem cells is not as extensive as that for bone marrow-derived cells. While it is thought that bone-marrow-derived stem cells are preferred for bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon repair, others believe that the less challenging collection techniques and the multi-cellular microenvironment already present in adipose-derived stem cell fractions make the latter the preferred source for autologous transplantation.

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accepter-versus-rejecter, was contradictory between reports of the same trial. One pair of reports of identical baseline characteristics and final results, was presented in two publications as, respectively, a 578-patient randomized trial and as a 391-subject observational study. Other reports required (impossible) negative standard deviations in subsets of people or contained fractional subjects, negative NYHA classes. Overall, many more people were reported as having receiving stem cells in trials, than the number of stem cells processed in the hospital's laboratory during that time. A university investigation, closed in 2012 without reporting, was reopened in July 2013.

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and full joint movement. Traditional treatments prevented a large number of horses from returning to full activity and also have a high incidence of re-injury due to the stiff nature of the scarred tendon. Introduction of both bone marrow and adipose derived stem cells, along with natural mechanical stimulus promoted the regeneration of tendon tissue. The natural movement promoted the alignment of the new fibers and tendocytes with the natural alignment found in uninjured tendons. Stem cell treatment not only allowed more horses to return to full duty and also greatly reduced the re-injury rate over a three-year period.

553:. The specificity of the immune cells is what allows recognition of foreign antigens, causing further challenges in the treatment of immune disease. Identical matches between donor and recipient are no longer required for successful transplantation. Rather, haploidentical matches have facilitated numerous transplants, given improvements in post-transplant immunosuppressive regimens. Research using both hematopoietic adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells has provided insight into the possible mechanisms and methods of treatment for many of these ailments. 5094: 171: 5809: 6231: 1002:. In 2018, the FDA sent a warning letter to StemGenex Biologic Laboratories in San Diego, which marketed a service in which it took body fat from people, processed it into mixtures it said contained various forms of stem cells, and administered it back to the person by inhalation, intravenously, or infusion into their spinal cords; the company said the treatment was useful for many chronic and life-threatening conditions. 3853:

Slobodan; Roncalli, Jérome; Malliaras, Konstantinos; Pokushalov, Evgeny; Romanov, Alexander; Kastrup, Jens; Bergmann, Martin W.; Atsma, Douwe E.; Diederichsen, Axel; Edes, Istvan; Benedek, Imre; Benedek, Theodora; Pejkov, Hristo; Nyolczas, Noemi; Pavo, Noemi; Bergler-Klein, Jutta; Pavo, Imre J.; Sylven, Christer; Berti, Sergio; Navarese, Eliano P.; Maurer, Gerald (10 April 2015).

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conducted in 10 medical centers in Germany and Norway reported that the trial result "does not support the use of nucleated BMCs in patients with STEMI and moderately reduced LVEF". Furthermore, the trial also did not meet any other secondary MRI endpoints, leading to a conclusion that intracoronary bone marrow stem cell therapy does not offer a functional or clinical benefit.

1033:, and the agency recommends against the use of MSCs for the disease, some stem cell clinics began marketing both unproven and non-FDA-approved stem cells and exosomes for COVID-19 in 2020. The FDA took prompt action by sending letters to the firms in question. The FTC also warned a stem cell firm for misleading COVID-19-related marketing. 242:. Research is underway to examine the differentiating capabilities of stem cells found in the umbilical cord, yolk sac and placenta of different animals. These stem cells are thought to have more differentiating ability than their adult counterparts, including the ability to more readily form tissues of endodermal and ectodermal origin. 383:

complex biomaterials have been proposed for improving stem-cell proliferation and controlled differentiation. Among them, nanostructured biomaterials are of particular interest because they have the advantage of a high surface-to-volume ratio, and they mimic the physical and biological features of natural ECM at the nanoscale.

274:. Opposition to the use of human embryonic stem cells in research is often based on philosophical, moral, or religious objections. There is other stem cell research that does not involve the destruction of a human embryo, and such research involves adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells. 954:

In a study to evaluate the treatment of experimentally induced MS in dogs using laser activated non-expanded adipose derived stem cells. The results showed amelioration of the clinical signs over time confirmed by the resolution of the previous lesions on MRI. Positive migration of the injected cells

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Spinal cord injuries are one of the most common traumas brought into veterinary hospitals. Spinal injuries occur in two ways after the trauma: the primary mechanical damage, and in secondary processes, like inflammation and scar formation, in the days following the trauma. These cells involved in the

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in dogs have been available to veterinarians in the United States since 2005. Over 3000 privately owned horses and dogs have been treated with autologous adipose-derived stem cells. The efficacy of these treatments has been shown in double-blind clinical trials for dogs with osteoarthritis of the hip

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Three-dimensional cell culture systems may create a biomimicking microenvironment for stem cells, resembling their native three-dimensional extracellular matrix (ECM). Advanced biomaterials have significantly contributed to three-dimensional cell culture systems in recent decades, and more unique and

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are being researched, including stem cells present in the skin and dermis which are of interest because of the ease at which they can be harvested with minimal risk to the animal. Hematopoietic stem cells have also been discovered to be travelling in the blood stream and possess equal differentiating

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Stem cells are also in clinical phases for treatment in ophthalmology. Hematopoietic stem cells have been used to treat corneal ulcers of different origin of several horses. These ulcers were resistant to conventional treatments available, but quickly responded positively to the stem cell treatment.

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architecture and collagen formed. There was also no tumor formation seen during the three-month experimental period. Long-term studies need to be carried out to examine the long-term efficacy and risks associated with the use of embryonic stem cells. Similar results have been found in small animals.

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Race horses are especially prone to injuries of the tendon and ligaments. Conventional therapies are very unsuccessful in returning the horse to full functioning potential. Natural healing, guided by the conventional treatments, leads to the formation of fibrous scar tissue that reduces flexibility

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on stem cell therapy using bone-marrow stem cells for heart disease revealed discrepancies in published clinical trial reports, whereby studies with a higher number of discrepancies showed an increase in effect sizes. Another meta-analysis based on the intra-subject data of 12 randomized trials was

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To further enrich blood supply to the damaged areas, and consequently promote tissue regeneration, platelet-rich plasma could be used in conjunction with stem cell transplantation. The efficacy of some stem cell populations may also be affected by the method of delivery; for instance, to regenerate

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Scientists reported 2012 that MSCs when transfused immediately within few hours post thawing may show reduced function or show decreased efficacy in treating diseases as compared to those MSCs which are in log phase of cell growth (fresh), so cryopreserved MSCs should be brought back into log phase

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Treatments are also in clinical trials to repair and regenerate peripheral nerves. Peripheral nerves are more likely to be damaged, but the effects of the damage are not as widespread as seen in injuries to the spinal cord. Treatments are currently in clinical trials to repair severed nerves, with

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that are induced to a neural cell fate are loaded onto a porous scaffold and are then implanted at the site of injury. The cells and scaffold secrete factors that counteract those secreted by scar forming cells and promote neural regeneration. Eight weeks later, dogs treated with stem cells showed

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research project, aims to demonstrate that multimodal nanoparticles can structurally and functionally track stem cell in muscle regeneration therapy. The idea is to label stem cells with gold nano-particles that are fully characterised for uptake, functionality, and safety. The labelled stem cells

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In theory, stem cells taken from the patient could be coaxed in the lab turning into a tooth bud which, when implanted in the gums, will give rise to a new tooth, and would be expected to be grown in a time over three weeks. It will fuse with the jawbone and release chemicals that encourage nerves

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was discredited by identifying hundreds of factual contradictions. Among several clinical trials reporting that adult stem cell therapy is safe and effective, actual evidence of benefit has been reported from only a few studies. Some preliminary clinical trials achieved only modest improvements in

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can differentiate into the cells that make up bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, as well as muscle, neural and other progenitor tissues. They have been the main type of stem cells studied in the treatment of diseases affecting these tissues. The number of stem cells transplanted into damaged

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Bone has a unique and well-documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair fractures and other common injuries. Misaligned breaks due to severe trauma, as well as treatments like tumor resections of bone cancer, are prone to improper healing if left to the natural process

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within the pancreas. In a 2007 publication of experiments, scientists have been able to coax embryonic stem cells to turn into beta cells in the lab. In theory, if the beta cell is transplanted successfully, they will be able to replace malfunctioning ones in a diabetic patient. There are adverse

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Stem cells have successfully been used to ameliorate healing in the heart after myocardial infarction in dogs. Adipose and bone marrow derived stem cells were removed and induced to a cardiac cell fate before being injected into the heart. The heart was found to have improved contractility and a

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Wollert, Kai C; Meyer, Gerd P; Müller-Ehmsen, Jochen; Tschöpe, Carsten; Bonarjee, Vernon; Larsen, Alf Inge; May, Andreas E; Empen, Klaus; Chorianopoulos, Emmanuel; Tebbe, Ulrich; Waltenberger, Johannes; Mahrholdt, Heiko; Ritter, Benedikta; Pirr, Jens; Fischer, Dieter; Korf-Klingebiel, Mortimer;

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Traverse, Jay H.; Henry, Timothy D.; Pepine, Carl J.; Willerson, James T.; Chugh, Atul; Yang, Phillip C.; Zhao, David X.M.; Ellis, Stephen G.; Forder, John R.; Perin, Emerson C.; Penn, Marc S.; Hatzopoulos, Antonis K.; Chambers, Jeffrey C.; Baran, Kenneth W.; Raveendran, Ganesh; Gee, Adrian P.;

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Tompkins, Bryon A; DiFede, Darcy L; Khan, Aisha; Landin, Ana Marie; Schulman, Ivonne Hernandez; Pujol, Marietsy V; Heldman, Alan W; Miki, Roberto; Goldschmidt-Clermont, Pascal J; Goldstein, Bradley J; Mushtaq, Muzammil; Levis-Dusseau, Silvina; Byrnes, John J; Lowery, Maureen; Natsumeda, Makoto;

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Gyöngyösi, Mariann; Wojakowski, Wojciech; Lemarchand, Patricia; Lunde, Ketil; Tendera, Michal; Bartunek, Jozef; Marban, Eduardo; Assmus, Birgit; Henry, Timothy D.; Traverse, Jay H.; Moyé, Lemuel A.; Sürder, Daniel; Corti, Roberto; Huikuri, Heikki; Miettinen, Johanna; Wöhrle, Jochen; Obradovic,

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In 2007, a trial was underway for a patch made of a porous substance onto which the stem cells are "seeded" in order to induce tissue regeneration in heart defects. Tissue was regenerated and the patch was well incorporated into the heart tissue. This is thought to be due, in part, to improved

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The use of embryonic stem cells has also been applied to tendon repair. The embryonic stem cells were shown to have a better survival rate in the tendon as well as better migrating capabilities to reach all areas of damaged tendon. The overall repair quality was also higher, with better tendon

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studies. This is critical in the development of drugs for use in veterinary research because of the possibilities of species-specific interactions. The hope is that having these cell lines available for research use will reduce the need for research animals used because effects on human tissue

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within the bone marrow. This is the side effect of conventional chemotherapy strategies that the stem-cell transplant attempts to reverse; a donor's healthy bone marrow reintroduces functional stem cells to replace the cells lost in the host's body during treatment. The transplanted cells also

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Stem cells are being explored for use in conservation efforts. Spermatogonial stem cells have been harvested from a rat and placed into a mouse host and fully mature sperm were produced with the ability to produce viable offspring. Currently research is underway to find suitable hosts for the

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Delgado, Cindy; Saltzman, Russell; Vidro-Casiano, Mayra; Da Fonseca, Moisaniel; Golpanian, Samuel; Premer, Courtney; Medina, Audrey; Valasaki, Krystalenia; Florea, Victoria; Anderson, Erica; El-Khorazaty, Jill; Mendizabal, Adam; Green, Geoff; Oliva, Anthony A; Hare, Joshua M (November 2017).

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2018 results of the TIME trial, which used a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial design, concluded that "bone marrow mononuclear cells administration did not improve recovery of LV function over 2 years" in people who had a myocardial infarction. Accordingly, the BOOST-2 trial

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are currently the most often used for stem cell treatment of osteoarthritis because of the non-invasive harvesting. This is a recently developed, non-invasive technique developed for easier clinical use. Dogs receiving this treatment showed greater flexibility in their joints and less pain.

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The specificity of the human immune-cell repertoire is what allows the human body to defend itself from rapidly adapting antigens. However, the immune system is vulnerable to degradation upon the pathogenesis of disease, and because of the critical role that it plays in overall defense, its

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and placed in the defect. Within four weeks of placing the scaffold, newly formed bone begins to integrate with the old bone and within 32 weeks, full union is achieved. Further studies are necessary to fully characterize the use of cell-based therapeutics for treatment of bone fractures.

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culture before administration. Re-culturing of MSCs will help in recovering from the shock the cells get during freezing and thawing. Various MSC clinical trials which used cryopreserved product immediately post thaw have failed as compared to those clinical trials which used fresh MSCs.

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Cell culture in two dimensions has been routinely performed in thousands of laboratories worldwide for the past four decades. In two-dimensional platforms, cells are typically exposed to a solid, rigid flat surface on the basal side and to liquid at the apical surface. Inhabiting such a

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In 2013, studies of autologous bone marrow stem cells on ventricular function were found to contain "hundreds" of discrepancies. Critics report that of 48 reports, just five underlying trials seemed to be used, and that in many cases whether they were randomized or merely observational

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Arseniev, Lubomir; Heuft, Hans-Gert; Brinchmann, Jan E; Messinger, Diethelm; Hertenstein, Bernd; Ganser, Arnold; Katus, Hugo A; Felix, Stephan B; Gawaz, Meinrad P; Dickstein, Kenneth; Schultheiss, Heinz-Peter; Ladage, Dennis; Greulich, Simon; Bauersachs, Johann (14 October 2017).

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Since 2003, researchers have successfully transplanted corneal stem cells into damaged eyes to restore vision. "Sheets of retinal cells used by the team are harvested from aborted fetuses, which some people find objectionable." When these sheets are transplanted over the damaged

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Hartnett, Kathleen P.; Powell, Krista M.; Rankin, Danielle; Gable, Paige; Kim, Janice J.; Spoto, Samantha; Breaker, Erin; Hunter, Robert; Dotson, Nychie; McAllister, Gillian; Stevens, Valerie; Halpin, Alison Laufer; Houston, Hollis; Epson, Erin; Malarkey, Mary (1 October 2021).

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In 2013, scientists have been investigating an alternative approach to treating HIV-1/AIDS, based on the creation of a disease-resistant immune system through transplantation of autologous, gene-modified (HIV-1-resistant) hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (GM-HSPC).

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Stem cells have been shown to have low immunogenicity due to the relatively low number of MHC molecules found on their surface. In addition, they have been found to secrete chemokines that alter the immune response and promote tolerance of the new tissue. This allows for

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Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al. (2005). "A 37-year-old spinal cord-injured female patient, transplanted of multipotent stem cells from human UC blood, with improved sensory perception and mobility, both functionally and morphologically: a case study".

879:, and sub-chondral bone cysts have been commercially available to practicing veterinarians to treat horses since 2003 in the United States and since 2006 in the United Kingdom. Autologous stem cell based treatments for tendon injury, ligament injury, and 821:

to treat animals with injuries or defects affecting bone, cartilage, ligaments and/or tendons. There are two main categories of stem cells used for treatments: allogeneic stem cells derived from a genetically different donor within the same species, and

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Guercio A, Di Marco P, Casella S, Cannella V, Russotto L, Purpari G, Di Bella S, Piccione G (2012). "Production of canine mesenchymal stem cells from adipose tissue and their application in dogs with chronic osteoarthritis of the humeroradial joints".

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introduction of donor spermatogonial stem cells. If this becomes a viable option for conservationists, sperm can be produced from high genetic quality individuals who die before reaching sexual maturity, preserving a line that would otherwise be lost.

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With the advent of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), treatments being explored and created for the used in endangered low production animals possible. Rather than needing to harvest embryos or eggs, which are limited, the researchers can remove

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Costs of stem cell therapies range widely by clinic, condition, and cell type, but most commonly range between $ 10,000-$ 20,000. Insurance does not cover stem cell injections at clinics so patients often use on-line fundraising. In 2018, the US

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Wolf, Andrew B.; Money, Kelli M.; Chandnani, Arun; Daley, Charles L.; Griffith, David E.; Chauhan, Lakshmi; Coffman, Nathan; Piquet, Amanda L.; Tyler, Kenneth L.; Zimmer, Shanta M.; Montague, Brian T.; Mann, Sarah; Pastula, Daniel M. (2023).

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and blood vessels to connect with it. The process is similar to what happens when humans grow their original adult teeth. Many challenges remain, however, before stem cells can be a choice for the replacement of missing teeth in the future.

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Stem cells have been used to treat degenerative bone diseases in dogs. The normally recommended treatment for dogs that have Legg–Calve–Perthes disease is to remove the head of the femur after the degeneration has progressed. Recently,

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treated patients compared to those receiving a sham treatment. In January 2021 the FDA approved the first clinical trial for an investigational stem cell therapy to restore lost brain cells in people with advanced Parkinson's disease.

998:. By 2016, research indicated that there were more than 550 stem cell clinics in the US alone selling generally unproven therapies for a wide array of medical conditions in almost every state in the country, altering the dynamic of 768:

In 2021, stem cell injections in the US have caused grave infections in at least 20 patients who received umbilical cord blood-derived products marketed as "stem cell treatment". In 2023, the case of a woman who was infected with

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Black LL, Gaynor J, Adams C, et al. (2008). "Effect of intraarticular injection of autologous adipose-derived mesenchymal stem and regenerative cells on clinical signs of chronic osteoarthritis of the elbow joint in dogs".

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Paul A.; Srivastava S.; Chen G.; Shum-Tim D.; Prakash S. (2011). "Functional Assessment of Adipose Stem Cells for Xenotransplantation Using Myocardial Infarction Immunocompetent Models: Comparison with Bone Marrow Stem Cells".

1009:, the US government database for clinical trials. Registration of a study notifies the agency but does not prove that review has taken place. Registration with the FDA similarly does not prove that approval has been granted. 2413:

Abdallah, Ahmed N.; Shamaa, Ashraf A.; El-Tookhy, Omar S. (August 2019). "Evaluation of treatment of experimentally induced canine model of multiple sclerosis using laser activated non-expanded adipose derived stem cells".

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two-dimensional rigid substrate requires a dramatic adaption for the surviving cells because they lack the extracellular matrix that is unique to each cell type which may alter cell metabolism and reduce its functionality.

3273: 582:, is added, coaxing the stem cells to complete terminal differentiation into red blood cells. Further research into this technique should have potential benefits for gene therapy, blood transfusion, and topical medicine. 951:

immense improvement over those treated with conventional therapies. Dogs treated with stem cells were able to occasionally support their own weight, which has not been seen in dogs undergoing conventional therapies.

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to the site of lesion, increased remyelination detected by Myelin Basic Proteins, positive differentiation into Olig2 positive oligodendrocytes, prevented the glial scar formation and restored axonal architecture.

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To be used for research or treatment applications, large numbers of high-quality stem cells are needed. Thus, it is necessary to develop culture systems which produce pure populations of tissue-specific stem cells

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Nishida H, Nakayama M, Tanaka H, Kitamura M, Hatoya S, Sugiura K, Harada Y, Suzuki Y, Ide C, Inaba T (2012). "Safety of Autologous Bone Marrow Stromal Cell Transplantation in Dogs with Acute Spinal Cord Injury".

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Petrou, Panayiota; Kassis, Ibrahim; Levin, Netta; Paul, Friedemann; Backner, Yael; Benoliel, Tal; Oertel, Frederike Cosima; Scheel, Michael; Hallimi, Michelle; Yaghmour, Nour; Hur, Tamir Ben (1 December 2020).

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Kim U, Shin DG, Park JS, Kim YJ, Park SI, Moon YM, Jeong KS (2011). "Homing of adipose-derived stem cells to radiofrequency catheter ablated canine atrium and differentiation into cardiomyocyte-like cells".

148:(MSCs) derived from the bone marrow of adult donors. MSCs are purified from the marrow, cultured and packaged, with up to 10,000 doses derived from a single donor. The doses are stored frozen until needed. 1627:

Yamada Y, Ueda M, Naiki T, Takahashi M, Hata K, Nagasaka T (2004). "Autogenous injectable bone for regeneration with mesenchymal stem cells and platelet-rich plasma: tissue-engineered bone regeneration".

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or having regulatory approval. By 2012, a second wave of companies and clinics had emerged, usually located in developing countries where medicine is less regulated and offering stem cell therapies on a

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Stem-cell therapy for the treatment of myocardial infarction usually makes use of autologous bone marrow stem cells, but other types of adult stem cells may be used, such as adipose-derived stem cells.

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Osteoarthritis is the main cause of joint pain both in animals and humans. Horses and dogs are most frequently affected by arthritis. Natural cartilage regeneration is very limited. Different types of

297:. The trial was discontinued in November 2011 so that the company could focus on therapies in the "current environment of capital scarcity and uncertain economic conditions". In 2013 biotechnology and 1021:

of some $ 500,000. The FDA filed suit against two stem cell clinic firms around the same time, seeking permanent injunctions against their marketing and use of unapproved adipose stem cell products.

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early success. Stem cells induced to a neural fate injected in to a severed nerve. Within four weeks, regeneration of previously damaged stem cells and completely formed nerve bundles were observed.

805:, both in large animals as well as in humans. While investigation of cell-based therapeutics generally reflects human medical needs, the high degree of frequency and severity of certain injuries in 1852:

Marfe G, Massaro-Giordano M, Ranalli M, Cozzoli E, Di Stefano C, Malafoglia V, Polettini M, Gambacurta A (2012). "Blood derived stem cells: an ameliorative therapy in veterinary ophthalmology".

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Nowbar, Alexandra N.; Mielewczik, Michael; Karavassilis, Maria; Dehbi, Hakim-Moulay; Shun-Shin, Matthew J.; Jones, Siana; Howard, James P.; Cole, Graham D.; Francis, Darrel P. (28 April 2014).

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from healthy young donors, significant improvements in physical performance measures. MSC helps with the blockade of inflammation by decreasing it, causing the effects of frailty to reverse.

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Sung Su Park; et al. (2012). "Functional recovery after spinal cord injury in dogs treated with a combination of Matrigel and neural-induced adipose-derived mesenchymal Stem cells".

3913:"TIME Trial: Effect of Timing of Stem Cell Delivery Following ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction on the Recovery of Global and Regional Left Ventricular FunctionNovelty and Significance" 781:

Research conducted on horses, dogs, and cats has led to the development of stem cell treatments in veterinary medicine which can target a wide range of injuries and diseases, such as

3281: 1204: 929:, they did not appear to be contractile. Other treatments that induced a cardiac fate in the cells before transplanting had greater success at creating contractile heart tissue. 339:

creates new opportunities for drug research. Researchers are able to grow up differentiated cell lines and then test new drugs on each cell type to examine possible interactions

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Stem cells are thought to mediate repair via five primary mechanisms: 1) providing an anti-inflammatory effect, 2) homing to damaged tissues and recruiting other cells, such as

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model. Like the first wave companies and clinics, they made similar strong, but unsubstantiated, claims, mainly by clinics in the United States, Mexico, Thailand, India, and

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has put veterinary medicine at the forefront of this novel regenerative approach. Companion animals can serve as clinically relevant models that closely mimic human disease.

6572: 2288:. In Stem Cell Information World Wide Web site. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009. cited Sunday, 26 April 2009 361:

with greater ease and greatly reducing the danger to the animal due to noninvasive techniques. This allows the limited eggs to be put to use for reproductive purposes only.

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Kuswardhani R. A.; Soejitno A. (2011). "Bone marrow-derived stem cells as an adjunctive treatment for acute myocardial infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis".

6577: 3719:"Development of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Based Gene Therapy for HIV-1 Infection: Considerations for Proof of Concept Studies and Translation to Standard Medical Practice" 2960:

Francis, DP; Mielewczik, M; Zargaran, D; Cole, GD (26 June 2013). "Autologous bone marrow-derived stem cell therapy in heart disease: Discrepancies and contradictions".

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In National Cancer Institute Fact Sheet web site. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010. Cited 24 August 2010

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Possible mechanisms of recovery include:Generation of heart muscle cells, Stimulating growth of new blood vessels to repopulate damaged heart tissue and secretion of

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Park BW, Kang DH, Kang EJ, Byun JH, Lee JS, Maeng GH, Rho GJ (2012). "Peripheral nerve regeneration using autologous porcine skin-derived mesenchymal stem cells".

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Gattegno-Ho D, Argyle SA, Argyle DJ (2012). "Stem cells and veterinary medicine: tools to understand diseases and enable tissue regeneration and drug discovery".

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In a 2019 review that looked at hearing regeneration and regenerative medicine, stem cell-derived otic progenitors have the potential to greatly improve hearing.

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Nathan S, Das De S, Thambyah A, Fen C, Goh J, Lee EH (August 2003). "Cell-based therapy in the repair of osteochondral defects: a novel use for adipose tissue".

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discovered a way to cultivate a complete tooth in mice and were able to grow bioengineered teeth stand-alone in the laboratory. Researchers are confident that

6679: 2030:"Cryopreserved mesenchymal stromal cells display impaired immunosuppressive properties as a result of heat-shock response and impaired interferon-γ licensing" 6644: 3569:

Berebichez-Fridman, R.; Gómez-García, R.; Granados-Montiel, J.; Berebichez-Fastlicht, E.; Olivos-Meza, A.; Granados, J.; Velasquillo, C.; Ibarra, C. (2017).

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Giarratana MC, Kobari L, Lapillonne H, et al. (January 2005). "Ex vivo generation of fully mature human red blood cells from hematopoietic stem cells".

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Veterinary applications of stem cell therapy as a means of tissue regeneration have been largely shaped by research that began with the use of adult-derived

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degradation is often fatal to the organism as a whole. Diseases of hematopoietic cells are diagnosed and classified via a subspecialty of pathology known as

4931:"Functional recovery and neural differentiation after transplantation of allogenic adipose-derived stem cells in a canine model of acute spinal cord injury" 4613:

Ribitsch I, Burk J, Delling U, Geißler C, Gittel C, Jülke H, Brehm W (2010). "Basic science and clinical application of stem cells in veterinary medicine".

3855:"Meta-Analysis of Cell-based CaRdiac stUdiEs (ACCRUE) in Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction Based on Individual Patient DataNovelty and Significance" 6504: 1063: 1048: 6684: 6514: 6509: 5230: 2751: 140:, was conditionally approved in Canada in 2012 for the management of acute graft-vs-host disease in children who are unresponsive to steroids. It is an 6689: 6649: 6732: 6722: 6609: 5423: 151:

The FDA has approved five hematopoietic stem-cell products derived from umbilical cord blood, for the treatment of blood and immunological diseases.

5398: 6629: 4821:"Tissue regeneration observed in a basic fibroblast growth factor–loaded porous acellular bovine pericardium populated with mesenchymal stem cells" 3797:"Discrepancies in autologous bone marrow stem cell trials and enhancement of ejection fraction (DAMASCENE): weighted regression and meta-analysis" 2279:

Cell Basics: What are the potential uses of human stem cells and the obstacles that must be overcome before these potential uses will be realized?

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Tecirlioglu RT, Trounson AO (2007). "Embryonic stem cells in companion animals (horses, dogs and cats): present status and future prospects".

630:, the stem cells stimulate renewed repair, eventually restoring vision. The latest such development was in June 2005, when researchers at the 6589: 6531: 6526: 5022:

I. Dobrinski; A.J. Travis (2007). "Germ cell transplantation for the propagation of companion animals, non-domestic and endangered species".

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without the loss of stem-cell potential. Two main approaches are taken for this purpose: two-dimensional and three-dimensional cell culture.

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Stem cells were also able to restore sight in one eye of a horse with retinal detachment, allowing the horse to return to daily activities.

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will be injected into an injured muscle and tracked using imaging systems. However, the system still needs to be demonstrated at lab scale.

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In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was an initial wave of companies and clinics offering stem cell therapy, while not substantiating

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and sustained meningitis after stem cell treatment for multiple sclerosis at a commercial clinic in Baja California, Mexico was published.

460:. In healthy adult laboratory animals, progenitor cells migrate within the brain and function primarily to maintain neuron populations for 3963:"Intracoronary autologous bone marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST-2 randomised placebo-controlled clinical trial" 1304:"Twenty years of unrelated donor hematopoietic cell transplantation for adult recipients facilitated by the National Marrow Donor Program" 6727: 6717: 6659: 6567: 4087:"Investigation of Bacterial Infections Among Patients Treated With Umbilical Cord Blood-Derived Products Marketed as Stem Cell Therapies" 2196:"Chondrogenesis, osteogenesis and adipogenesis of canine mesenchymal stem cells: a biochemical, morphological and ultrastructural study" 182:

released from stem cells are also being studied in an effort to make medications. In addition to the functions of the cells themselves,

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Rebeiro P, Moore J (2016). "The role of autologous haemopoietic stem cell transplantation in the treatment of autoimmune disorders".

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stem cells, or stem cells derived from different species, are used primarily for research purposes, especially for human treatments.

3304: 2826:"Allogeneic Mesenchymal Stem Cells Ameliorate Aging Frailty: A Phase II Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial" 6712: 6604: 6599: 6536: 5794: 1752:

Fraser JK, Wulur I, Alfonso Z, Hedrick MH (April 2006). "Fat tissue: an underappreciated source of stem cells for biotechnology".

5494: 4438:

Koch TG, Betts DH (November 2007). "Stem cell therapy for joint problems using the horse as a clinically relevant animal model".

4043:

Gyöngyösi, Mariann; Lukovic, Dominika; Zlabinger, Katrin; Mandic, Ljubica; Winkler, Johannes; Gugerell, Alfred (1 January 2017).

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have been injected directly in to the head of the femur, with success not only in bone regeneration, but also in pain reduction.

403:

bone, stem cells are often introduced in a scaffold where they produce the minerals necessary for generation of functional bone.

105: 99: 36: 5163: 1409: 6085: 2516:"Upcoming Clinical Trial Will Test New Cell Therapy for Parkinson's Disease in Humans | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center" 285:

for the first clinical trial of an embryonic stem-cell-based therapy on humans. The trial aimed to evaluate the drug GRNOPC1,

5375: 4638: 2139: 199: 2997:"Humane autologe Stammzelltransplantation zur Myokardregeneration bei dilatativer Kardiomyopathie (NYHA Stadium II bis III)" 1428: 723:

Stem cells can also be used to stimulate the growth of human tissues. In an adult, wounded tissue is most often replaced by

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Vastag B (April 2001). "Stem cells step closer to the clinic: paralysis partially reversed in rats with ALS-like disease".

1043: 66:

Stem-cell therapy has become controversial following developments such as the ability of scientists to isolate and culture

1906:

Brehm W, Burk J, Delling U, Gittel C, Ribitsch I (2012). "Stem cell-based tissue engineering in veterinary orthopaedics".

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In 2017, a small-scale study on individuals 60 years or older with aging frailty showed, after intravenous treatment with

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Karanes C, Nelson GO, Chitphakdithai P, Agura E, Ballen KK, Bolan CD, Porter DL, Uberti JP, King RJ, Confer DL (2008).

4524:"The effect of implants loaded with autologous mesenchymal stem cells on the healing of canine segmental bone defects" 1682:

Awad HA, Butler DL, Boivin GP, et al. (June 1999). "Autologous mesenchymal stem cell-mediated repair of tendon".

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within the brain. Clinical and animal studies have been conducted into the experimental use of stem cells in cases of

129:

generate an immune response that helps to kill off the cancer cells; this process can go too far, however, leading to

4274:

Murphy JM, Fink DJ, Hunziker EB, Barry FP (December 2003). "Stem cell therapy in a caprine model of osteoarthritis".

2995:

Schannwell CM, Kostering M, Zeus T, Brehm M, Erdmann G, Fleissner T, Yosef M, Kogler G, Wernet P, Strauer BE (2008).

2743: 5546: 2825: 1472: 6901: 6412: 4692:"Effect of adipose-derived nucleated cell fractions on tendon repair in horses with collagenase-induced tendinitis" 3094: 2195: 2468:"Beneficial effects of autologous mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in active progressive multiple sclerosis" 904:

and other additives are still being researched to find the best type of cell and method for long-term treatment.

4194:"Therapeutic benefit of intravenous administration of bone marrow stromal cells after cerebral ischemia in rats" 574:, creating an environment that mimics the conditions of bone marrow, the natural site of red-blood-cell growth. 6952: 5833: 4235:"Transplantation of Progenitor Cells and Regeneration Enhancement in Acute Myocardial Infarction (TOPCARE-AMI)" 1793:

Kane, Ed (May 2008). Stem-cell therapy shows promise for soft-tissue injury, disease. DVM Newsmagazine. 6E-10E.

1669:

Zachos TA, Smith TJ (September 2008). Use of adult stem cells in clinical orthopedics. DVM Newsmagazine. 36–39.

1289: 75: 1992: 51:. Research is underway to develop various sources for stem cells as well as to apply stem-cell treatments for 6845: 6235: 6201: 5653: 4870:"Multimodal nanoparticles for structural and functional tracking of stem cell therapy on muscle regeneration" 2395:"Results Reported from Case Studies of Stem Cell Transplantation in People with Relapsing and Progressive MS" 1058: 433: 71: 3571:"The Holy Grail of Orthopedic Surgery: Mesenchymal Stem Cells—Their Current Uses and Potential Applications" 1017:

found health centers and an individual physician making unsubstantiated claims for stem cell therapies, and

6772: 3496: 395:, that are necessary for tissue growth, 3) supporting tissue remodeling over scar formation, 4) inhibiting 313:) acquired Geron's stem cell assets in a stock transaction, with the aim of restarting the clinical trial. 278: 3717:

DiGiusto, David; Stan, Rodica; Krishnan, Amrita; Li, Haitang; Rossi, John; Zaia, John (22 November 2013).

35:

to treat or prevent a disease or condition. As of 2024, the only FDA-approved therapy using stem cells is

6957: 6947: 4234: 4004:"Intracoronary autologous bone marrow cell transfer after acute myocardial infarction: abort and refocus" 2241:

Singec I, Jandial R, Crain A, Nikkhah G, Snyder EY (2007). "The leading edge of stem cell therapeutics".

946:

secondary damage response secrete factors that promote scar formation and inhibit cellular regeneration.

392: 6922: 6353: 6206: 6142: 4366:"Mesenchymal stem cell therapy in equine musculoskeletal disease: scientific fact or clinical fiction?" 3048:

Malliaras K.; Kreke M.; Marban E. (2011). "The stuttering progress of cell therapy for heart disease".

2873:

Ptaszek LM, Mansour M, Ruskin JN, Chien KR (2012). "Towards regenerative therapy for cardiac disease".

52: 44: 1278: 190:, have been found to be another mechanism by which stem cell-based therapies mediate their effects in 124:

agents. These agents, however, cannot discriminate between the leukaemia or neoplastic cells, and the

6422: 6395: 6309: 6189: 6149: 2736: 1955: 666: 638:, England were able to restore the sight of forty people using the same technique. The group, led by 155: 5231:"FDA presses its campaign against rogue regenerative med players, cites StemGenex for illegal sales" 5093: 6932: 5884: 5764: 5608: 5290: 4045:"Cardiac Stem Cell-based Regenerative Therapy for the Ischemic Injured Heart — a Short Update 2017" 1014: 704: 591: 336: 210:

Most stem cells intended for regenerative therapy are generally isolated either from the patient's

3625:

Gurtner GC, Callaghan MJ, Longaker MT (2007). "Progress and potential for regenerative medicine".

3568: 2766:"Human neural stem cells differentiate and promote locomotor recovery in spinal cord-injured mice" 1950: 6942: 6262: 6154: 6127: 6055: 5724: 4559: 2298: 770: 757:

unable to find any significant benefits of stem cell therapy on primary endpoints, such as major

642:, was able to successfully use adult stem cells obtained from the patient, a relative, or even a 631: 567: 6896: 6814: 6797: 6792: 6336: 6164: 6159: 6132: 6016: 5467: 4145:"Mycobacterium abscessus Meningitis Associated with Stem Cell Treatment During Medical Tourism" 3483: 570:(HSCs), which are precursors of red blood cells. In this process, HSCs are grown together with 481: 437: 429: 145: 6865: 6319: 6090: 5999: 5994: 5871: 5856: 5774: 5729: 5719: 5703: 947: 926: 908: 901: 852: 843: 826: 818: 782: 712: 680: 521: 505: 445: 358: 298: 257: 239: 232: 227: 219: 130: 1542:

Teixeira, Fábio G.; Carvalho, Miguel M.; Sousa, Nuno; Salgado, António J. (1 October 2013).

6365: 6314: 6137: 6100: 6080: 4618: 4322: 2777: 2609: 2554: 1544:"Mesenchymal stem cells secretome: a new paradigm for central nervous system regeneration?" 1053: 925:

angiogenesis and reduction of inflammation. Although cardiomyocytes were produced from the

191: 183: 67: 48: 2278: 8: 6937: 6886: 6804: 6430: 6407: 6377: 6194: 6169: 5938: 5813: 5698: 5638: 5601: 4144: 3638: 2254: 2157:"Stem cells in veterinary medicine — attempts at regenerating equine tendon after injury" 696: 611: 286: 263: 187: 4622: 4617:. Advances in Biochemical Engineering / Biotechnology. Vol. 123. pp. 219–263. 4326: 4169: 2781: 2613: 2558: 2028:

François M, Copland IB, Yuan S, Romieu-Mourez R, Waller EK, Galipeau J (February 2012).

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have been conducted, and a 2020 phase 2 trial found significantly improved outcomes for

6435: 6255: 6211: 6031: 6021: 6009: 5933: 5351: 5316: 5136: 5111: 5082: 4955: 4930: 4765: 4721: 4551: 4463: 4346: 4251: 4119: 4102: 4086: 3937: 3912: 3887: 3854: 3829: 3796: 3745: 3718: 3694: 3661: 3597: 3570: 3543: 3526: 3461: 3436: 3398: 3373: 3354: 3254: 3206: 3179: 3119: 3073: 2898: 2850: 2800: 2765: 2632: 2597: 2578: 2447: 2376: 2223: 2054: 2029: 1951:"Stem Cell Based Treatments and Novel Considerations for Conscience Clause Legislation" 1931: 1877: 1831: 1602: 1519: 1494: 1371: 1344: 1181: 1148: 1124: 1097: 1006: 802: 724: 708: 684: 595: 493: 441: 294: 195: 4573:

Kraus KH, Kirker-Head C (April 2006). "Mesenchymal stem cells and bone regeneration".

2886: 2122:

Mellati, Amir; Zhang, Hu (2015). "Expansion of Stem Cells by Nanotissue Engineering".

1394: 141: 6372: 6038: 6026: 5987: 5769: 5356: 5338: 5271: 5212: 5204: 5141: 5074: 5039: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4960: 4929:

Ryu HH, Lim JH, Byeon YE, Park JR, Seo MS, Lee YW, Kim WH, Kang KS, Kweon OK (2009).

4911: 4850: 4842: 4801: 4757: 4713: 4672: 4644: 4634: 4590: 4586: 4543: 4539: 4504: 4455: 4420: 4385: 4338: 4310: 4291: 4256: 4215: 4174: 4124: 4106: 4066: 4025: 3984: 3942: 3892: 3874: 3834: 3816: 3750: 3699: 3681: 3642: 3602: 3548: 3466: 3403: 3346: 3246: 3211: 3160: 3111: 3065: 3030: 2977: 2939: 2890: 2855: 2805: 2732: 2714: 2678: 2637: 2570: 2497: 2489: 2451: 2439: 2431: 2368: 2333: 2258: 2215: 2176: 2135: 2099: 2059: 1972: 1964: 1923: 1869: 1823: 1769: 1734: 1699: 1645: 1594: 1576: 1524: 1453: 1376: 1325: 1260: 1252: 1186: 1168: 1129: 999: 425: 282: 179: 86:. Additionally, efforts to market treatments based on transplant of stored umbilical 5086: 4769: 4725: 4555: 4350: 3421: 3358: 3258: 3123: 3077: 2902: 2380: 1935: 1835: 1606: 1205:"Consumer Alert on Regenerative Medicine Products Including Stem Cells and Exosomes" 6855: 6835: 6752: 6348: 6179: 6095: 5923: 5901: 5734: 5648: 5346: 5328: 5261: 5194: 5131: 5123: 5066: 5031: 4988: 4950: 4942: 4903: 4832: 4793: 4749: 4703: 4626: 4582: 4535: 4494: 4467: 4447: 4412: 4377: 4330: 4283: 4246: 4205: 4164: 4156: 4114: 4098: 4056: 4015: 3974: 3932: 3924: 3882: 3866: 3824: 3808: 3740: 3730: 3689: 3673: 3634: 3592: 3582: 3538: 3456: 3448: 3422:"Gene therapy is first deafness 'cure' – health – 14 February 2005 – New Scientist" 3393: 3385: 3338: 3238: 3201: 3191: 3180:"Current Use and Trends in Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation in the United States" 3150: 3103: 3057: 2969: 2929: 2882: 2845: 2837: 2795: 2785: 2706: 2668: 2627: 2617: 2582: 2562: 2479: 2423: 2360: 2325: 2299:"Neural Stem Cells May Rescue Memory In Advanced Alzheimer's, Mouse Study Suggests" 2250: 2227: 2207: 2168: 2127: 2091: 2049: 2041: 1915: 1881: 1861: 1815: 1761: 1726: 1691: 1637: 1584: 1566: 1558: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1443: 1366: 1356: 1345:"New Insight for the Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal Acute Graft-versus-Host Disease" 1315: 1242: 1176: 1160: 1119: 1109: 489: 457: 453: 159: 3928: 3870: 3155: 3138: 2172: 2156: 1765: 6479: 6360: 6299: 6048: 5950: 5911: 5715: 5643: 5070: 4907: 4797: 4365: 3911:

Taylor, Doris A.; Moyé, Lem; Ebert, Ray F.; Simari, Robert D. (2 February 2018).

2973: 2747: 2657:"Signaling pathways controlling neural stem cells slow progressive brain disease" 2598:"Targeting neural precursors in the adult brain rescues injured dopamine neurons" 2285: 2045: 991: 876: 798: 655: 635: 557: 550: 469: 290: 266:. This controversy primarily targets the techniques used to derive new embryonic 79: 4837: 4820: 335:

The ability to grow up functional adult tissues indefinitely in culture through

6891: 6450: 6417: 6387: 6331: 6184: 5960: 5955: 5918: 5906: 5879: 5784: 5779: 5746: 5199: 5182: 4483:"Use of mesenchymal stem cells in a collagen matrix for Achilles tendon repair" 4451: 4020: 4003: 3979: 3962: 3437:"Hearing regeneration and regenerative medicine: present and future approaches" 3196: 2934: 2917: 2427: 2131: 2095: 1730: 1320: 1303: 1068: 1018: 880: 872: 842:

alone. Scaffolds composed of natural and artificial components are seeded with

829:, derived from the patient before use in various treatments. A third category, 794: 692: 575: 537: 267: 215: 5266: 5249: 5127: 4946: 3677: 3389: 3342: 3107: 2710: 2211: 1919: 1562: 6916: 6850: 6809: 6757: 6216: 5982: 5928: 5450:"Potential Risks of Treatment with Unapproved Regenerative Medicine Products" 5342: 5208: 5000: 4846: 4819:

Chang Y, Lai PH, Wei HJ, Lin WW, Chen CH, Hwang SM, Chen SC, Sung HW (2007).

4381: 4210: 4193: 4110: 4070: 3878: 3820: 3685: 3329:

Yen AH, Sharpe PT (January 2008). "Stem cells and tooth tissue engineering".

3139:"Future directions in haploidentical hematopoietic stem cell transplantation" 2754:

By Roger Highfield, Science Editor. Last Updated: 1:28AM GMT 30 November 2004

2493: 2435: 2329: 1968: 1641: 1580: 1256: 1172: 1029:

Although according to the NIH no stem cell treatments have been approved for

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Heller has reported success in re-growing cochlea hair cells with the use of

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Research has been conducted on the effects of stem cells on animal models of

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reduction in the damaged area four weeks after the stem cells were applied.

707:, among others. Other areas of orthopedic research for uses of MSCs include 399:, and 5) differentiating into bone, cartilage, tendon, and ligament tissue. 162:

for people with severe limbal stem cell deficiency due to burns in the eye.

6455: 6445: 6440: 6120: 5972: 5943: 5663: 5360: 5333: 5275: 5216: 5145: 5078: 5043: 5008: 4964: 4915: 4854: 4805: 4761: 4717: 4676: 4648: 4594: 4499: 4482: 4459: 4424: 4389: 4342: 4295: 4260: 4219: 4178: 4160: 4128: 4029: 3988: 3946: 3896: 3838: 3754: 3703: 3646: 3606: 3587: 3552: 3470: 3407: 3350: 3250: 3215: 3164: 3115: 3069: 3034: 2981: 2943: 2894: 2859: 2809: 2718: 2682: 2655:

Androutsellis-Theotokis A, Rueger MA, Mkhikian H, Korb E, McKay RD (2008).

2641: 2574: 2541:

Androutsellis-Theotokis A, Leker RR, Soldner F, et al. (August 2006).

2501: 2443: 2372: 2337: 2262: 2219: 2180: 2103: 2063: 1927: 1873: 1827: 1773: 1738: 1703: 1695: 1649: 1598: 1528: 1457: 1380: 1329: 1264: 1247: 1230: 1190: 1149:"Hematopoietic Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine: Astray or on the Path?" 1133: 1114: 995: 986: 700: 683:

derived from adult stem cells was under preliminary research for potential

571: 117: 5183:"Selling Stem Cells in the USA: Assessing the Direct-to-Consumer Industry" 4708: 4691: 4547: 4508: 4061: 4044: 3061: 2740: 2596:

Androutsellis-Theotokis A, Rueger MA, Park DM, et al. (August 2009).

1361: 1290:

Bone Marrow Transplantation and Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Transplantation

174:

Diseases and conditions where stem cell treatment is promising or emerging

6784: 6343: 6326: 6115: 6110: 6043: 4481:

Young RG, Butler DL, Weber W, Caplan AI, Gordon SL, Fink DJ (July 1998).

4311:"Mesoangioblast stem cells ameliorate muscle function in dystrophic dogs" 3435:

Nacher-Soler, German; Garrido, Jose; Rodriguez-Serrano, Fernando (2019).

2654: 1098:"Stem cells application in regenerative medicine and disease threpeutics" 761:

or increase in heart function measures, concluding there was no benefit.

728: 639: 526: 352:

will provide insight not normally known before the animal testing phase.

211: 40: 5825: 5057:

Enserink, M (14 July 2006). "Biomedicine. Selling the stem cell dream".

4753: 4334: 2566: 2011:"BioTime acquires stem cell assets from Geron, raises $ 10 million" 1147:

Müller, Albrecht M.; Huppertz, Sascha; Henschler, Reinhard (July 2016).

6304: 6075: 5977: 4630: 2959: 823: 806: 485: 472:

and behavioral recovery in adult rat models of neurological disorders.

465: 408: 271: 170: 87: 32: 5250:"Marketing of Unproven and Unapproved Regenerative Medicine Therapies" 4287: 3812: 3090: 2364: 1865: 1571: 1448: 1164: 933: 663:

effects of high glucose concentrations on stem cell therapy, however.

310: 116:; this is the only widely practiced form of stem-cell therapy. During 6881: 6860: 6278: 6105: 5624: 5564: 3735: 2996: 1819: 1429:"Why regenerative stem cell medicine progresses slower than expected" 1231:"Stem cell therapies in neurology: the good, the bad and the unknown" 830: 688: 659: 461: 396: 121: 109: 20: 5035: 4416: 3434: 3242: 2542: 178:

Stem cells are being studied for several reasons. The molecules and

5896: 5521:"Stem cell companies sell hope with unproven medicine for COVID-19" 5495:"Historic spring storm of FDA letters to stem cell clinic industry" 3662:"Skin cell heterogeneity in development, wound healing, and cancer" 3527:"Adverse Effect of High Glucose Concentration on Stem Cell Therapy" 2543:"Notch signalling regulates stem cell numbers in vitro and in vivo" 2540: 1851: 1030: 864: 790: 262:

As of 2010, there was widespread controversy over the use of human

113: 56: 3851: 2194:

Csaki C, Matis U, Mobasheri A, Ye H, Shakibaei M (December 2007).

238:

There has been more recent interest in the use of extra embryonic

19:

This article is about the medical therapy. For the cell type, see

6294: 4690:

Nixon AJ, Dahlgren LA, Haupt JL, Yeager AE, Ward DL (July 2008).

3794: 3525:

Saki N, Jalalifar MA, Soleimani M, Hajizamani S, Rahim F (2013).

3512:

Embryonic stem cell research is necessary to find a diabetes cure

2595: 643: 562: 302: 5315:

Snyder, Jeremy; Turner, Leigh; Crooks, Valorie A. (8 May 2018).

5112:"The malignant niche: safe spaces for toxic stem cell marketing" 3959: 3524: 2764:

Cummings BJ, Uchida N, Tamaki SJ, et al. (September 2005).

2027: 1301: 1277:

Ian Murnaghan for Explore Stem Cells. Updated: 16 December 2013

456:, which divide to maintain general stem-cell numbers, or become 6286: 5686: 5676: 5399:"FDA seeks permanent injunctions against two stem cell clinics" 4309:

Sampaolesi M, Blot S, D'Antona G, et al. (November 2006).

4233:

Assmus B, Schächinger V, Teupe C, et al. (December 2002).

4042: 868: 786: 627: 5164:"South Africa's struggle to control sham stem cell treatments" 4738: 670:

Mesenchymal stem cells being injected into the knee of patient

6830: 5681: 5593: 4977: 3047: 2155:

Richardson LE, Dudhia J, Clegg PD, Smith R (September 2007).

108:(HSCT) has been used to treat people with conditions such as 6247: 5468:"Clinic Pushes Inhaled Stem Cell Tx, Delivered to Your Door" 3909: 3136: 3020: 2994: 1541: 330: 16:

Use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition

4521: 5544: 4612: 4522:

Bruder SP, Kraus KH, Goldberg VM, Kadiyala S (July 1998).

4308: 3374:"Stem cell-based biological tooth repair and regeneration" 3228: 2154: 1025:

COVID-19-related marketing and government agency responses

411:

treatments to be performed without a high rejection risk.

5317:"Crowdfunding for Unproven Stem Cell–Based Interventions" 4869: 4083: 3177: 3137:

Vittayawacharin P, Kongtim P, Ciurea SO (December 2024).

2872: 2240: 1751: 4689: 3624: 2822: 1626: 1473:"First stem-cell therapy recommended for approval in EU" 47:

transplantation, but the cells can also be derived from

5021: 4273: 4141: 4002:

Bartunek, Jozef; Wojakowski, Wojtek (14 October 2017).

2412: 2081: 1716: 1495:"Therapeutics from Adult Stem Cells and the Hype Curve" 1146: 516:

In 2012, stem cells were studied in people with severe

235:, again with a very non-invasive harvesting technique. 4480: 4232: 3716: 3178:

D'Souza A, Lee S, Zhu X, Pasquini M (September 2017).

1905: 598:

technology can be used to grow live teeth in people.

5376:"FTC takes aim at deceptive stem cell therapy claims" 2464: 2193: 1470: 812: 5562: 4971: 2763: 2752:

Umbilical cord cells 'allow paralysed woman to walk'

1049:

Cardiovascular Cell Therapy Research Network (CCTRN)

464:(the sense of smell). Pharmacological activation of 5050: 4402: 3014: 316: 5314: 4825:The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 4001: 2915: 2350: 620: 133:, the most serious side effect of this treatment. 3371: 2408: 2406: 2404: 6914: 5589:EuroStemCell: types of stem cells and their uses 5448:Commissioner, Office of the (9 September 2020). 5373: 4661: 4572: 4363: 4192:Chen J, Li Y, Wang L, et al. (April 2001). 1805: 1681: 1410:"A Stem-Cell-Based Drug Gets Approval in Canada" 5966:Strategies for engineered negligible senescence 5291:"How much does stem cell therapy cost in 2021?" 5180: 4928: 3372:Volponi AA, Pang Y, Sharpe PT (December 2010). 475: 205: 5790:Stem cell laws and policy in the United States 5181:Turner, Leigh; Knoepfler, Paul (August 2016). 4818: 4782: 2401: 2117: 2115: 2113: 1005:One common marketing tactic is registering on 605: 468:neural stem cells has been reported to induce 386: 270:, which often requires the destruction of the 6263: 5841: 5609: 5397:Commissioner, Office of the (24 March 2020). 5105: 5103: 2916:Strauer, Bodo; Steinhoff G (September 2011). 1990: 858: 5556: 5447: 5396: 5157: 5155: 4922: 4893: 4887: 4615:Bioreactor Systems for Tissue Engineering II 4364:Taylor SE, Smith RK, Clegg PD (March 2007). 3365: 3041: 2955: 2953: 2909: 2148: 2121: 2021: 245: 3659: 3499:. 28 April 2005 – via news.bbc.co.uk. 3184:Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation 2110: 1395:"Prochymal — First Stem Cell Drug Approved" 1342: 1308:Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation 1295: 6270: 6256: 6230: 5848: 5834: 5616: 5602: 5100: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4191: 3761: 3620: 3618: 3616: 2077: 2075: 2073: 1426: 1074:Stem cell therapy for macular degeneration 863:Autologous stem cell-based treatments for 252:Human embryonic stem cells clinical trials 5855: 5492: 5350: 5332: 5288: 5265: 5198: 5152: 5135: 4954: 4836: 4707: 4498: 4437: 4250: 4209: 4168: 4118: 4060: 4019: 3978: 3936: 3886: 3828: 3744: 3734: 3693: 3660:Rognoni, Emanuel; Watt, Fiona M. (2018). 3596: 3586: 3542: 3509: 3460: 3397: 3328: 3205: 3195: 3154: 2950: 2933: 2849: 2799: 2789: 2695: 2672: 2631: 2621: 2483: 2053: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1677: 1675: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1622: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1588: 1570: 1518: 1447: 1370: 1360: 1319: 1246: 1180: 1123: 1113: 884:and elbow and horses with tendon damage. 488:, characterized by a loss of neurons and 414: 331:In drug discovery and biomedical research 5795:Epigenetics in stem cell differentiation 5518: 5161: 5056: 5024:Reproduction, Fertility, and Development 4077: 3305:"Scientists Grow Teeth Using Stem Cells" 2315: 2234: 1801: 1799: 940: 687:applications in bone and muscle trauma, 665: 649: 646:. Further rounds of trials are ongoing. 169: 74:, and their use of techniques to create 4601: 3653: 3613: 2070: 1847: 1845: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1492: 1407: 1401: 658:lose the function of insulin-producing 543: 293:progenitor cells, on people with acute 120:, most growing cells are killed by the 106:hematopoietic stem cell transplantation 100:Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation 78:. This controversy is often related to 37:hematopoietic stem cell transplantation 6915: 6086:Differential technological development 4812: 4776: 4357: 3767: 3564: 3562: 3302: 3050:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2274: 2272: 1888: 1672: 1656: 1613: 980: 975: 776: 365: 6251: 5829: 5597: 5247: 4566: 4049:Journal of Cardiovascular Emergencies 2830:The Journals of Gerontology: Series A 1991:O'Connell, Claire (27 January 2012). 1948: 1942: 1796: 1102:International Journal of Cell Biology 1095: 186:produced by stem cells, known as the 5892:Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation 5374:Colleen Tressler (18 October 2018). 5367: 5162:Slabbert, Melodie (21 August 2015). 5109: 4732: 3639:10.1146/annurev.med.58.082405.095329 2397:. National MS Society. January 2015. 2255:10.1146/annurev.med.58.070605.115252 1842: 1780: 1551:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 1228: 1153:Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy 1044:Autologous stem-cell transplantation 932:2018 research, such as the European 525:heart function following the use of 419: 6175:Future-oriented technology analysis 4396: 3559: 3497:"Stem cells used to restore vision" 2962:International Journal of Cardiology 2661:Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol 2269: 1464: 1279:Why Perform a Stem Cell Transplant? 499: 39:. This usually takes the form of a 13: 5563:Global Stem Cell Therapy, Abroad. 4252:10.1161/01.CIR.0000043246.74879.CD 4103:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.28615 3271: 1387: 1283: 813:Sources of veterinarian stem cells 585: 136:Another stem-cell therapy, called 14: 6969: 5582: 5565:"Global Stem Cell Therapy Abroad" 3768:Berndt, Christina (4 July 2013). 3531:Int J Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Res 3486:MedicalNewsToday. 28 October 2004 2731:Team co-headed by researchers at 440:. 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Cell Biol 1248:10.1093/brain/awy221 1115:10.1155/2016/6940283 1054:Fetal tissue implant 612:embryonic stem cells 544:Blood-cell formation 264:embryonic stem cells 68:embryonic stem cells 49:umbilical cord blood 6887:Longevity insurance 6805:Digital immortality 6431:calorie restriction 6418:Indefinite lifespan 6408:Anti-aging movement 6378:Biomarkers of aging 6195:Technology scouting 6170:Accelerating change 5939:Genetic engineering 5699:Embryonic stem cell 5237:. 14 November 2018. 4754:10.1042/CBI20110304 4623:2010bste.book..219R 4405:Reprod. Fertil. 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Physiol 1849: 1840: 1839: 1820:10.1002/term.404 1803: 1794: 1791: 1778: 1777: 1749: 1743: 1742: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1679: 1670: 1667: 1654: 1653: 1636:(5–6): 955–964. 1624: 1611: 1610: 1592: 1574: 1548: 1539: 1533: 1532: 1522: 1490: 1484: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1468: 1462: 1461: 1451: 1433: 1424: 1418: 1417: 1405: 1399: 1398: 1391: 1385: 1384: 1374: 1364: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1323: 1299: 1293: 1287: 1281: 1275: 1269: 1268: 1250: 1226: 1220: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1184: 1144: 1138: 1137: 1127: 1117: 1093: 907:Adipose-derived 500:Frailty syndrome 490:oligodendrocytes 458:progenitor cells 6973: 6972: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6964: 6963: 6962: 6933:Medical tourism 6913: 6912: 6911: 6906: 6870: 6824:Longevity genes 6819: 6779: 6737: 6696: 6541: 6480:life expectancy 6478: 6472: 6382: 6361:Life expectancy 6300:Longevity myths 6281: 6276: 6246: 6241: 6221: 6060: 6049:Oncolytic virus 5951:Head transplant 5859: 5854: 5824: 5819: 5799: 5753: 5716:Progenitor cell 5658: 5627: 5622: 5585: 5580: 5579: 5569: 5567: 5561: 5557: 5549: 5543: 5539: 5529: 5527: 5517: 5513: 5503: 5501: 5491: 5487: 5477: 5475: 5466: 5465: 5461: 5446: 5442: 5432: 5430: 5422: 5421: 5417: 5407: 5405: 5395: 5391: 5381: 5379: 5372: 5368: 5313: 5309: 5299: 5297: 5287: 5283: 5246: 5242: 5229: 5228: 5224: 5179: 5175: 5160: 5153: 5108: 5101: 5091: 5065:(5784): 160–3. 5055: 5051: 5036:10.1071/RD07036 5020: 5016: 4976: 4972: 4927: 4923: 4892: 4888: 4878: 4876: 4866: 4862: 4831:(1): 65–73.e4. 4817: 4813: 4786:Int. J. Cardiol 4781: 4777: 4737: 4733: 4696:Am. J. Vet. Res 4688: 4684: 4660: 4656: 4641: 4611: 4602: 4571: 4567: 4520: 4516: 4479: 4475: 4446:(11): 1621–26. 4436: 4432: 4417:10.1071/RD07039 4401: 4397: 4362: 4358: 4321:(7119): 574–9. 4307: 4303: 4282:(12): 3464–74. 4276:Arthritis Rheum 4272: 4268: 4245:(24): 3009–17. 4231: 4227: 4190: 4186: 4140: 4136: 4082: 4078: 4041: 4037: 4000: 3996: 3973:(39): 2936–43. 3958: 3954: 3908: 3904: 3850: 3846: 3793: 3789: 3779: 3777: 3774:Sueddeutsche.de 3766: 3762: 3715: 3711: 3658: 3654: 3623: 3614: 3567: 3560: 3523: 3519: 3508: 3504: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3482: 3478: 3433: 3429: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3384:(12): 715–722. 3370: 3366: 3331:Cell Tissue Res 3327: 3323: 3313: 3311: 3301: 3297: 3287: 3285: 3270: 3266: 3243:10.1038/nbt1047 3231:Nat. Biotechnol 3227: 3223: 3176: 3172: 3135: 3131: 3089: 3085: 3046: 3042: 3019: 3015: 2999: 2993: 2989: 2958: 2951: 2914: 2910: 2871: 2867: 2836:(11): 1513–22. 2821: 2817: 2762: 2758: 2748:Wayback Machine 2730: 2726: 2694: 2690: 2653: 2649: 2594: 2590: 2553:(7104): 823–6. 2539: 2535: 2525: 2523: 2514: 2513: 2509: 2478:(12): 3574–88. 2463: 2459: 2411: 2402: 2393: 2392: 2388: 2349: 2345: 2314: 2310: 2297: 2296: 2292: 2286:Wayback Machine 2277: 2270: 2239: 2235: 2192: 2188: 2153: 2149: 2142: 2120: 2111: 2080: 2071: 2026: 2022: 2009: 2008: 2004: 1997:The Irish Times 1989: 1985: 1947: 1943: 1908:Cell Tissue Res 1904: 1889: 1850: 1843: 1804: 1797: 1792: 1781: 1750: 1746: 1715: 1711: 1680: 1673: 1668: 1657: 1625: 1614: 1557:(20): 3871–82. 1546: 1540: 1536: 1491: 1487: 1477: 1475: 1469: 1465: 1431: 1425: 1421: 1406: 1402: 1393: 1392: 1388: 1341: 1337: 1300: 1296: 1288: 1284: 1276: 1272: 1227: 1223: 1213: 1211: 1203: 1202: 1198: 1145: 1141: 1094: 1090: 1083: 1078: 1039: 1027: 992:medical tourism 983: 978: 969: 943: 918: 898: 877:osteochondrosis 861: 839: 815: 799:osteochondrosis 779: 746: 737: 721: 677: 656:Type 1 diabetes 652: 623: 608: 588: 586:Regrowing teeth 558:red blood cells 551:hematopathology 546: 514: 502: 478: 470:neuroprotection 422: 417: 389: 368: 333: 319: 291:oligodendrocyte 268:stem cell lines 260: 254: 248: 226:New sources of 208: 168: 102: 96: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6971: 6961: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6943:Life extension 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6908: 6907: 6905: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6892:Longevity risk 6889: 6884: 6878: 6876: 6872: 6871: 6869: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6827: 6825: 6821: 6820: 6818: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6801: 6800: 6789: 6787: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6777: 6776: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6755: 6749: 6747: 6743: 6742: 6739: 6738: 6736: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6704: 6702: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6694: 6693: 6692: 6687: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6586: 6585: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6549: 6547: 6543: 6542: 6540: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6518: 6517: 6512: 6502: 6497: 6491: 6489: 6482: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6451:organ printing 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6404: 6403: 6392: 6390: 6388:Life extension 6384: 6383: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6369: 6368: 6358: 6357: 6356: 6351: 6341: 6340: 6339: 6334: 6332:biogerontology 6324: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6302: 6297: 6291: 6289: 6283: 6282: 6275: 6274: 6267: 6260: 6252: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6239: 6226: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6198: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6146: 6145: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6124: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6072: 6070: 6066: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6053: 6052: 6051: 6041: 6036: 6035: 6034: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6013: 6012: 6007: 5997: 5992: 5991: 5990: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5969: 5968: 5961:Life extension 5958: 5956:Isolated brain 5953: 5948: 5947: 5946: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5919:Biofabrication 5916: 5915: 5914: 5909: 5907:Organ printing 5899: 5894: 5889: 5888: 5887: 5880:3D bioprinting 5876: 5874: 5865: 5861: 5860: 5853: 5852: 5845: 5838: 5830: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5817: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5785:Stem cell laws 5782: 5780:Stem cell line 5777: 5772: 5767: 5761: 5759: 5755: 5754: 5752: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5747:Precursor cell 5739: 5738: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5708: 5707: 5706: 5701: 5691: 5690: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5668: 5666: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5628: 5621: 5620: 5613: 5606: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5584: 5583:External links 5581: 5578: 5577: 5555: 5537: 5511: 5485: 5459: 5440: 5415: 5389: 5366: 5327:(18): 1935–6. 5307: 5281: 5240: 5235:Endpoints News 5222: 5187:Cell Stem Cell 5173: 5151: 5099: 5049: 5014: 4987:(4): 437–442. 4970: 4941:(4): 273–284. 4921: 4902:(5): 584–597. 4886: 4860: 4811: 4775: 4748:(2): 189–194. 4742:Cell Biol. Int 4731: 4702:(7): 928–937. 4682: 4671:(3): 192–200. 4654: 4639: 4600: 4581:(3): 232–242. 4565: 4534:(7): 985–996. 4514: 4493:(4): 406–413. 4487:J. Orthop. Res 4473: 4430: 4395: 4376:(2): 172–180. 4356: 4301: 4266: 4225: 4204:(4): 1005–11. 4184: 4134: 4076: 4035: 4014:(39): 2944–7. 3994: 3952: 3923:(3): 479–488. 3902: 3865:(8): 1346–60. 3844: 3787: 3760: 3709: 3672:(9): 709–722. 3652: 3633:(1): 299–312. 3627:Annu. Rev. Med 3612: 3558: 3517: 3502: 3488: 3476: 3447:(4): 957–967. 3427: 3413: 3364: 3337:(1): 359–372. 3321: 3309:SingularityHUB 3295: 3264: 3221: 3190:(9): 1417–21. 3170: 3149:(1): 2366718. 3129: 3102:(2): 263–273. 3083: 3056:(4): 532–541. 3040: 3029:(3): 168–177. 3013: 2987: 2949: 2908: 2865: 2815: 2756: 2724: 2705:(4): 368–373. 2688: 2647: 2588: 2533: 2507: 2457: 2400: 2386: 2343: 2324:(13): 1691–3. 2308: 2290: 2268: 2249:(1): 313–328. 2243:Annu. Rev. Med 2233: 2206:(6): 507–520. 2186: 2167:(9): 409–416. 2147: 2140: 2109: 2069: 2040:(2): 147–152. 2020: 2002: 1983: 1941: 1914:(3): 677–688. 1887: 1841: 1814:(2): 113–124. 1795: 1779: 1744: 1725:(4): 733–744. 1709: 1690:(3): 267–277. 1671: 1655: 1612: 1534: 1485: 1463: 1442:(12): 2073–6. 1436:J Cell Biochem 1419: 1400: 1397:. 22 May 2012. 1386: 1335: 1294: 1282: 1270: 1221: 1196: 1159:(4): 247–254. 1139: 1087: 1086: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1076: 1071: 1069:Stem cell chip 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1026: 1023: 1019:forced refunds 982: 979: 977: 974: 968: 965: 942: 939: 917: 914: 897: 894: 881:osteoarthritis 873:osteoarthritis 860: 857: 838: 835: 814: 811: 795:osteoarthritis 778: 775: 759:adverse events 745: 742: 736: 733: 720: 717: 693:osteoarthritis 676: 673: 651: 648: 622: 619: 607: 604: 587: 584: 576:Erythropoietin 545: 542: 538:growth factors 520:. The work by 513: 510: 501: 498: 477: 474: 421: 418: 416: 413: 388: 385: 367: 364: 363: 362: 332: 329: 318: 315: 256:Main article: 247: 244: 216:adipose tissue 207: 204: 167: 164: 95: 92: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6970: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6879: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6828: 6826: 6822: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6810:Eternal youth 6808: 6806: 6803: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6760: 6759: 6758:Oldest people 6756: 6754: 6751: 6750: 6748: 6744: 6734: 6733:South America 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6723:North America 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6705: 6703: 6699: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6550: 6548: 6544: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6516: 6515:South America 6513: 6511: 6510:North America 6508: 6507: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6475: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6402: 6399: 6398: 6397: 6396:Topic outline 6394: 6393: 6391: 6389: 6385: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6345: 6342: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6328: 6325: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6307: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6292: 6290: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6273: 6268: 6266: 6261: 6259: 6254: 6253: 6250: 6238: 6237: 6228: 6227: 6224: 6218: 6217:Transhumanism 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6167: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6067: 6057: 6054: 6050: 6047: 6046: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6033: 6030: 6029: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5989: 5986: 5985: 5984: 5983:Organ culture 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5929:De-extinction 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5904: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5873: 5869: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5846: 5844: 5839: 5837: 5832: 5831: 5828: 5816: 5815: 5806: 5805: 5802: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5756: 5748: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5740: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5712: 5709: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5695: 5692: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5674: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5667: 5665: 5661: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5632:Sources/types 5630: 5626: 5619: 5614: 5612: 5607: 5605: 5600: 5599: 5596: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5566: 5559: 5548: 5541: 5526: 5522: 5515: 5500: 5496: 5489: 5474:. 14 May 2020 5473: 5469: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5444: 5429: 5425: 5419: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5377: 5370: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5311: 5296: 5292: 5285: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5254:Sports Health 5251: 5244: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5177: 5169: 5165: 5158: 5156: 5147: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5106: 5104: 5095: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5053: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4974: 4966: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4925: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4890: 4875: 4871: 4864: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4815: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4658: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4569: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4518: 4510: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4370:Equine Vet. J 4367: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4229: 4221: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4188: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4155:(8): 1655–8. 4154: 4150: 4146: 4138: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4080: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3906: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3848: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3756: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3713: 3705: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3565: 3563: 3554: 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