Rail transport in the Soviet Union

138: 37: 1650: 122: 1643: 2114: 2107: 2100: 1488: 1480: 1257: 1250: 3168:) as "steam railroad" which explains the double counting in the 1935 chart. Thus in the 1935 chart one can't just add the electric and steam railroad curves to get total railway passenger-miles. Furthermore, the "electric railways" curve is missing prior to 1930. Thus the total passenger-miles by rail (both steam and electric) should be somewhat higher than shown in the 1935 chart. Also, the passenger miles of intercity travel should be somewhat lower than the curve for "private automobile". Thus the real curves (for rail and auto) will intersect in the early 1920s (beyond 1919), the date when intercity auto travel exceeded intercity rail travel. 2252: 2052: 2259: 2059: 841:. For the workers they installed showers, a shoe repair shop, a barber shop, a laundry, a small shop, a social club with a capacity for 200 people, a lounge, and an art studio. In the track assembly plant (they prefabricated lengths of track, with rails attached to sleepers/ties) they installed facilities for heating (and eating) food, a reading room and a billiard room. They also provided improved amenities when workers traveled to work on remote sections of track and lived in sleeping cars. As a result of the improved amenities, it is claimed that employee turnover was reduced from 63% (per year) to 11%. 512: 1843: 1836: 1829: 1822: 1815: 2245: 2238: 2231: 2045: 2038: 967: 960: 953: 946: 1604: 1596: 1588: 1581: 1574: 1567: 974: 312:

continued to rapidly increase in the USSR so that by 1960 the USSR was hauling about half of all railway freight in the world (in tonne-km) and they did this on a rail system consisting of 10% of the world's railway kilometrage. The status of hauling half the world's railway freight continued for almost thirty years, but in 1988 railway freight traffic peaked at 3852 billion tonne-km (nearly 4 trillion). This rapid growth may seem impressive, but it was also in some senses a failure, since railway traffic at times did not grow fast enough to satisfy demand, partly due to congestion.

2224: 2217: 2210: 2203: 2170: 2149: 2163: 2156: 2142: 2135: 2128: 2121: 1808: 1801: 1794: 1787: 1518: 1511: 1504: 79: 1706: 1699: 1692: 1685: 1678: 1671: 1664: 1657: 2031: 2024: 2017: 2010: 1977: 1970: 1963: 1956: 1949: 1942: 1935: 1928: 939: 932: 925: 918: 911: 904: 897: 890: 1560: 1553: 1546: 1539: 1532: 1525: 1496: 1264: 208:

industrialization generally was to be given first priority, the question arose as to what priority should be given to railway development specifically, keeping in mind that industrialization requires greatly increased rail transportation of goods, e.g. iron ore and coal for steel mills. An example of this was the "Ural-Kuznetsk metallurgical combine" (approved in 1928) where the source of coal was located over 2000 km from the source of iron ore. Not only that, but the steel output had to be transported long distances to its final point of use.

2391: 1424: 1417: 1410: 1403: 1396: 1358: 1351: 1344: 1337: 1330: 1323: 1285: 1278: 1271: 1197: 1188: 1179: 1170: 1161: 1126: 1117: 1108: 1099: 1090: 1081: 1072: 1063: 1431: 212:

were significant investments made in railways, they were not enough to avoid the failure at times to transport all the goods, especially in early 1931 and 1933. Some of the resulting supply-line crises resulted in production shut-downs. However, in other cases "crisis" was used to describe a situation where the stocks of inputs stored at a plant (such as iron ore at a steel mill) almost ran out due to the railway's failure to deliver on time; no substantial harm would be done to production output, but it would be a close call.

2278: 130: 109: 5023: 2436: 5035: 336: 434: 721:) long after the United States did and as a result their brakes and couplers were somewhat more advanced. Their (air) brakes could operate in a mode where it was possible to slowly reduce braking effort, while the US system required full release of the brakes (in the entire train) and reapplication of the brakes in order to reduce braking effort. The Soviet Union developed advanced machinery for track maintenance and renewal such as a 610: 292: 3104:

USSR 1914–1920 data on pass-km is not available. But such unknowns were estimated from data on the number of passengers carried, by multiplying such values by 135 km, the estimated average distance traveled per passenger. The 135 km estimate (for 1914–1920) was obtain using the average of the actual values for 1913 and 1921. Actually, values slightly different than 135 km were used for each year based on

714:

360 km. vs. 425 km. The percent of freight car miles that ran empty was 41% for the US vs. 29% for the USSR. It was claimed that labor productivity rose 4.3 fold between 1955 and 1980, resulting in the USSR being roughly the same as the US (after taking into account that the USSR hauled a greater proportion of non-bulk commodities which were more labor-intensive to haul—more switching of cars, etc.).

368:, auto's share rapidly increased so that by the early 1960s auto travel was over 100 times rail passenger travel. Thus one may mentally multiply the US rail curve after the early 1960s by a factor of over 100 to get the total passenger-km in the US. Although Soviet passenger travel by rail became several times that of the US, the total passenger travel in the US was many times larger than for the Soviet Union. 2409:

countries in the world combined and in the end, over 60% of this was by electric locomotives. Electrification was cost effective due to the very high density of traffic and was at times projected to yield at least a 10% return on investment (as compared to diesel traction). By 1990, the electrification was about half 3 kV DC and half 25 kV AC 50 Hz and 70% of rail passenger-km was by electric railways.

710:, and in contrast to the US, only a single railway line would be constructed between major cities. This avoided the situation in the US where two (or sometimes more) railway companies would construct lines that more or less paralleled each other resulting in wasteful duplication of effort. Many of the rail lines in the USSR were inherited from the Russian Empire which had also avoided such duplication. 3151:

inaccurate for the automobile "curve" which is a series of straight line segments, one of which is several years long. The source for it is the "Automobile chamber of commerce" without stating any publication name, and no data is available re passenger-miles. The chart indicates that automobile pass-mi reached that of the "steam railroads" in about 1919. However there was also the interurban

2775:Хомич, А.З., Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э "Экономия томлива и теплотехническая модернизачия темпловозов" (Fuel economy and thermodynamic modernization of the diesel locomotive) 1975. New edition title: "Томливая еффективость и вспмогательные режемы терловозных дизелей" (Fuel efficiency and non-nominal modes of operation of the diesel engine of locomotives) 1987. Publisher: Moscow, Транспорт. 146: 812:

proceed down the rail line closely spaced (a packet of trains) while traffic in the opposite opposing direction is spread out and yields (by pausing in the passing sidings) so that the packet of trains can travel non-stop over a significant distance. Later on, a non-stop packet can be formed in the other direction, etc. Using packets to increase capacity was common in the

2309:. Because metros were cheaper to operate and less energy consuming, the Soviet authorities managed to construct 20 rapid transits nationwide, with a further nine in construction when the Soviet Union collapsed. Twenty other stations were under construction in 1985. The country's rapid transit system was the most intensively used in the world. 168:), the railway network expanded to a total length of 106,100 km by 1940 (vs. 81,000 km in 1917 which was exceeded in length only by the United States). The volume of freight hauled (in tonne-km) increased over fourfold during this period. Railways and control of railways had been a major factor in the 800:

device to synchronize braking. If they don't coordinate properly, the combined train can derail due to high forces in the train. This method was used in the Soviet Union mostly as a temporary expedient(especially in cases where a length of track was temporarily closed for maintenance work). But on the

75:), passenger traffic increased by almost 10 times and the length of the rail network almost doubled in size in this time as well. The Soviet Union had a railway network of 147,400 kilometres (91,600 mi) (excluding industrial railways), of which 53,900 kilometres (33,500 mi) were electrified. 2538:

in 1991, railway traffic in Russia sharply declined and new major electrification projects were not undertaken except for the line to Murmansk which was completed in 2005. Work continued on completing the electrification of the Trans-Siberian Railway, but at a slower pace, finishing in 2002. However,

799:

One expedient is to reduce the spacing between 2 or 3 trains to zero by running "connected" trains. One simply couples two or more trains together without connecting the braking systems of the 2 trains. The locomotive crews then coordinate their handling of the train by radio possibly using a special

760:

The flow on a transportation route (in tons/hour, trains/day, etc.) is simply equal to the product of velocity and linear density (gross tons/meter or trains/km etc.). For a railway line as a whole (in one direction), one would use the average linear density along the whole line, where most points on

347:

and the United States (United States). Since the Soviet Union was created in late 1922, the curve prior to this is the estimated volume of passenger transport in the "pre-Soviet territory" defined as being within the borders of the Soviet Union of the late 1930s (before the annexations per the secret

307:

began. In the first year or so of the war, traffic plummeted to about half its prewar value. But then the USSR started restoring and constructing railways during wartime so that by the end of the war about half of the lost traffic had been recovered. After the war was over it took a few more years to

3155:

some of which are included in the "steam railwroad" statistics. which is inferred by comparing this data with the table "Intercity Travel in the United States 1929-1965" in Bus Facts, 1966 (34th. edition) p. 6 and comparing data for 1930. The sum of electric and steam pass-mi from the 1935 chart is

2601:

Boublikoff, A.A. "A suggestion for railroad reform" in book: Buehler, E.C. (editor) "Government ownership of railroads", Annual debater's help book (vol. VI), New York, Noble and Noble, 1939; pp. 309–318. Original in journal "North American Review, vol. 237, pp. 346+. (Title is misleading. It's

211:

A British railway historian claims that the Soviet objective was to limit investment in railway improvements so that railways could barely meet the new and heavy demands for increased transport placed on them by industrialization, thereby allowing more capital for such industrialization. While there

207:

embarked on a programme of rapid industrialization. In a 1931 speech, in which Stalin promoted intensive industrialization, he concluded that "We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it, or we shall be crushed." But if

811:

In the mid-1980s about 70% of the Soviet network was single track lines. It was proposed to select two large end stations on a single track line that have enough trackage to hold several trains. Then opposing trains accumulate at such stations and the trains that accumulated at one end station then

277:

At the end of the pre-war period in 1940, railroads held an 85% share of freight transport (tonne-km) and a 92% share of intercity passenger transport (passenger-km). For non-rail transport it was: Freight (in tonne-km): river 7%, sea 5%, truck 2%, pipeline under 1%. For passengers: Bus 3.5%, river

244:

proposed recapitalization (replacing all the ties, rails, and renewing the ballast by either cleaning or new ballast) to create some "super mainlines" which would be electrified. This resolution was never adequately carried out, and the actual electrification achieved was only about a tenth of that

2408:

While the former Soviet Union got a late (and slow) start with rail electrification in the 1930s it eventually became the world leader in electrification in terms of the volume of traffic under the wires. During the last 30 years of the Soviet Union, it hauled as much rail freight as all the other

2338:

and used in desert regions where water for steam locomotives was scarce. Then in 1937 the small scale production (only several units per year) of diesel locomotives (for desert use) came to a halt by order of Kaganovich, the head of the national railway committee (NKPS) and a leading figure in the

2337:

at first, they soon fell behind and their last steam locomotives were retired about 15 years later than for the US. The first mainline diesel locomotive in the world began running in 1924 in the USSR but it had an excessive number of breakdowns so other designs of diesel locomotives were developed

3103:

Except for some Soviet data, plot data is from: Brian Mitchell, "International Historical Statistics" Vols. "The Americas", "Europe"; Palgrave Mecmillian, 2007. For the US: table F3 in "The Americas". For the USSR: also table F3 in "Europe" Table F3 is "Passenger traffic on railways". For the

781:

system tends to maintain a minimum distance between trains (moving under the green signal aspect). Trains may follow each other more closely if they move into the amber (or yellow) signal aspect but then they must move at a slower speed. On single track lines between passing sidings, trains can't

773:

So there are two basic ways to increase flow: 1. increase the speed 2. increase the density. One way to significantly increase speed on a high traffic line is to reduce the number of times a train must stop (or slow) to allow other trains to pass, especially on a single track line where opposing

746:

The railway system in the Soviet Union (mostly after the 1920s) was utilized several times more intensively than the railways of developed capitalist countries. The high traffic volumes per kilometer of line resulted in congestion problems that at times became so severe that goods available for

713:

As a result of having a shorter rail system plus more freight traffic, the USSR had a freight traffic density (in ton-km per km of line) 6-7 times higher than the US. In the US, the mean daily freight car mileage was only 95 km. vs. 227 km. for the USSR. For freight locomotives it was

3489:Правдина, Елена Николаевна (Pravdina, Helen Nikolaevna) "Комплексное увеличение пропускной способности однопутной линии во взаимодействии с работой станций" (Coordinated increase of capacity of single track lines with interacting with the work of line stations) Thesis, Moskva 1984. See abstract 2739:Постановление Совмина СССР от 11 October 1990 N 1001: О Программе технического перевооружения и модернизации железных дорог СССР в 1991–2000 годах (Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of 11/10/1990 (#1001): Program of reequipping and modernization of USSR railroads in 1991–2000) 2634:

UN (United Nations) Statistical Yearbook. The earlier editions were designated by date (such as 1985/86) but later editions use the edition number (such as 51st). After 1985/86 the "World railway traffic" table was dropped. After the 51st ? edition, the long table: "Railways: traffic" was

2631:"Transportation in America", Statistical Analysis of Transportation in the United States (18th edition), with historical compendium 1939–1999, by Rosalyn A. Wilson, pub. by Eno Transportation Foundation Inc., Washington, DC, 2001. See table: Domestic Intercity Ton-Miles by Mode, pp. 12–13. 311:

Then the USSR embarked on a series of more five-year plans, and railway traffic rapidly increased. By 1954 their rail freight traffic (about 850 billion tonne-km) surpassed that of the United States and the USSR then hauled more rail freight than any other country in the world. Railway freight

2381:

was superior to the pre-war Soviet design so it was used as a prototype for a new TEx (x=1,2,3,5) series of Soviet locomotives. The dimensions were converted to metric and sometimes modified, the Soviet system of air brakes were used, and the engine speeds at certain controller positions were

769:

where the weights in this case are the times on each segment. For a segment of a train run where the speed is very slow, the train thus spends a long time traversing this segment and thus the weight for this segment is quite high (since it is weighted by time). Thus even though the slow speed

3150:

See Bus Facts. 1935. p.9: chart: "Passenger-miles in United States by Various Means of Transport" (1890–1935). The chart is by H. E. Hale & Co., consulting engineers, 32 Nassau St. Bus Facts was published by NAMBO = National Association of Motor Bus Operators. This chart is likely quite

790:

There are various ways to permit rail freight flow capacity to increase, thus reducing congestion. But they are easier said than done. One is to increase the average density of freight on a rail line by increasing train weight/length. Another way is to decrease the distance (spacing) between

3838:. For example, the yearbook for 1956 (vol. 2 for the 2nd half of 1956) shows books 20937-20789 for railway transport. The numbering starts with 1 in vol.1, 1956, and ends in vol.2 with 27738, the number of titles of books on all subjects published in the calendar year of 1956 in the . 278:

3%, sea 1%, air 0.2%. So rail was by far the dominant mode of transportation for both passengers and freight. In the United States in 1940, rail still dominated freight with a 61% share, but only had a 7.5% share of passenger travel, having lost most of this traffic to the automobile.

223:

agency), and the railway ministry (known as NKPS). When the NKPS didn't seem to be able to cope with a situation, the party or government would intervene. The majority agreed on increasing investments, but there was no clear consensus on how these investments were to be used.

2551:

published a large number of books on railways. For just the last half of 1956, 148 titles were published. Some of these books were very short, perhaps only fifteen pages. But many were a few hundred pages long and some were written as textbooks for use in railway classes in

2688:Аксененко,Н.Е., Бернгард, Ф.К., Богданов, Г.И "История железнодорожного транспорта России и Советского Союза, Т.2 : 1917–1945 гг" (History of railway transport in Russia and the Soviet Union, vol.2, 1917–1945) St. Petersburg, ПГУПС (a railway university) 1994–1997. - 2730:"Народное хозяйство СССР, в 19?? г. (Статистический ежегодник)" (Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR = National economy of the USSR)(a statistical yearbook). Москва (Moscow) "Финансы и Статистика" (Finance and statistics) section: Транспорт и связь" (Transport and communications). 2714:Кузьмич В.Д., Левин Б.А, Фадеев Г.М.(editors) "История железнодорожного транспорта Советского Союза, Т.3 : 1945–1991 гг" (History of railway transport in the Soviet Union, vol.3, 1945–1991) ; Г. М. Афонина et al. - Moscow: Академкнига/ Moscow, 2004. - 631 pp. 3572:"Указом Президиума Верховного Совета СССР от 4 September 1943 г. "О введении персональных званий и новых знаков различия для личного состава железнодорожного транспорта" для личного состава Народного Комиссариата Путей Сообщения СССР вводились персональные звания." 751:

starting in the late 1970s and beyond. In 1989 the President of the Council of Ministers of the USSR stated that economists estimate that the failure of railways to provide adequate transportation, costs the Soviet economy 10-12 billion roubles per year.

2638:

Urba CE, "The railroad situation : a perspective on the present, past and future of the U.S. railroad industry". Washington : Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Office of Policy and Program Development Govt. Print. Off.,

256:

areas over other less-traveled lines; his second priority was investing in heavy traffic lines, and thirdly, other lines (which were also burdened with increases traffic) were left to fend for themselves. Another problem facing rail transport was the

319:

in 1989, shortly before the collapse of Soviet Union, the railway hauled nearly eight times as much tonne-km of freight by rail as they did by lorry. In 1991 a law was passed which declared that railways were the basic transport system of the USSR.

549:. While some problems with the railways had been reported by the Soviet press, the Soviet Union could boast of controlling one of the most electrified railway systems at the time. During much of the country's later lifespan, trains usually carried 137: 2345:

In the late 1930s, interest in diesels was rekindled by reports from the US that production of diesel locomotives was overtaking production of steam locomotives. The USSR was able to order 100 of them from the United States via

381:

hit both the USA and the USSR in 1941 with opposite results for rail passengers. In the US, gasoline rationing resulted in a surge of rail passengers with almost a third of passenger traffic going by rail. The impact on the

410:. The loss of mining and industrial centers of the western Soviet Union necessitated speedy construction of new railways during the wartime. Particularly notable among them was the railway to the Arctic coal mines of 729:. It was model ВПО-3000 (VPO-3000) and at that time no such machinery like this existed outside of the Soviet Union. It was claimed to be several times faster than non-Soviet tamping machinery of cyclical action. 2751:Тихомирова, И.Г. "Интенсификация использования подвижного состава и перевозочной мощности железных дорог" (Intense utilization of rolling stock and the transport capacity of railroads), Москва, Транспорт, 1977. 782:

travel in opposite directions at the same time. If they tried to do this, they would collide head on with each other (if they were headed toward each other). This poses a further restriction in train spacing.

732:

However, the reliability of locomotives in the USSR was much worse than for the US. Their high traffic density often resulted in traffic congestion and delays, especially after an accident blocked the line.

401:

the railway system played a vital role in the war effort transporting military personnel, equipment and freight to the front lines and often evacuating entire factories and towns from European Russia to the

355:

In the early years of the 20th century rail dominated passenger transport so the start of this graph implies that there was about twice as much passenger transport in the United States as in the pre-Soviet

2772:Шафиркин, Б.И, "Единая Транспортная Система СССР и взаимодействие различных видов транспорта" (Unified transportation system of the USSR and intermodal coordination), Москва, Высшая школа, 1983 (textbook). 1614:

A = Minister of Railways; B = First Deputy Minister of Railways, C = Deputy Minister of Railways; 1 = Locomotive Engineer First Class; 2 = Locomotive Engineer Second Class; 3 = Locomotive Engineer Third

3516:Сергеева p.293, section "Опыт лучших коллективов" (Experience of the best collectives). This name implies that this is one of the best examples amenity provision and that this case is not typical 765:

where the weights are the lengths of the various segments of the train run (with the speed approximately constant on each segment). Another way to find the average velocity is to simply find the

541:

The Soviet railway system was growing in size, at a rate of 639 km a year from 1965 to 1980. This steady growth in rail transport can be explained by the country's need to extract its

315:

In 1991 the Soviet Union fell apart and its largest republic, the Russian Federation, which then hauled about 2/3 of the traffic of the former USSR, became an independent country. For the

3001:. A single source book "International historical statistics" (various editions), vols. "The Americas" and "Europe" also has this data (see Ch. on "Transport" in each of the 2 vols.) 2642:

VanWinke, Jenette and Zycher, Benjamin; "Future Soviet Investment in Transportation, Energy, and Environmental Protection" A Rand Note. The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 1992.

3942: 2370:

and for short trains but were suitable for mainline operation in the Soviet Union. But they didn't begin arriving in the USSR until the start of 1945 when the war was almost over.

829:

Especially in the 1970s, some railway depots/shops began to provide a much improved working environment and whole books were written on this subject, sometimes called "production

774:

trains must go past each other. To increase density, one may increase train length, increase the linear load capacity of freight cars, and/or decrease the spacing between trains.

36: 2382:

changed. The TE2 had double the power of the TE1 and was produced until in 1955 it was superseded by the TE3. The TE5 was just a variation of the TE1 and of minor significance.

2754:"Транспорт и связь СССР (Статистический сборник)" (Transport and communications statistics). Москва: Финансы и статистика (Finance and statistics). Issued in 1957, 1972, 1990. 2727:Макарочкин А.М., Дьяков Ю.В. "Использование и развитие пропускной способности железчух дорог" (Utilizing and development of traffic capacity of railway) Moskva, Транспорт 1981. 389:

It was planned in 1990 to increase the passenger-kilometers of travel to 465 billion by 1995 and to 500 billion by 2000, but it didn't happen since the USSR collapsed in 1991.

2766:Филиппов, М.М. (editor), "Железные Дороги, Общий Курс" (Railways, Basic Course) Москва, Транспорт, 3rd ed. 1981 (textbook). (Exists 4th ed. 1991 with new editor: Уздин, М.М.) 596:

in 1989 that the railway sector was the "main negative sector of the economy in 1989". As industrial output declined in the late-1980s so did the demand for transportation.

572:, and if they did, it was difficult to drive long distances due to the poor conditions of many roads. Another explanation has to do with Soviet policy, the first being the 4346: 4329: 371:

After about 1960, most of the USA rail travel shown in the USA-USSR graph is commuter train travel of (mostly) people going to and from work and not long-distance travel (

237: 3441:

See equation (2) near the end of this article. While this article is for the flow of vehicles on a highway it could also apply to the flow of trains, etc. on a railroad.

852:

Uniforms with grade insignia were introduced for rail workers during the period 1932–1934. Personal ranks were introduced in 1943. Personal ranks were abolished in 1954.

4376: 266: 3180:

for a plot of pass-mi by mode for 1960+ (but it's not restricted to intercity travel). See "Transportation in America" for intercity travel figures going back to 1939.

706:

The efficiency of the Soviet Railways improved over time and by the 1980s had many performance indicators superior to the United States. Railway built in the USSR were

568:

The efficiency of the railways improved over time, and by the 1980s Soviet railways had become the most intensively used in the world. Most Soviet citizens did not own

580:'s regime. Stalin's regime instead of building major new railway lines decided instead to conserve, and later expand, much of the existing railways left behind by the 386:

was just the opposite. The invasion of Germany deep into the USSR along with German bombing of railroads, took its toll and greatly reduced passenger rail travel.

4319: 3830:

See the Soviet serial "Ежегодник книги СССР" (Yearbook of books published, USSR) published in Moscow by "Бсесоюзной книжной палаты = "National book publishers"

4839: 4339: 3165: 4365: 4334: 4324: 4276: 627: 375:). While air travel in the USA overtook rail travel in the mid 1950s, in the Soviet Union of the late 1980s, rail volume was double that of air travel. 3373:Лехно, Н.Б. "Путевое Хозяйство" (Track Laying and Maintenance), Moscow, Транспорт, 1981 p.165+, Sect. 5.8 "Подбивочные машины чепрерывного дествия" 4573: 3534:Сергеева p.6 and Ch.3 "Теопетические ин практические основы оптимального цветового оформления" (Theory and practical basis of optimal color schemes) 2760:Фед=Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal government statistical service) "Транспорт в России" (Transportation in Russia) (annual) 3108:. "Народная хозяйство СССР" gives USSR data for the war years (1941–1944) and it is also an alternative source to Mitchell (above) for other years 2699:Громов, Н.Н.; Панченко, Т.А.; Чудновский, А.Д.; "Еденая транспорттная система (Unified Transportation System), Москва, Транспорт, 1987 (textbook). 3351: 674: 2769:Шадур, Л.А. ed., Багоны: конструкция, теопия и расчёт (Railway cars: construction, theory and calculations), Москва, Транспорт, 1980 (textbook). 2708:Иванова В.Н. (ed.) "Конструкция и динамика тепловозов" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook). 1649: 646: 5064: 4271: 3884: 761:

the line have no trains on them and thus have zero density there. One would also need to use the average velocity which turns out to be the

523:

After the war the Soviet railway network was re-built and further expanded to more than 145,000 km of track by major additions such as

215:

Near the start of first five-year plan of industrialization (1928) there were four main railway decision makers: the government, the party,

3937: 1642: 653: 5059: 4456: 4426: 2403: 189: 4713: 4673: 4583: 4394: 3910: 844:

Production esthetics included planting of greenery, providing proper lighting and pleasant colours, background music and sports areas.

747:

transport could not be shipped and factories, etc. were forced to slow production. This happened in the 1930s and during the so-called

327:

were more popular in the United States rather than railways, in contrast the Soviet Union had little or no highway system to speak of.

4701: 4596: 4468: 4254: 299:

The graph compares the freight traffic (in tonne-km) of the USSR to the US. The USSR rebuilt its rail system and industrialized with

660: 4606: 4523: 4416: 589: 4546: 4353: 4220: 2702:Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. "Как устроен и работает тенловоз" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980. 2298: 2423:

The Soviet Union had several railway colleges which trained engineers specializing in railway topics. Most of them still exist.

833:" (производственная эстетика). An example was at the mechanised track maintenance station ПМС-121 (PMS-121) (in 2013 ЦМПР) near 4244: 4089: 642: 2745:Резер, С.М., "Взаимодействие транспортных систем" (Coordination of the transportation system), Москва, Наука, 1985 (textbook). 2113: 2106: 2099: 1487: 1479: 1256: 1249: 4731: 4232: 4198: 4186: 4181: 4072: 2870: 2672: 4658: 2711:Иноземцев В.Г., Казаринов Б.М., Ясенцев В.Ф. "Автоматические тормоза" (Automatic Brakes) Москва, Транспорт, 1981 (textbook). 2251: 2051: 303:. As a result, railway freight grew about 20 times from 20 to 400 billion tonne-km by 1941. But then disaster struck again, 4768: 4536: 2553: 2418: 3642: 4648: 4314: 4261: 4249: 2565: 2487: 2451: 707: 300: 165: 61: 31: 4691: 4411: 4359: 2719: 2258: 2058: 593: 176:'s eventual victory in the conflict. A notable project of the late 1920s, which became one of the centrepieces of the 121: 2297:, and eventually another point acquired greater significance; the authorities could allocate their resources from the 2223: 2216: 2209: 2202: 2169: 2148: 565:. Oil and oil products were one of the key reasons for building railway infrastructure in Siberia in the first place. 4948: 4899: 4832: 4643: 4371: 3973: 3877: 3277: 3248: 2886: 2693: 2623: 2162: 2155: 2141: 2134: 2127: 2120: 693: 3678: 3660: 3609: 2748:Сергеева, В.И. ed. "Эстетика на железнодорожном транспорте" (Esthetics in railway transport) Moscow, Транспорт 1977. 2643: 4978: 4966: 4790: 4780: 4736: 4551: 4227: 4176: 4059: 2575: 1842: 1835: 1828: 1821: 1814: 966: 959: 952: 945: 150: 98: 3374: 2244: 2237: 2230: 2044: 2037: 1603: 1595: 1587: 1580: 1573: 1566: 973: 722: 4983: 4971: 4827: 4812: 4726: 4628: 4210: 4030: 2535: 193: 17: 2806: 2663:

Westwood, J. N. (1994). "Chapter 8: Transport". In Davies, R.W.; Harrison, Mark; Wheatcrofttitle, S. G. (eds.).

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segments are only a small part of the trip, they may drastically reduce the average speed (and thus the flow).

631: 2736:Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В.Н., "Электрические железные дороги" (Electric Railways), Москва, Транспорт, 1993. 1807: 1800: 1793: 1786: 4995: 4822: 4686: 4638: 4399: 4193: 4067: 4050: 2570: 1705: 1698: 1691: 1684: 1677: 1670: 1663: 1656: 1517: 1510: 1503: 938: 931: 924: 917: 910: 903: 896: 889: 181: 2852: 2613: 2030: 2023: 2016: 2009: 1976: 1969: 1962: 1955: 1948: 1941: 1934: 1927: 1559: 1552: 1545: 1538: 1531: 1524: 1495: 1423: 1416: 1409: 1402: 1395: 1357: 1350: 1343: 1336: 1329: 1322: 1284: 1277: 1270: 1263: 4591: 4266: 4161: 3962: 3870: 2529: 2517: 2495: 2491: 2475: 1430: 516: 423: 3723:Раков p.356 9.2 "Тепловоз сицтемы Я.М. Гаккеля" (Diesel locomotive system of Ya.M. Gakkel); Дпрбенский p.5 3086: 2998: 2377:, which had been curtailed in 1937, was resumed with the first locomotives appearing in 1947. The US-made 855: 261:

efforts pushed on by the authorities. This industrialization placed a heavy burden upon the railways, and

4872: 4854: 4620: 4478: 4439: 4406: 4096: 4084: 4000: 3902: 2802: 2503: 538:

counterparts. However the rail network of the United States was a few times longer but had less traffic.

349: 229: 3428:Н.Н. Рыжков (N.N. Ryzhkov) Нужны взвишенные решиния (We need informed decisions), Ж/Д Транс. 4-1990, p.7 3087:"Countries Compared by Transport > Highways > Total. International Statistics at NationMaster.com" 236:

based on actual cost, which would reduce traffic demand and provide funds for investment. In 1931, in a

4867: 4844: 4817: 3178: 778: 82: 2705:Ж/Д Транс.=Железнодорожный транцорт (Zheleznodorozhnyi transport =Railway transportation) (a magazine) 4909: 4882: 4785: 2525: 2509: 2483: 2479: 2471: 791:

successive trains. Still another way is to increase speed, including elimination of trains stopping.

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J. V. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, (Moscow, Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1953) pp. 454-458.

4990: 3161: 3156:

significantly less than the figure for this sum reported in the 1966 table. It turns out that the

2513: 2499: 2359: 766: 482: 161: 102: 2724:Лехно,И.Б. (ed.) "Путевое хозяйство" (Railway track maintenance), Moscow Транспорт 1981 (textbook) 4239: 620: 511: 3835: 1035: 4919: 4511: 4449: 2580: 2333:) on non-electrified lines. But the USSR failed to make steady progress and while they led the 3853: 3555: 5038: 4010: 3813: 558: 3623: 2539:

the percent of tonne-kilometers hauled today by electric trains has increased to about 85%.

4800: 4663: 4483: 4281: 3995: 3105: 805: 524: 438: 258: 177: 4887: 3777: 8: 5027: 4756: 4561: 4490: 4298: 4147: 4025: 3947: 3920: 3525:Сергеева p.110+ "Озеленение территории и чехов" (Greening of the territory and the shops) 3240: 748: 241: 94: 78: 762: 4894: 4805: 4122: 4035: 3925: 3915: 3126: 2811: 2628:"Railroad Facts" (Yearbook) Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC (annual). 2447: 2390: 2374: 856:

Grade insignia for rail workers under the People's Commissariat of Transport, 1934–1943

262: 253: 3784: 5002: 4942: 4721: 4507: 4203: 4005: 3990: 3932: 3831: 3345: 3273: 3244: 3152: 3130: 2866: 2715: 2689: 2668: 2619: 2322: 569: 542: 474: 442: 169: 53: 2889:

From "Documents in Russian History" a website whose "about" page is currently blank.

725:

which in 1977 could move at 3 km/h and also straighten the track and dress the

364:, the automobile started to provide more passenger transportation than rail. In the 2858: 2584: 2326: 2294: 500: 478: 249: 2277: 129: 4914: 4127: 4079: 3985: 3122: 2740: 2367: 2339: 458: 446: 220: 185: 67:

During the Soviet era, freight rail traffic increased 55 times (over that of the

108: 4934: 4862: 4142: 4132: 3814:"Перевозки грузов и грузооборот железнодорожного транспорта общего пользования" 3118: 2887:

Stalin on Rapid Industrialization: Speech to Industrial Managers, February 1931

473:) railway network built by the Japanese during their forty years of control of 357: 68: 49: 3296:(Comparative Data about the Development of Transportation in the USSR and USA) 125:

A Soviet postage stamp celebrating the 150th anniversary of the first railways

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Grade insignia for rail workers under the industrial commissariats, 1936–1943

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to the rapid transit sector and save a substantial volume of the country's

2282: 531: 491:) gauge rail system within USSR (or today's Russia). The original Japanese 462: 454: 398: 378: 344: 304: 200: 157: 57: 45: 3590:"Форма одежды промышленного железнодорожного транспорта 1936–1943 годов." 2862: 4541: 4503: 4495: 4117: 4101: 4015: 3957: 3571: 3498:Сергеева is one. Another book on this topic may be found on the Internet 3269: 2302: 718: 585: 535: 72: 2435: 534:, the most heavily used rail system in the world, surpassing all of its 149:

A life size diorama of Soviet track workers repairing railway tracks at

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The Soviet Union made the transition to automatic brakes and couplers (

634: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 415: 3862: 3798: 3292:Шаферин pp.17+: Сравнительные Данные о Развитии Транспорта СССР и США 2943:Лехно p.31+ explains the meanings of various names given to track work 808:

railroad, it was used as a standard method of operation in the 1970s.

343:

This plot compares the volume of rail passenger transportation in the

4751: 4746: 4568: 4461: 4291: 3952: 2667:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 158–181. 830: 433: 3643:"Ministry of Railways of USSR (MPS). Forearm Insignia 1963 – 1972." 3263: 609: 335: 4741: 4286: 4020: 3980: 573: 496: 419: 308:

restore the railways and get back to the pre-war level of traffic.

173: 2997:

Data points in the graph come from many sources listed in the page

2615:

Asia Overland: Tales of Travel on the Trans-Siberian and Silk Road

252:

to solve the railway crisis in 1935. Kaganovich first prioritized

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The "pre-Soviet territory was at first just a large part of the

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Brezhnev's Folly: The Building of BAM and Late Soviet Socialism

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Soviet Transport Experience: Its Lessons For Other Countries

2072: 1903: 1619: 1439: 4668: 4444: 2801: 2378: 2355: 834: 813: 581: 550: 383: 316: 286: 2665:

The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945

477:

now became part of Soviet Railways as well (as a separate

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Winchester, Clarence, ed. (1936), "Russia and Siberia",

3543:Сергеева p.117+ section "Зоны отдыха" (recreation zones) 3160:

classified some major "electric railroads" (such as the

2285:

is the second busiest rapid transit system in the world.

295:

Railway freight volume in the 20th century: USA and USSR

2925:Аксененко, v.2, ch. 2.3 3rd para. Westwood 1994, p.159 365: 361: 272: 736: 3331:"Advantages of SA3 coupler over American Jenney auto" 3467: 3465: 2851:

Pons, Silvio; Smith, Stephen A., eds. (2017-09-21).

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continued into the 1950s, aborted with the death of

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dropped resulting in no more UN railway statistics.

3661:"Железнодорожная форма России образца 1973 года." 1212: 599: 60:, but also for industrialization according to the 3679:"Железнодорожная форма России образца 1979 года" 3462: 5051: 4742:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences 3315: 3313: 3311: 3266:The Disintegration of the Soviet Economic System 3645:International Encyclopedia of Uniform Insignia. 3611:Железнодорожная форма России образца 1943 года. 3264:Ellman, Michael; Kontorovich, Vladimir (1998). 3121:but then Germany invaded some of it during the 3052:UN 37th p. 690; UN 43rd p .548; (both for 1998) 2077:Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. 1908:Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. 1624:Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. 1040:Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. 530:Soviet rail transport eventually became, after 281: 3692: 3690: 3031:UN 1985/86 Table: World Railway Traffic, p. 55 1231:Deputy Director General of Railways 2nd Class 1228:Deputy Director General of Railways 1st Class 112:VL80 Electric locomotive hauling freight train 27:Overview of rail transport in the Soviet Union 3878: 3638: 3636: 3308: 2446: with: information about the rest of the 1051:Senior Leadership Category (middle category) 872:Senior Leadership Category (middle category) 824: 795:Increasing freight flow by increasing density 741: 545:, most of which were located close to, or in 3674: 3672: 3656: 3654: 2373:After the end of the war, the production of 785: 3687: 3350:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2542: 2426: 2404:Railway electrification in the Soviet Union 1140: 1042: 164:of Railways (NKPS) (after 1946 renamed the 117:Pre-war industrialization period, 1928–1942 3885: 3871: 3851: 3633: 3034: 2857:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 331:Rail passenger traffic in the Soviet Union 3669: 3651: 3551: 3549: 3235:Pallot, Judith; Shaw, Jenis J.B. (1983). 2850: 2073:Grade insignia for rail workers 1979–1985 1904:Grade insignia for rail workers 1973–1979 1620:Grade insignia for rail workers 1963–1973 1440:Grade insignia for rail workers 1955–1963 694:Learn how and when to remove this message 265:and Kaganovich even admitted this to the 3585: 3583: 3133:and the victorious reds created various 3010:See statistics references by Госкомстат 2662: 2389: 2366:which in the US were primarily used for 2321:was a pioneer in the development of the 2276: 847: 590:First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union 510: 432: 334: 290: 287:Rail freight traffic in the Soviet Union 144: 136: 128: 120: 107: 77: 35: 3892: 3605: 3603: 3601: 2652:, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009. 2293:system was seen as the cheapest way of 506: 499:until 1979, together with regauged ShA 14: 5052: 3911:Index of Soviet Union–related articles 3546: 3384: 3382: 1754:Station Master of out-of-class station 339:Railway passenger volume: USA and USSR 141:Armoured wagon built during the 1930s. 3866: 3580: 2988:Transportation in America, pp. 12, 14 2450:that are not Russia. You can help by 5065:History of rail transport by country 3598: 2430: 2419:Railway colleges in the Soviet Union 2272: 755: 643:"Rail transport in the Soviet Union" 632:adding citations to reliable sources 603: 561:(mostly stone, cement and sand) and 495:were used by the Soviet Railways on 273:Modal shares in 1940; rail dominates 40:Post stamp "Soviet rail roads", 1968 3379: 2657:Soviet Railways to Russian Railways 2602:90% about Russian/Soviet railways.) 2566:History of rail transport in Russia 2488:Rail transport in Georgia (country) 2412: 1866:Station Master of 5th class station 1861:Station Master of 4th class station 1856:Station Master of 3rd class station 1851:Station Master of 2nd class station 1759:Station Master of 1st class station 737:Congestion and failure to transport 32:History of rail transport in Russia 24: 5060:Rail transport in the Soviet Union 3681:Локомотивное депо Воронеж-Курский. 3663:Локомотивное депо Воронеж-Курский. 3375:Continuous Action Tamping Machines 2961:Аксененко, v.2, ch. 30, table 30.6 2854:The Cambridge History of Communism 2795: 2385: 594:Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union 25: 5076: 3845: 3732:Раков p.371: 9.8 Тепловозы серии+ 3328: 3198:See Транспорт и связь, 1990, p.63 1871:Locomotive Engineer 3rd/4th Class 819: 723:Continuous Action Tamping Machine 422:; construction work to extend it 5034: 5033: 5021: 3419:Westwood 1994, pp. 165, 167, 181 3137:which then merged to create the 2841:Аксененко v.2, ch.30, table 30.4 2576:The Museum of the Moscow Railway 2434: 2312: 2257: 2250: 2243: 2236: 2229: 2222: 2215: 2208: 2201: 2168: 2161: 2154: 2147: 2140: 2133: 2126: 2119: 2112: 2105: 2098: 2057: 2050: 2043: 2036: 2029: 2022: 2015: 2008: 1975: 1968: 1961: 1954: 1947: 1940: 1933: 1926: 1841: 1834: 1827: 1820: 1813: 1806: 1799: 1792: 1785: 1729:Head of Principal Administration 1704: 1697: 1690: 1683: 1676: 1669: 1662: 1655: 1648: 1641: 1602: 1594: 1586: 1579: 1572: 1565: 1558: 1551: 1544: 1537: 1530: 1523: 1516: 1509: 1502: 1494: 1486: 1478: 1429: 1422: 1415: 1408: 1401: 1394: 1356: 1349: 1342: 1335: 1328: 1321: 1283: 1276: 1269: 1262: 1255: 1248: 1195: 1186: 1177: 1168: 1159: 1124: 1115: 1106: 1097: 1088: 1079: 1070: 1061: 972: 965: 958: 951: 944: 937: 930: 923: 916: 909: 902: 895: 888: 608: 360:. But in the early 1920s in the 151:the Museum of the Moscow Railway 99:the Museum of the Moscow Railway 3824: 3792: 3771: 3762: 3753: 3744: 3735: 3726: 3717: 3708: 3699: 3617: 3565: 3537: 3528: 3519: 3510: 3501: 3492: 3483: 3474: 3453: 3444: 3431: 3422: 3413: 3404: 3395: 3367: 3358: 3322: 3299: 3286: 3257: 3228: 3219: 3210: 3201: 3192: 3189:See "Transportation in America" 3183: 3171: 3144: 3111: 3097: 3079: 3067: 3061:Филиппов 1991 p. 7 (table 1.1) 3055: 3046: 3025: 3016: 3004: 2991: 2982: 2973: 2964: 2955: 2946: 2937: 2928: 2919: 2807:"Soviet Union – Communications" 2590: 2536:dissolution of the Soviet Union 1213:Railway rank insignia 1943–1955 619:needs additional citations for 600:Comparison to the United States 453:As a result of Japan's loss in 392: 3768:UN 40th p. 514; UN 48th p. 527 3459:Макарочкин p.27+, Лехно p. 286 3158:Interstate Commerce Commission 2970:Shipments between Soviet ports 2910: 2901: 2892: 2879: 2844: 2835: 2826: 2786: 2522:Rail transport in Turkmenistan 232:of the railways, coupled with 13: 1: 4574:Political abuse of psychiatry 4366:Congress of People's Deputies 2682: 2609:, Brookings Institution 1968. 2595: 2571:Transport in the Soviet Union 1881:Assistant Locomotive Engineer 1225:Director General of Railways 1149:Ordinary Employment Category 878:Ordinary Employment Category 199:In the late 1920s, the young 3855:Railway Wonders of the World 3237:Planning in the Soviet Union 2999:Wikimedia: RailUSAvsUSSR.svg 2530:Rail transport in Uzbekistan 2518:Rail transport in Tajikistan 2496:Rail transport in Kyrgyzstan 2492:Rail transport in Kazakhstan 2476:Rail transport in Azerbaijan 1301:Lieutenant Colonel-Director 414:, extended after the war to 282:Rail traffic in Soviet Union 156:After the foundation of the 7: 4737:Academy of Medical Sciences 2979:Travel between Soviet ports 2803:Central Intelligence Agency 2618:Odyssey Publications, 2010 2559: 2504:Rail transport in Lithuania 1240:Director General 3rd Class 1237:Director General 2nd Class 1234:Director General 1st Class 1146:Junior Leadership Category 1048:Higher Leadership Category 875:Junior Leadership Category 869:Higher Leadership Category 592:, noted in a speech to the 248:The Central Committee sent 133:A propaganda train in 1923. 10: 5081: 2507: 2469: 2416: 2401: 825:Amenities for rail workers 779:Automatic block signalling 742:Harm to the Soviet Economy 515:Remnants of the cancelled 424:all the way to the Yenisey 166:Ministry of Railways (МПС) 83:Russian locomotive class U 29: 5015: 4959: 4933: 4853: 4776: 4767: 4712: 4619: 4582: 4522: 4425: 4387: 4307: 4169: 4160: 4110: 4058: 4049: 3901: 3785:Electrification Completed 3392:(Didn't note which issue) 3207:Transportation in America 2952:Westwood 1994, p. 160–61. 2934:Westwood 1994, p. 159–60. 2526:Rail transport in Ukraine 2510:Rail transport in Moldova 2484:Rail transport in Estonia 2480:Rail transport in Belarus 2472:Rail transport in Armenia 2193: 2190: 2187: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1918: 1915: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1217:Worn on shoulder straps. 1148: 1145: 1050: 1047: 877: 874: 871: 868: 786:Ways to increase capacity 259:massive industrialization 182:Turkestan–Siberia Railway 97:, currently preserved at 48:was heavily dependent on 3799:Transsib electrification 3778:Murmansk Electrification 3162:Pacific Electric Railway 2916:Westwood 1994, pp. 165-7 2779: 2543:Railway book publication 2514:Rail transport in Russia 2500:Rail transport in Latvia 2427:Post-Soviet rail traffic 1444:Worn on collar patches. 860:Worn on collar patches. 767:weighted arithmetic mean 517:Salekhard–Igarka Railway 484:3 ft 6 in 471:3 ft 6 in 103:Paveletsky Rail Terminal 5028:Soviet Union portal 3439:traffic flow (from MIT) 457:, the southern half of 350:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 52:, not least during the 4920:Stalinist architecture 4674:Science and technology 4584:Ideological repression 4512:Soviet Airborne Forces 4450:Destruction battalions 3705:Wilson 1983, p. 205–6. 3592:Железнодорожная форма. 2898:Westwood 1994, p. 163. 2648:Ward, Christopher J., 2581:Russian Railway Museum 2399: 2286: 1313:Lieutenant-Technician 866:Employment Categories 763:weighted harmonic mean 520: 450: 340: 296: 153: 142: 134: 126: 113: 105: 41: 4702:List of metro systems 4255:Collective leadership 3684:Retrieved 2017-10-25. 3666:Retrieved 2017-10-25. 3630:Retrieved 2017-08-31. 3614:Retrieved 2017-08-28. 3595:Retrieved 2017-08-28. 3577:Retrieved 2017-08-28. 3574:ТАБЕЛЬ О РАНГАХ СССР. 3562:Retrieved 2017-08-27. 3558:Мундир No.1/2013 (10) 3216:See Постановление ... 3125:, next there was the 3022:UN 1958, pp. 297, 300 2863:10.1017/9781316137024 2644:Rand Soviet Transport 2508:Further information: 2470:Further information: 2393: 2280: 1719:First Deputy Minister 1470:Locomotive Engineers 1377:Technician 3rd Class 1374:Technician 2nd Class 1371:Technician 1st Class 848:Uniforms and insignia 559:construction material 514: 493:D51 steam locomotives 436: 338: 294: 162:People's Commissariat 148: 140: 132: 124: 111: 81: 39: 4664:Net material product 4607:Censorship of images 4524:Political repression 4484:Soviet Border Troops 4417:First Deputy Premier 4001:1965 economic reform 3996:Soviet space program 3858:, pp. 1004–1010 3714:Wilson 1983, p. 206. 3696:Wilson 1983, p. 205. 3626:Мундир No.1/2012 (7) 3241:Taylor & Francis 3225:Wilson 1983, p. 201. 3106:linear interpolation 3091:www.nationmaster.com 2907:Westwood 1994, p.158 2655:Westwood J.N., 2002 2354:. Half of them were 1739:Principal Controller 1310:Lieutenant-Engineer 628:improve this article 525:Baikal Amur Mainline 507:Post-war development 439:D51 steam locomotive 178:first five-year plan 4732:Academy of Sciences 4547:Population transfer 4491:Soviet Armed Forces 4354:Congress of Soviets 4335:Presidium/Politburo 4299:Soviet anti-Zionism 4148:West Siberian Plain 4026:Revolutions of 1989 3963:Great Patriotic War 3948:New Economic Policy 3741:Westwood 1994 p.159 3166:Long Island Railway 3073:Филиппов 1991 p. 4 2659:Palgrave Macmillan. 2358:and the other half 2299:automobile industry 749:Brezhnev stagnation 267:18th party congress 95:compound locomotive 4377:Military Collegium 4245:Capital punishment 4123:Caucasus Mountains 4036:Post-Soviet states 3916:Russian Revolution 3127:October revolution 2812:The World Factbook 2448:post-Soviet states 2400: 2375:diesel locomotives 2287: 2191:Junior Leadership 2188:Middle Leadership 2091:Senior Leadership 2088:Higher Leadership 1998:Junior Leadership 1995:Middle Leadership 1919:Senior Leadership 1916:Higher Leadership 1777:Junior Leadership 1774:Middle Leadership 1744:Head of Department 1636:Senior Leadership 1633:Higher Leadership 1464:Junior Leadership 1461:Middle Leadership 1458:Senior Leadership 1455:Higher Leadership 521: 451: 341: 297: 263:Vyacheslav Molotov 154: 143: 135: 127: 114: 106: 42: 5047: 5046: 5011: 5010: 5003:Hammer and sickle 4945:and their groups 4943:Soviet dissidents 4722:Communist Academy 4639:Economic planning 4615: 4614: 4508:Soviet Air Forces 4427:Security services 4347:General Secretary 4330:Central Committee 4272:Political parties 4204:Brezhnev Doctrine 4199:Foreign relations 4156: 4155: 4097:Autonomous okrugs 4011:Soviet–Afghan War 3991:Sino-Soviet split 3933:Russian Civil War 3507:Сергеева pp. 3, 6 3480:Тихомирова p. 187 3471:Тихомирова p. 190 3450:Макарочкин p.60-1 3401:VanWinkle pp. 3–5 3153:electric railways 3131:Russian civil war 2872:978-1-316-13702-4 2674:978-0-521-45770-5 2605:Hunter, Holland. 2468: 2467: 2323:diesel locomotive 2273:Commuter services 2270: 2269: 2194:Ordinary Workers 2181: 2180: 2085:Railway Ministry 2070: 2069: 2001:Ordinary Workers 1988: 1987: 1901: 1900: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1780:Ordinary Workers 1769: 1768: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1749:Senior Controller 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1630:Railway Ministry 1616: 1611: 1610: 1467:Ordinary Workers 1452:Railway Ministry 1437: 1436: 1364: 1363: 1307:Captain-Engineer 1298:Colonel-Director 1291: 1290: 1210: 1209: 1139: 1138: 1033: 1032: 1029: 756:Train flow basics 704: 703: 696: 678: 576:model created by 570:private transport 543:natural resources 475:southern Sakhalin 443:Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk 238:Central Committee 170:Russian Civil War 54:Russian Civil War 16:(Redirected from 5072: 5037: 5036: 5026: 5025: 5024: 4774: 4773: 4682: 4537:Collectivization 4282:Marxism–Leninism 4167: 4166: 4056: 4055: 3887: 3880: 3873: 3864: 3863: 3859: 3839: 3828: 3822: 3821: 3810: 3804: 3803: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3782: 3775: 3769: 3766: 3760: 3759:Раков p.375 9.10 3757: 3751: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3733: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3706: 3703: 3697: 3694: 3685: 3676: 3667: 3658: 3649: 3640: 3631: 3621: 3615: 3607: 3596: 3587: 3578: 3569: 3563: 3553: 3544: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3526: 3523: 3517: 3514: 3508: 3505: 3499: 3496: 3490: 3487: 3481: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3460: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3442: 3435: 3429: 3426: 3420: 3417: 3411: 3408: 3402: 3399: 3393: 3391: 3386: 3377: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3349: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3326: 3320: 3317: 3306: 3303: 3297: 3295: 3290: 3284: 3283: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3232: 3226: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3208: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3190: 3187: 3181: 3175: 3169: 3148: 3142: 3135:Soviet Republics 3129:followed by the 3115: 3109: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3071: 3065: 3064: 3059: 3053: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3038: 3032: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3008: 3002: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2980: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2962: 2959: 2953: 2950: 2944: 2941: 2935: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2917: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2890: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2848: 2842: 2839: 2833: 2832:Гормов pp. 15,17 2830: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2799: 2793: 2790: 2762:Available online 2678: 2554:railway colleges 2463: 2460: 2438: 2431: 2413:Railway colleges 2362:. All were 1000 2327:steam locomotive 2261: 2254: 2247: 2240: 2233: 2226: 2219: 2212: 2205: 2183: 2182: 2172: 2165: 2158: 2151: 2144: 2137: 2130: 2123: 2116: 2109: 2102: 2080: 2079: 2061: 2054: 2047: 2040: 2033: 2026: 2019: 2012: 1990: 1989: 1979: 1972: 1965: 1958: 1951: 1944: 1937: 1930: 1911: 1910: 1890: 1885: 1880: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1838: 1831: 1824: 1817: 1810: 1803: 1796: 1789: 1771: 1770: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1714:Railway Minister 1713: 1708: 1701: 1694: 1687: 1680: 1673: 1666: 1659: 1652: 1645: 1627: 1626: 1613: 1606: 1598: 1590: 1583: 1576: 1569: 1562: 1555: 1548: 1541: 1534: 1527: 1520: 1513: 1506: 1498: 1490: 1482: 1447: 1446: 1433: 1426: 1419: 1412: 1405: 1398: 1386:Ordinary Worker 1366: 1365: 1360: 1353: 1346: 1339: 1332: 1325: 1293: 1292: 1287: 1280: 1273: 1266: 1259: 1252: 1220: 1219: 1201:Ordinary Worker 1199: 1190: 1181: 1172: 1163: 1141: 1128: 1119: 1110: 1101: 1092: 1083: 1074: 1065: 1043: 1027: 1022:Ordinary worker 976: 969: 962: 955: 948: 941: 934: 927: 920: 913: 906: 899: 892: 863: 862: 804:division of the 699: 692: 688: 685: 679: 677: 636: 612: 604: 501:USATC S160 Class 490: 485: 479:Sakhalin Railway 472: 468: 445:Railway Station 348:protocol of the 250:Lazar Kaganovich 221:central planning 21: 5080: 5079: 5075: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5050: 5049: 5048: 5043: 5022: 5020: 5007: 4955: 4929: 4849: 4763: 4708: 4680: 4654:Internet domain 4649:Five-year plans 4611: 4578: 4518: 4421: 4383: 4315:Communist Party 4303: 4262:Passport system 4152: 4128:European Russia 4106: 4045: 3986:Khrushchev Thaw 3965:(World War II) 3943:Creation treaty 3897: 3891: 3848: 3843: 3842: 3829: 3825: 3812: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3767: 3763: 3758: 3754: 3750:Раков p.371 9.8 3749: 3745: 3740: 3736: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3688: 3677: 3670: 3659: 3652: 3641: 3634: 3622: 3618: 3608: 3599: 3588: 3581: 3570: 3566: 3554: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3515: 3511: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3463: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3423: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3400: 3396: 3389: 3387: 3380: 3372: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3343: 3342: 3335: 3333: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3272:. p. 184. 3262: 3258: 3251: 3243:. p. 130. 3233: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3184: 3176: 3172: 3149: 3145: 3123:First World War 3116: 3112: 3102: 3098: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3074: 3072: 3068: 3062: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3011: 3009: 3005: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2920: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2817: 2815: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2685: 2675: 2612:Omrani, Bijan. 2598: 2593: 2562: 2545: 2532: 2506: 2464: 2458: 2455: 2444:needs expansion 2429: 2421: 2415: 2406: 2388: 2386:Electrification 2340:Communist party 2325:to replace the 2315: 2295:urban transport 2275: 2075: 1906: 1876:Motorcar Driver 1724:Deputy Minister 1622: 1442: 1380:Senior Foreman 1304:Major-Engineer 1215: 1200: 1191: 1182: 1173: 1164: 1129: 1120: 1111: 1102: 1093: 1084: 1075: 1066: 1038: 858: 850: 827: 822: 797: 788: 758: 744: 739: 700: 689: 683: 680: 637: 635: 625: 613: 602: 509: 497:Sakhalin Island 488: 483: 470: 466: 461:was annexed by 459:Sakhalin Island 449:, Russia (2007) 447:Sakhalin Island 395: 333: 301:five-year plans 289: 284: 275: 230:rationalization 186:Western Siberia 119: 62:five-year plans 34: 28: 23: 22: 18:Soviet railways 15: 12: 11: 5: 5078: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5031: 5016: 5013: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4988: 4987: 4986: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4963: 4961: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4939: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4928: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4859: 4857: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4847: 4842: 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4236: 4235: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4213: 4208: 4207: 4206: 4196: 4191: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4173: 4171: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4150: 4145: 4143:Ural Mountains 4140: 4135: 4133:North Caucasus 4130: 4125: 4120: 4114: 4112: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4093: 4092: 4082: 4077: 4076: 4075: 4064: 4062: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3977: 3976: 3971: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3923: 3913: 3907: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3890: 3889: 3882: 3875: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3847: 3846:External links 3844: 3841: 3840: 3823: 3805: 3791: 3770: 3761: 3752: 3743: 3734: 3725: 3716: 3707: 3698: 3686: 3668: 3650: 3632: 3616: 3597: 3579: 3564: 3545: 3536: 3527: 3518: 3509: 3500: 3491: 3482: 3473: 3461: 3452: 3443: 3430: 3421: 3412: 3410:Макарочкин p.5 3403: 3394: 3388:Article in ЖТ 3378: 3366: 3357: 3321: 3307: 3298: 3285: 3278: 3256: 3249: 3227: 3218: 3209: 3200: 3191: 3182: 3170: 3143: 3119:Russian Empire 3110: 3096: 3078: 3066: 3054: 3045: 3033: 3024: 3015: 3003: 2990: 2981: 2972: 2963: 2954: 2945: 2936: 2927: 2918: 2909: 2900: 2891: 2878: 2871: 2843: 2834: 2825: 2794: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2777: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2737: 2734: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2697: 2684: 2681: 2680: 2679: 2673: 2660: 2653: 2646: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2629: 2626: 2610: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2587: 2585:St. Petersburg 2578: 2573: 2568: 2561: 2558: 2544: 2541: 2466: 2465: 2441: 2439: 2428: 2425: 2417:Main article: 2414: 2411: 2402:Main article: 2387: 2384: 2314: 2311: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2267: 2263: 2262: 2255: 2248: 2241: 2234: 2227: 2220: 2213: 2206: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2179: 2178: 2174: 2173: 2166: 2159: 2152: 2145: 2138: 2131: 2124: 2117: 2110: 2103: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2067: 2063: 2062: 2055: 2048: 2041: 2034: 2027: 2020: 2013: 2006: 2003: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1993: 1986: 1985: 1981: 1980: 1973: 1966: 1959: 1952: 1945: 1938: 1931: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1898: 1894: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1839: 1832: 1825: 1818: 1811: 1804: 1797: 1790: 1782: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1767: 1766: 1762: 1761: 1756: 1751: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1734:Chief Engineer 1731: 1726: 1721: 1716: 1710: 1709: 1702: 1695: 1688: 1681: 1674: 1667: 1660: 1653: 1646: 1638: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1621: 1618: 1609: 1608: 1600: 1592: 1584: 1577: 1570: 1563: 1556: 1549: 1542: 1535: 1528: 1521: 1514: 1507: 1500: 1492: 1484: 1476: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1441: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1427: 1420: 1413: 1406: 1399: 1392: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1362: 1361: 1354: 1347: 1340: 1333: 1326: 1319: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1296: 1289: 1288: 1281: 1274: 1267: 1260: 1253: 1246: 1242: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1207: 1203: 1202: 1193: 1184: 1175: 1166: 1157: 1151: 1150: 1147: 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However, as 508: 505: 394: 391: 358:Russian Empire 332: 329: 288: 285: 283: 280: 274: 271: 228:advocated the 118: 115: 69:Russian Empire 50:rail transport 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5077: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5057: 5055: 5040: 5032: 5030: 5029: 5018: 5017: 5014: 5004: 5001: 4997: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4989: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4977: 4973: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4940: 4938: 4936: 4932: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4900:Printed media 4898: 4896: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4885: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4852: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4834: 4833:Cyrillisation 4831: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4801:Working class 4799: 4797: 4796:Soviet people 4794: 4793: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4766: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4717: 4715: 4711: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4644:Energy policy 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4581: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4494: 4493: 4492: 4489: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4458: 4455: 4451: 4448: 4447: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4424: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4401: 4398: 4397: 4396: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4386: 4378: 4375: 4374: 4373: 4372:Supreme Court 4370: 4367: 4364: 4361: 4358: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4300: 4297: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 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The 464: 460: 456: 448: 444: 440: 435: 431: 429: 428:Joseph Stalin 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 400: 390: 387: 385: 380: 376: 374: 369: 367: 363: 359: 353: 351: 346: 337: 328: 326: 321: 318: 313: 309: 306: 302: 293: 279: 270: 268: 264: 260: 255: 251: 246: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 222: 218: 213: 209: 206: 205:Joseph Stalin 202: 197: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 152: 147: 139: 131: 123: 110: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 74: 70: 65: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 38: 33: 19: 5019: 4791:Demographics 4781:Antisemitism 4696: 4634:Central Bank 4552:Forced labor 4500:Spetsnaz GRU 4320:organisation 4228:Human rights 4177:Constitution 4060:Subdivisions 3938:Russian SFSR 3894:Soviet Union 3854: 3826: 3817: 3808: 3802:(in Russian) 3794: 3788:(in Russian) 3781:(in Russian) 3773: 3764: 3755: 3746: 3737: 3728: 3719: 3710: 3701: 3680: 3662: 3644: 3625: 3619: 3610: 3591: 3573: 3567: 3557: 3539: 3530: 3521: 3512: 3503: 3494: 3485: 3476: 3455: 3446: 3433: 3424: 3415: 3406: 3397: 3390:(in Russian) 3369: 3360: 3334:. 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Sharpe 3040:Плакс, p.5 2289:The Soviet 586:Lev Voronin 536:First World 404:Ural region 73:World War I 5054:Categories 4935:Opposition 4925:Television 4905:Propaganda 4878:Literature 4752:Naukograds 4747:Sharashkas 4681:(currency) 4659:Inventions 4602:Censorship 4532:Red Terror 4216:Government 4090:Autonomous 4073:Autonomous 4006:Stagnation 3969:Evacuation 3818:www.gks.ru 3336:August 20, 2818:20 October 2683:In Russian 2596:In English 2534:After the 2398:train-set. 2348:lend lease 654:newspapers 416:Labytnangi 254:bottleneck 245:proposed. 242:resolution 194:Uzbekistan 190:Kazakhstan 184:, linking 180:, was the 30:See also: 4996:Republics 4984:Republics 4972:Republics 4823:Languages 4687:Transport 4569:Holodomor 4462:Militsiya 4400:President 4292:Stalinism 4194:Elections 4068:Republics 4051:Geography 4041:Nostalgia 3953:Stalinism 3836:0201-6354 2368:switching 831:esthetics 719:model SA3 437:Japanese 5039:Category 4592:Religion 4479:Chairmen 4325:Congress 4287:Leninism 4267:Propiska 4162:Politics 4021:Glasnost 3981:Cold War 3921:February 3346:cite web 3164:and the 2805:(1991). 2560:See also 2360:Baldwins 2266:Source: 2177:Source: 2066:Source: 1984:Source: 1897:Source: 1765:Source: 1475:Source: 1391:Source: 1383:Foreman 1318:Source: 1245:Source: 1206:Source: 1135:Source: 777:But the 684:May 2019 574:autarkic 420:Ob River 325:highways 174:Red Army 172:and the 85:– U-127 4960:Symbols 4873:Fashion 4855:Culture 4769:Society 4714:Science 4679:Rouble 4621:Economy 4597:Science 4407:Premier 4388:Offices 4250:Leaders 4170:General 4138:Siberia 4111:Regions 4085:Oblasts 3926:October 3903:History 3329:M636C. 2394:Soviet 2350:during 1028:Source: 839:Ukraine 837:in the 727:ballast 708:planned 668:scholar 547:Siberia 418:on the 412:Vorkuta 408:Siberia 397:During 234:tariffs 226:Gosplan 217:Gosplan 4979:Emblem 4967:Anthem 4915:Sports 4868:Cinema 4863:Ballet 4845:Racism 4818:Family 4308:Bodies 3896:topics 3834: 3276: 3247: 2869: 2756:online 2732:online 2718: 2692: 2671: 2622: 2528:, and 2502:, and 2396:ER-200 2307:petrol 2303:diesel 1891:Worker 1615:Class. 802:Bratsk 670: 663: 656: 649: 641: 563:timber 373:Amtrak 323:While 203:under 4910:Radio 4888:Opera 4883:Music 4786:Crime 4557:Gulag 4435:Cheka 4080:Krais 2780:Notes 2639:1978. 2583:, in 2356:ALCOs 1155:Grade 1057:Grade 982:Grade 675:JSTOR 661:books 582:Tsars 240:(CC) 192:with 91:4-6-0 87:Lenin 4991:Flag 4949:List 4757:List 4669:OGAS 4562:List 4445:NKVD 4233:LGBT 4221:List 4187:1977 4182:1936 3832:ISSN 3437:see 3352:link 3338:2019 3274:ISBN 3245:ISBN 3177:see 2867:ISBN 2820:2010 2716:ISBN 2690:ISBN 2669:ISBN 2620:ISBN 2547:The 2379:ALCO 2317:The 2305:and 2281:The 835:Kyiv 814:USSR 647:news 588:, a 551:coal 406:and 384:USSR 317:USSR 160:the 56:and 44:The 4474:KGB 4469:MGB 4457:MVD 4440:GPU 4240:Law 2859:doi 2454:. 1085:10 1076:11 1067:12 992:10 989:11 986:12 806:BAM 630:by 555:oil 352:). 269:. 101:at 89:'s 5056:: 4506:• 4502:• 3816:. 3689:^ 3671:^ 3653:^ 3635:^ 3600:^ 3582:^ 3548:^ 3464:^ 3381:^ 3348:}} 3344:{{ 3310:^ 3268:. 3239:. 3089:. 2865:. 2809:. 2556:. 2524:, 2520:, 2516:, 2512:, 2498:, 2494:, 2490:, 2486:, 2482:, 2478:, 2474:, 2364:hp 2342:. 1607:3 1599:2 1591:1 1499:C 1491:B 1483:A 1192:1 1183:2 1174:3 1165:4 1130:5 1121:6 1112:7 1103:8 1094:9 1019:1 1016:2 1013:3 1010:4 1007:5 1004:6 1001:7 998:8 995:9 816:. 557:, 553:, 527:. 430:. 366:US 362:US 196:. 64:. 4510:/ 4498:/ 3886:e 3879:t 3872:v 3820:. 3783:, 3628:. 3560:. 3354:) 3340:. 3282:. 3253:. 3141:. 3093:. 2875:. 2861:: 2822:. 2742:. 2677:. 2461:) 2457:( 2329:( 697:) 691:( 686:) 682:( 672:· 665:· 658:· 651:· 624:. 519:. 487:( 469:( 20:)

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