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about 40 kHz; peak frequencies between 40 kHz and 120 kHz), short duration clicks (about 40 μs). Dolphins can localize sounds both passively and actively (echolocation) with a resolution of about 1 deg. Cross-modal matching (between vision and echolocation) suggests dolphins perceive the spatial structure of complex objects interrogated through echolocation, a feat that likely requires spatially resolving individual object features and integration into a holistic representation of object shape. Although dolphins are sensitive to small, binaural intensity and time differences, mounting evidence suggests dolphins employ position-dependent spectral cues derived from well-developed head-related transfer functions, for sound localization in both the horizontal and vertical planes. A very small temporal integration time (264 μs) allows localization of multiple targets at varying distances. Localization adaptations include pronounced asymmetry of the skull, nasal sacks, and specialized lipid structures in the forehead and jaws, as well as acoustically isolated middle and inner ears.
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711:, which are more pronounced at higher frequencies; that is, if there is a sound onset, the delay of this onset between the ears can be used to determine the input direction of the corresponding sound source. This mechanism becomes especially important in reverberant environments. After a sound onset there is a short time frame where the direct sound reaches the ears, but not yet the reflected sound. The auditory system uses this short time frame for evaluating the sound source direction, and keeps this detected direction as long as reflections and reverberation prevent an unambiguous direction estimation. The mechanisms described above cannot be used to differentiate between a sound source ahead of the hearer or behind the hearer; therefore additional cues have to be evaluated.
1471:. It utilizes "smart" manikins, such as KEMAR, to glean signals or use DSP methods to simulate the transmission process from sources to ears. After amplifying, recording and transmitting, the two channels of received signals will be reproduced through earphones or speakers. This localization approach uses electroacoustic methods to obtain the spatial information of the original sound field by transferring the listener's auditory apparatus to the original sound field. The most considerable advantages of it would be that its acoustic images are lively and natural. Also, it only needs two independent transmitted signals to reproduce the acoustic image of a 3D system.
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systems, the major goal of them is to simulate stereo sound information. Traditional stereo systems use sensors that are quite different from human ears. Although those sensors can receive the acoustic information from different directions, they do not have the same frequency response of human auditory system. Therefore, when binary-channel mode is applied, human auditory systems still cannot feel the 3D sound effect field. However, the 3D para-virtualization stereo system overcome such disadvantages. It uses HRTF principles to glean acoustic information from the original sound field then produce a lively 3D sound field through common earphones or speakers.
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long as the lateral direction is constant. However, if the head is rotated, the ITD and ILD change dynamically, and those changes are different for sounds at different elevations. For example, if an eye-level sound source is straight ahead and the head turns to the left, the sound becomes louder (and arrives sooner) at the right ear than at the left. But if the sound source is directly overhead, there will be no change in the ITD and ILD as the head turns. Intermediate elevations will produce intermediate degrees of change, and if the presentation of binaural cues to the two ears during head movement is reversed, the sound will be heard behind the listener.
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the synthesized elevation. The fact that the sound sources objectively remained at eye level prevented monaural cues from specifying the elevation, showing that it was the dynamic change in the binaural cues during head movement that allowed the sound to be correctly localized in the vertical dimension. The head movements need not be actively produced; accurate vertical localization occurred in a similar setup when the head rotation was produced passively, by seating the blindfolded subject in a rotating chair. As long as the dynamic changes in binaural cues accompanied a perceived head rotation, the synthesized elevation was perceived.
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IIDs, in what is called the cone model effect. However, human ears can still distinguish between these sources. Besides that, in natural sense of hearing, one ear alone, without any ITD or IID, can distinguish between them with high accuracy. Due to the disadvantages of duplex theory, researchers proposed the pinna filtering effect theory. The shape of the human pinna is concave with complex folds and asymmetrical both horizontally and vertically. Reflected and direct waves generate a frequency spectrum on the eardrum, relating to the acoustic sources. Then auditory nerves localize the sources using this frequency spectrum.
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critical bands and if the perceived direction is stable, this attack is in all probability caused by the direct sound of a sound source, which is entering newly or which is changing its signal characteristics. This short time period is used by the auditory system for directional and loudness analysis of this sound. When reflections arrive a little bit later, they do not enhance the loudness inside the critical bands in such a strong way, but the directional cues become unstable, because there is a mix of sound of several reflection directions. As a result, no new directional analysis is triggered by the auditory system.
1538:(interaural phase differences) for lower frequencies and evaluation of interaural level differences for higher frequencies. The evaluation of interaural phase differences is useful, as long as it gives unambiguous results. This is the case, as long as ear distance is smaller than half the length (maximal one wavelength) of the sound waves. For animals with a larger head than humans the evaluation range for interaural phase differences is shifted towards lower frequencies, for animals with a smaller head, this range is shifted towards higher frequencies.
1323:, or otherwise referred to as binaural recordings. It has been shown that human subjects can monaurally localize high frequency sound but not low frequency sound. Binaural localization, however, was possible with lower frequencies. This is likely due to the pinna being small enough to only interact with sound waves of high frequency. It seems that people can only accurately localize the elevation of sounds that are complex and include frequencies above 7,000 Hz, and a pinna must be present.
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253:. Haas measured down to even a 1 millisecond difference in timing between the original sound and reflected sound increased the spaciousness, allowing the brain to discern the true location of the original sound. The nervous system combines all early reflections into a single perceptual whole allowing the brain to process multiple different sounds at once. The nervous system will combine reflections that are within about 35 milliseconds of each other and that have a similar intensity.
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1623:. Because they hunt at night, they must rely on non-visual senses. Experiments by Roger Payne have shown that owls are sensitive to the sounds made by their prey, not the heat or the smell. In fact, the sound cues are both necessary and sufficient for localization of mice from a distant location where they are perched. For this to work, the owls must be able to accurately localize both the azimuth and the elevation of the sound source.
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different sides of the head, and thus have different coordinates in space. As shown in the duplex theory figure, since the distances between the acoustic source and ears are different, there are time difference and intensity difference between the sound signals of two ears. We call those kinds of differences as
Interaural Time Difference (ITD) and Interaural Intensity Difference (IID) respectively.
186:, in which only the first of multiple identical sounds is used to determine the sounds' location (thus avoiding confusion caused by echoes), it cannot be entirely used to explain the response. Furthermore, a number of recent physiological observations made in the midbrain and brainstem of small mammals have shed considerable doubt on the validity of Jeffress's original ideas.
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Since most animals have two ears, many of the effects of the human auditory system can also be found in other animals. Therefore, interaural time differences (interaural phase differences) and interaural level differences play a role for the hearing of many animals. But the influences on localization
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In order to determine the time periods, where the direct sound prevails and which can be used for directional evaluation, the auditory system analyzes loudness changes in different critical bands and also the stability of the perceived direction. If there is a strong attack of the loudness in several
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Direct/ Reflection ratio: In enclosed rooms, two types of sound are arriving at a listener: The direct sound arrives at the listener's ears without being reflected at a wall. Reflected sound has been reflected at least one time at a wall before arriving at the listener. The ratio between direct sound
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are highly individual, depending on the shape and size of the outer ear. If sound is presented through headphones, and has been recorded via another head with different-shaped outer ear surfaces, the directional patterns differ from the listener's own, and problems will appear when trying to evaluate
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In 1907, Lord
Rayleigh utilized tuning forks to generate monophonic excitation and studied the lateral sound localization theory on a human head model without auricle. He first presented the interaural clue difference based sound localization theory, which is known as Duplex Theory. Human ears are on
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gene's role in the evolutionary trajectory of mammalian echolocation systems. This research underscores the adaptability and evolutionary significance of
Prestin, offering valuable insights into the genetic foundations of sound localization in bats and dolphins, particularly within the sophisticated
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Noteworthy is the emission of high-frequency echolocation calls by toothed whales and echolocating bats, showcasing diversity in shape, duration, and amplitude. However, it is their high-frequency hearing that becomes paramount, as it enables the reception and analysis of echoes bouncing off objects
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to aid in detecting, identifying, localizing, and capturing prey. Dolphin sonar signals are well suited for localizing multiple, small targets in a three-dimensional aquatic environment by utilizing highly directional (3 dB beamwidth of about 10 deg), broadband (3 dB bandwidth typically of
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artificially altered a sound's binaural cues during movements of the head. Although the sound was objectively placed at eye level, the dynamic changes to ITD and ILD as the head rotated were those that would be produced if the sound source had been elevated. In this situation, the sound was heard at
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When the head is stationary, the binaural cues for lateral sound localization (interaural time difference and interaural level difference) do not give information about the location of a sound in the median plane. Identical ITDs and ILDs can be produced by sounds at eye level or at any elevation, as
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Neurons sensitive to interaural level differences (ILDs) are excited by stimulation of one ear and inhibited by stimulation of the other ear, such that the response magnitude of the cell depends on the relative strengths of the two inputs, which in turn, depends on the sound intensities at the ears.
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For many mammals there are also pronounced structures in the pinna near the entry of the ear canal. As a consequence, direction-dependent resonances can appear, which could be used as an additional localization cue, similar to the localization in the median plane in the human auditory system. There
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of these effects are dependent on head sizes, ear distances, the ear positions and the orientation of the ears. Smaller animals like insects use different techniques as the separation of the ears are too small. For the process of animals emitting sound to improve localization, a biological form of
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Qxpander. They use HRTF to simulate the received acoustic signals at the ears from different directions with common binary-channel stereo reproduction. Therefore, they can simulate reflected sound waves and improve subjective sense of space and envelopment. Since they are para-virtualization stereo
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Sound spectrum: High frequencies are more quickly damped by the air than low frequencies. Therefore, a distant sound source sounds more muffled than a close one, because the high frequencies are attenuated. For sound with a known spectrum (e.g. speech) the distance can be estimated roughly with the
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of the sound waves. So the auditory system can determine phase delays between both ears without confusion. Interaural level differences are very low in this frequency range, especially below about 200 Hz, so a precise evaluation of the input direction is nearly impossible on the basis of level
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For sinusoidal signals presented on the horizontal plane, spatial resolution is highest for sounds coming from the median plane (directly in front of the listener) with about 1 degree MAA, and it deteriorates markedly when stimuli are moved to the side – e.g., the MAA is about 7 degrees for sounds
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For frequencies above 1600 Hz the dimensions of the head are greater than the length of the sound waves. An unambiguous determination of the input direction based on interaural phase alone is not possible at these frequencies. However, the interaural level differences become larger, and these
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For sound localization in the median plane (elevation of the sound) also two detectors can be used, which are positioned at different heights. In animals, however, rough elevation information is gained simply by tilting the head, provided that the sound lasts long enough to complete the movement.
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ITDG: The
Initial Time Delay Gap describes the time difference between arrival of the direct wave and first strong reflection at the listener. Nearby sources create a relatively large ITDG, with the first reflections having a longer path to take, possibly many times longer. When the source is far
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At present, the main institutes that work on measuring HRTF database include CIPIC International Lab, MIT Media Lab, the
Graduate School in Psychoacoustics at the University of Oldenburg, the Neurophysiology Lab at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and Ames Lab of NASA. Databases of HRIRs from
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Duplex theory shows that ITD and IID play significant roles in sound localization, but they can only deal with lateral localization problems. For example, if two acoustic sources are placed symmetrically at the front and back of the right side of the human head, they will generate equal ITDs and
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have been extensively studied. The auditory system uses several cues for sound source localization, including time difference and level difference (or intensity difference) between the ears, and spectral information. Other animals, such as birds and reptiles, also use them but they may use them
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Since the multichannel stereo systems require many reproduction channels, some researchers adopted the HRTF simulation technologies to reduce the number of reproduction channels. They use only two speakers to simulate multiple speakers in a multichannel system. This process is called as virtual
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employed by bats and dolphins. Discovered just over a decade ago, Prestin encodes a protein located in the inner ear's hair cells, facilitating rapid contractions and expansions. This intricate mechanism operates akin to an antique phonograph horn, amplifying sound waves within the cochlea and
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If the ears are located at the side of the head, interaural level differences appear for higher frequencies and can be evaluated for localization tasks. For animals with ears at the top of the head, no shadowing by the head will appear and therefore there will be much less interaural level
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differences alone. As the frequency drops below 80 Hz it becomes difficult or impossible to use either time difference or level difference to determine a sound's lateral source, because the phase difference between the ears becomes too small for a directional evaluation.
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From the duplex theory figure we can see that for source B1 or source B2, there will be a propagation delay between two ears, which will generate the ITD. Simultaneously, human head and ears may have a shadowing effect on high-frequency signals, which will generate IID.
1749:(1802–1875) did work on optics and color mixing, and also explored hearing. He invented a device he called a "microphone" that involved a metal plate over each ear, each connected to metal rods; he used this device to amplify sound. He also did experiments holding
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1739:(1746–1822) conducted and described experiments in which people tried to localize a sound using both ears, or one ear blocked with a finger. This work was not followed up on, and was only recovered after others had worked out how human sound localization works.
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The human auditory system has only limited possibilities to determine the distance of a sound source. In the close-up-range there are some indications for distance determination, such as extreme level differences (e.g. when whispering into one ear) or specific
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The lowest frequency which can be localized depends on the ear distance. Animals with a greater ear distance can localize lower frequencies than humans can. For animals with a smaller ear distance the lowest localizable frequency is higher than for humans.
743:(HRTF). The corresponding time domain expressions are called the Head-Related Impulse Response (HRIR). The HRTF is also described as the transfer function from the free field to a specific point in the ear canal. We usually recognize HRTFs as LTI systems:
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This explains the innate behavior of cocking the head to one side when trying to localize a sound precisely. To get instantaneous localization in more than two dimensions from time-difference or amplitude-difference cues requires more than two detectors.
197:(IC), many ILD sensitive neurons have response functions that decline steeply from maximum to zero spikes as a function of ILD. However, there are also many neurons with much more shallow response functions that do not decline to zero spikes.
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The term 'binaural' literally signifies 'to hear with two ears', and was introduced in 1859 to signify the practice of listening to the same sound through both ears, or to two discrete sounds, one through each ear. It was not until 1916 that
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This first detected direction from the direct sound is taken as the found sound source direction, until other strong loudness attacks, combined with stable directional information, indicate that a new directional analysis is possible. (see
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distinctions in sonar mammals that likely contribute to their distinctive echolocation features. The confluence of evolutionary analyses and empirical findings provides robust evidence, marking a significant juncture in comprehending the
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reproduction. Essentially, such approach uses both interaural difference principle and pinna filtering effect theory. Unfortunately, this kind of approach cannot perfectly substitute the traditional multichannel stereo system, such as
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differently, and some also have localization cues which are absent in the human auditory system, such as the effects of ear movements. Animals with the ability to localize sound have a clear evolutionary advantage.
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shift from threonine (Thr or T) in sonar mammals to asparagine (Asn or N) in nonsonar mammals. This specific alteration, subject to parallel evolution, emerges as a linchpin in the mammalian echolocation narrative.
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Helmut Haas discovered that we can discern the sound source despite additional reflections at 10 decibels louder than the original wave front, using the earliest arriving wave front. This principle is known as the
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Sound is the perceptual result of mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium such as air or water. Through the mechanisms of compression and rarefaction, sound waves travel through the air, bounce off the
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560:{\displaystyle ITD={\begin{cases}3\times {\frac {r}{c}}\times \sin \theta ,&{\text{if }}f\leq {\text{4000Hz }}\\2\times {\frac {r}{c}}\times \sin \theta ,&{\text{if }}f>{\text{ 4000Hz}}\end{cases}}}
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Localization can be described in terms of three-dimensional position: the azimuth or horizontal angle, the elevation or vertical angle, and the distance (for static sounds) or velocity (for moving sounds).
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in their environment. A meticulous dissection of
Prestin protein function in sonar-guided bats and bottlenose dolphins, juxtaposed with nonsonar mammals, sheds light on the intricacies of this process.
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lengths. Some cells are more directly connected to one ear than the other, thus they are specific for a particular interaural time difference. This theory is equivalent to the mathematical procedure of
1586:. The animal is too small for the time difference of sound arriving at the two ears to be calculated in the usual way, yet it can determine the direction of sound sources with exquisite precision. The
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the left ear. These level differences are highly frequency dependent and they increase with increasing frequency. Massive theoretical researches demonstrate that IID relates to the signal frequency
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The auditory system can extract the sound of a desired sound source out of interfering noise. This allows the listener to concentrate on only one speaker if other speakers are also talking (the
1415:). With the help of the cocktail party effect sound from interfering directions is perceived attenuated compared to the sound from the desired direction. The auditory system can increase the
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https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=C1uazonQNNh31hpdlsyEyXcqR2uafvd3NO5N-rwCbIvv4k-h-lQ2euw2Ja7xMXcwObpETefJWcYFa1zXJqT8ezXCQyp8UxeCVFCuTs07Lhqt4Qc6zy4aOw==&uniplatform=NZKPT
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Localization accuracy is 1 degree for sources in front of the listener and 15 degrees for sources to the sides. Humans can discern interaural time differences of 10 microseconds or less.
220:, by the relative amplitude of high-frequency sounds (the shadow effect), and by the asymmetrical spectral reflections from various parts of our bodies, including torso, shoulders, and
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for sound localization. Together with other direction-selective reflections at the head, shoulders and torso, they form the outer ear transfer functions. These patterns in the ear's
1306:, form direction-selective filters. Depending on the sound input direction, different filter resonances become active. These resonances implant direction-specific patterns into the
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Interaural intensity difference (IID) or interaural level difference (ILD) – Sound from the right side has a higher level at the right ear than at the left ear, because the
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at the walls. The auditory system analyses only the direct sound, which is arriving first, for sound localization, but not the reflected sound, which is arriving later (
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For frequencies below 800 Hz, the dimensions of the head (ear distance 21.5 cm, corresponding to an interaural time delay of 626 μs) are smaller than the half
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Liu, Z., Qi, F. Y., Zhou, X., Ren, H. Q., & Shi, P. (2014). Parallel sites implicate functional convergence of the hearing gene prestin among echolocating mammals.
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Musicant A D, Butler R A. The influence of pinnae-based spectral cues on sound localization. The
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1984, 75(4): 1195–1200.
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system. That is because when the listening zone is relatively larger, simulation reproduction through HRTFs may cause invert acoustic images at symmetric positions.
691:), for frequencies above 1500 Hz mainly IIDs are evaluated. Between 1000 Hz and 1500 Hz there is a transition zone, where both mechanisms play a role.
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and sound level differences were available to the animal's head. Efforts to build directional microphones based on the coupled-eardrum structure are underway.
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directions in the median plane with these foreign ears. As a consequence, front–back permutations or inside-the-head-localization can appear when listening to
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Rayleigh L. XII. On our perception of sound direction. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 1907, 13(74): 214-232.
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qualities of the sound, helping the brain orient where the sound emanated from. These minute differences between the two ears are known as interaural cues.
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If the ears are located at the side of the head, similar lateral localization cues as for the human auditory system can be used. This means: evaluation of
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level differences are evaluated by the auditory system. Also, delays between the ears can still be detected via some combination of phase differences and
330:(ITD) – Sound from the right side reaches the right ear earlier than the left ear. The auditory system evaluates interaural time differences from: (a)
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Batteau D W. The role of the pinna in human localization. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 1967, 168(1011): 158-180.
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differences, which could be evaluated. Many of these animals can move their ears, and these ear movements can be used as a lateral localization cue.
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Lower frequencies, with longer wavelengths, diffract the sound around the head forcing the brain to focus only on the phasing cues from the source.
1743:(1842–1919) would do these same experiments and come to the results, without knowing Venturi had first done them, almost seventy-five years later.
2408:"Contribution of the Dorsal Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus to Binaural Responses in the Inferior Colliculus of the Rat: Interaural Time Delays"
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Thompson, Daniel M. Understanding Audio: Getting the Most out of Your
Project or Professional Recording Studio. Boston, MA: Berklee, 2005. Print.
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Loudness: Distant sound sources have a lower loudness than close ones. This aspect can be evaluated especially for well-known sound sources.
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Ho CC, Narins PM (Apr 2006). "Directionality of the pressure-difference receiver ears in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens pipiens".
1792:(1781–1826); the stethophone had two separate "pickups", allowing the user to hear and compare sounds derived from two discrete locations.
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also attempted to compare and contrast what would become known as binaural hearing with the principles of binocular integration generally.
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The distance cues are the loss of amplitude, the loss of high frequencies, and the ratio of the direct signal to the reverberated signal.
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1671:. This adaptation proves instrumental for dolphins navigating through turbid waters and bats seeking sustenance in nocturnal darkness.
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Miles RN, Robert D, Hoy RR (December 1995). "Mechanically coupled ears for directional hearing in the parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea".
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strategy. Ho showed that the coupled-eardrum system in frogs can produce increased interaural vibration disparities when only small
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Later, it would become apparent that binaural hearing, whether dichotic or diotic, is the means by which sound localization occurs.
1438:). So sound localization remains possible even in an echoic environment. This echo cancellation occurs in the Dorsal Nucleus of the
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This article is about the biological process of sound localization. For sound localization via mechanical or electrical means, see
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of opposite ears are directly connected mechanically, allowing resolution of sub-microsecond time differences and requiring a new
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In enclosed rooms not only the direct sound from a sound source is arriving at the listener's ears, but also sound which has been
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Scientific consideration of binaural hearing began before the phenomenon was so named, with speculations published in 1792 by
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is the amplitude of sound pressure at the center of the head coordinate when listener does not exist. In general, an HRTF's
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Wade, NJ; Ono, H (2005). "From dichoptic to dichotic: historical contrasts between binocular vision and binaural hearing".
1038:{\displaystyle H_{R}=H_{R}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )=P_{R}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )/P_{0}(r,\omega ),}
887:{\displaystyle H_{L}=H_{L}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )=P_{L}(r,\theta ,\varphi ,\omega ,\alpha )/P_{0}(r,\omega )}
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1667:, unveiling its critical role in the ultrasonic hearing range essential for animal sonar, specifically in the context of
567:. In above closed form, we assumed that the 0 degree is in the right ahead of the head and counter-clockwise is positive.
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to both ears at the same time, or separately, trying to work out how sense of hearing works, that he published in 1827.
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Blauert, J.: Spatial hearing: the psychophysics of human sound localization; MIT Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts (1983)
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Interaural Intensity Difference Processing in Auditory Midbrain Neurons: Effects of a Transient Early Inhibitory Input
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Robert D, Miles RN, Hoy RR (1996). "Directional hearing by mechanical coupling in the parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea".
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Zhao R. Study of Auditory Transmission Sound Localization System, University of Science and Technology of China, 2006.
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Evolutionary analyses of Prestin protein sequences brought forth a compelling observation – a singular
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and concha of the exterior ear, and enter the ear canal. In mammals, the sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane (
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in acoustical perception. For a moving listener nearby sound sources are passing faster than distant sound sources.
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Wallach, Hans (October 1940). "The role of head movements and vestibular and visual cues in sound localization".
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in such a way as to enable sound localization and direction was considerably advanced after the invention of the
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source. The brain utilizes subtle differences in intensity, spectral, and timing cues to localize sound sources.
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auditoryneuroscience.com: Collection of multimedia files and flash demonstrations related to spatial hearing
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Mason AC, Oshinsky ML, Hoy RR (Apr 2001). "Hyperacute directional hearing in a microscale auditory system".
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Wallach, H; Newman, E.B.; Rosenzweig, M.R. (July 1949). "The precedence effect in sound localization".
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represent the amplitude of the sound pressure at the entrances to the left and right ear canals, and
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The representatives of this kind of system are SRS Audio Sandbox, Spatializer Audio Lab and
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2231:"Localization of sound in the vertical plane with and without high-frequency spectral cues"
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Research on "Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) Localisation for Indoor Environments" by CMR at UNSW
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Schnupp J., Nelken I & King A.J., 2011. Auditory Neuroscience, MIT Press, chapter 5.
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Díaz-García, Lara; Reid, Andrew; Jackson-Camargo, Joseph; Windmill, James F.C. (2022).
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Columbia College, Chicago - Audio Arts & Acoustics acousticslab.org/psychoacoustics
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in the superior olive which accept innervation from each ear with different connecting
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Benade, Arthur H. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York: Oxford UP, 1976. Print.
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Level Difference: Very close sound sources cause a different level between the ears.
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2112:
1931:
1913:
1865:
1732:
739:
These spectrum clues generated by the pinna filtering effect can be presented as a
230:
Depending on where the source is located, our head acts as a barrier to change the
2909:
2027:
Zhou X. Virtual reality technique. Telecommunications Science, 1996, 12(7): 46-–.
1362:
and reflected sound can give an indication about the distance of the sound source.
3191:
3094:
3089:
2379:
1831:
1811:
1451:
1357:
The auditory system uses these clues to estimate the distance to a sound source:
1351:
1311:
1299:
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humans with normal and impaired hearing and from animals are publicly available.
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88:
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gene has emerged as a pivotal player, particularly in the fascinating arena of
1579:
1574:
138:
126:
2681:
2502:
2058:
Computational auditory scene analysis: principles, algorithms and applications
1686:
Subsequent experiments lent credence to this hypothesis, identifying four key
1376:
Movement: Similar to the visual system there is also the phenomenon of motion
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3074:
3007:
2961:
2510:
2431:
2042:
1927:
1784:
in 1859, who coined the term 'binaural'. Alison based the stethophone on the
1620:
1591:
1468:
1397:
1393:
2741:
1992:
Roads, Curtis. The Computer Music Tutorial. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2007. Print.
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away, the direct and the reflected sound waves have similar path lengths.
731:
688:
571:
331:
246:
114:
80:
is a listener's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected
2272:"Factors That Influence the Localization of Sound in the Vertical Plane"
1392:
Sound processing of the human auditory system is performed in so-called
3129:
2595:
2247:
2230:
2124:
1710:
1687:
1679:
1467:
This kind of sound localization technique provides us the real virtual
1401:
699:
150:
122:
110:
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2712:
The Living Bird, First Annual of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology
2476:
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1613:
1474:
1405:
1303:
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341:
Theory and experiments show that ITD relates to the signal frequency
158:
2895:
HearCom:Hearing in the Communication Society, an EU research project
2116:
1900:
Carlini, Alessandro; Bordeau, Camille; Ambard, Maxime (2024-07-10).
1663:
In 2014 Liu and others delved into the evolutionary adaptations of
2992:
2228:
2102:
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1424:
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261:
To determine the lateral input direction (left, front, right), the
205:
Sound localization is the process of determining the location of a
106:
2771:
2269:
1549:
182:. However, because Jeffress's theory is unable to account for the
2710:
Payne, Roger S., 1962. How the Barn Owl Locates Prey by Hearing.
2387:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B Biological Sciences
1692:
1664:
1652:
1555:
are additional localization cues which are also used by animals.
1420:
1047:
where L and R represent the left ear and right ear respectively,
130:
118:
2930:
2479:"Towards a bio-inspired acoustic sensor: Achroia grisella's ear"
1354:(the visible part of the ear) resonances in the close-up range.
153:, interaural time differences are known to be calculated in the
35:
2986:
2320:, 3rd edition, Holt Rinehart & Winston, 1971, pp. 267–268.
1488:
687:
For frequencies below 1000 Hz, mainly ITDs are evaluated (
231:
170:
1856:
Jeffress L.A. (1948). "A place theory of sound localization".
1222:, the distance between the source and the center of the head
306:
206:
81:
1400:
is segmented into 24 critical bands, each with a width of 1
2316:
Thurlow, W.R. "Audition" in Kling, J.W. & Riggs, L.A.,
1529:
1495:
553:
174:
1601:
2803:
Sounds of our times : two hundred years of acoustics
1902:"Auditory localization: a comprehensive practical review"
1583:
1567:
1502:
678:{\displaystyle IID=1.0+(f/1000)^{0.8}\times \sin \theta }
361:. Suppose the angular position of the acoustic source is
266:
2055:
1582:
in sound localization experiments because of its unique
1457:
1339:
showed the pinna also enhances horizontal localization.
1482:
719:
1462:
315:(ILD) between left ear (left) and right ear (right).
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1080:
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298:(ITD) between left ear (top) and right ear (bottom).
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1899:
113:
to vibrate, which then sends the energy through the
2839:"Binaural Hearing—Before and After the Stethophone"
1858:
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology
87:The sound localization mechanisms of the mammalian
1651:In the realm of mammalian sound localization, the
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1254:
1234:
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1120:
1093:
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886:
677:
606:
586:
559:
413:
393:
373:
353:
2880:Collection of references about sound localization
3278:
2624:
594:and the angular position of the acoustic source
2837:Wade, Nicholas J.; Deutsch, Diana (July 2008).
1550:In the median plane (front, above, back, below)
1342:
2890:Online learning center - Hearing and Listening
2581:
2538:
2229:Robert A. Butler; Richard A. Humanski (1992).
1660:elevating the overall sensitivity of hearing.
121:where it is changed into a chemical signal by
95:
2946:
2380:"The role of the pinna in human localization"
2270:Roffler Suzanne K.; Butler Robert A. (1968).
1855:
2541:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
2406:Kidd, Sean A.; Kelly, Jack B. (1996-11-15).
2332:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
2330:Wallach, H (1939). "On sound localization".
2276:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
218:difference in arrival times between the ears
2836:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2753:
2751:
2749:
1310:of the ears, which can be evaluated by the
2953:
2939:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1647:The role of Prestin in sound localization:
216:The azimuth of a sound is signaled by the
2439:
2405:
2246:
2146:
2144:
2142:
1935:
1917:
1262:and the equivalent dimension of the head
1182:are functions of source angular position
714:
2819:
2746:
2667:
2000:
1998:
1530:Lateral information (left, ahead, right)
1496:Multichannel stereo virtual reproduction
1473:
730:
718:
275:
200:
60:of all important aspects of the article.
2920:An introduction to acoustic beamforming
2757:
2377:
2329:
2150:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1961:
1731:(1757–1817) based on his research into
1602:Bi-coordinate sound localization (owls)
3279:
2915:An introduction to acoustic holography
2378:Batteau, Dwight Wayne (January 1964).
2139:
2098:
2096:
2073:originating at 75 degrees to the side.
1827:Perceptual-based 3D sound localization
1568:Localization with coupled ears (flies)
193:In the auditory midbrain nucleus, the
144:
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
2934:
2905:An introduction to sound localization
2800:
2794:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2358:
1995:
1817:Coincidence detection in neurobiology
1768:Understanding how the differences in
1458:Specific techniques with applications
614:. The function of IID is given by:
421:, the function of ITD is given by:
3259:
2171:
2085:Auditory localization - Introduction
2036:
2023:
2021:
2019:
1981:
1483:3D para-virtualization stereo system
1387:
29:
2670:Journal of Comparative Physiology A
2584:Journal of Comparative Physiology A
2371:
2093:
2056:DeLiang Wang; Guy J. Brown (2006).
1463:Auditory transmission stereo system
13:
2717:
2456:
2424:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-22-07390.1996
2153:Journal of Experimental Psychology
109:), causing the three bones of the
16:Biological sound detection process
14:
3318:
2960:
2868:
2016:
3258:
3247:
3246:
1790:René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec
1772:between two ears contributes to
305:
288:
256:
34:
3003:Central pattern generator (CPG)
2730:Molecular biology and evolution
2704:
2661:
2618:
2575:
2532:
2470:
2399:
2323:
2310:
2263:
2222:
2204:
2195:
2186:
2178:"Acoustics: The Ears Have It".
2078:
2049:
2030:
1558:
1478:Sound localization with manikin
137:fibers that travel through the
48:may be too short to adequately
3197:Frog hearing and communication
2235:Perception & Psychophysics
2105:American Journal of Psychology
2007:
1952:
1893:
1884:
1849:
1029:
1017:
999:
969:
953:
923:
881:
869:
851:
821:
805:
775:
741:head-related transfer function
654:
639:
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
1842:
1788:, which had been invented by
1298:, i.e. the structures of the
1289:
401:and the acoustic velocity is
165:, this calculation relies on
1369:help of the perceived sound.
1343:Distance of the sound source
249:, a specific version of the
7:
2412:The Journal of Neuroscience
1795:
1626:
1536:interaural time differences
1436:law of the first wave front
334:at low frequencies and (b)
313:Interaural level difference
96:How sound reaches the brain
84:in direction and distance.
10:
3323:
3202:Infrared sensing in snakes
3187:Jamming avoidance response
1919:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408073
1699:
1608:Sound localization in owls
1605:
1512:
328:Interaural time difference
296:Interaural time difference
18:
3242:
3169:
3148:
3052:
2968:
2801:Beyer, Robert T. (1999).
2682:10.1007/s00359-005-0080-7
2503:10.1109/JSEN.2022.3197841
2212:"The CIPIC HRTF Database"
2182:. 1961-12-04. p. 80.
1737:Giovanni Battista Venturi
3207:Caridoid escape reaction
1215:{\displaystyle \varphi }
155:superior olivary nucleus
3060:Theodore Holmes Bullock
2318:Experimental Psychology
1906:Frontiers in Psychology
1782:Somerville Scott Alison
1696:realm of echolocation.
1572:The tiny parasitic fly
1275:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1255:{\displaystyle \omega }
1242:, the angular velocity
1195:{\displaystyle \theta }
607:{\displaystyle \theta }
374:{\displaystyle \theta }
265:analyzes the following
3217:Surface wave detection
2805:. New York: Springer.
2090:, accessed 16 May 2021
2060:. Wiley interscience.
1709:(1848–1936), a German
1479:
1276:
1256:
1236:
1216:
1196:
1176:
1149:
1122:
1095:
1068:
1039:
888:
736:
724:
715:Pinna filtering effect
679:
608:
588:
561:
415:
395:
375:
355:
281:
3033:Anti-Hebbian learning
2924:Link to reference 8:
2742:10.1093/molbev/msu194
2039:"Auditory Perception"
1763:William Charles Wells
1729:William Charles Wells
1477:
1417:signal-to-noise ratio
1413:cocktail party effect
1321:dummy head recordings
1277:
1257:
1237:
1217:
1197:
1177:
1175:{\displaystyle H_{R}}
1150:
1148:{\displaystyle H_{L}}
1123:
1121:{\displaystyle P_{0}}
1096:
1094:{\displaystyle P_{R}}
1069:
1067:{\displaystyle P_{L}}
1040:
889:
734:
722:
680:
609:
589:
562:
416:
396:
381:, the head radius is
376:
356:
279:
201:Human auditory system
25:3D sound localization
3110:Bernhard Hassenstein
3043:Ultrasound avoidance
3018:Fixed action pattern
2981:Coincidence detector
2483:IEEE Sensors Journal
2368:1961-12-04, pp.80-81
2364:"The Ears Have It,"
1837:Spatial hearing loss
1755:Ernst Heinrich Weber
1266:
1246:
1226:
1206:
1186:
1159:
1132:
1105:
1078:
1051:
897:
749:
618:
598:
578:
425:
405:
385:
365:
345:
338:at high frequencies.
269:signal information:
3177:Animal echolocation
3115:Werner E. Reichardt
3065:Walter Heiligenberg
2553:1995ASAJ...98.3059M
2495:2022ISenJ..2217746D
2489:(18): 17746–17753.
2344:1939ASAJ...10..270W
2288:1968ASAJ...43.1255R
1807:Animal echolocation
1774:auditory processing
1524:animal echolocation
1316:frequency responses
1308:frequency responses
195:inferior colliculus
145:Neural interactions
3140:Fernando Nottebohm
3038:Sound localization
3013:Lateral inhibition
2596:10.1007/BF00193432
2248:10.3758/bf03212242
1822:Human echolocation
1747:Charles Wheatstone
1588:tympanic membranes
1507:7.1 surround sound
1480:
1272:
1252:
1232:
1212:
1202:, elevation angle
1192:
1172:
1145:
1118:
1091:
1064:
1035:
884:
737:
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604:
584:
557:
552:
411:
391:
371:
351:
282:
78:Sound localization
3307:Spatial cognition
3274:
3273:
3161:Slice preparation
3023:Krogh's Principle
2998:Feature detection
2858:10.1121/1.2994724
2812:978-0-387-98435-3
2418:(22): 7390–7397.
2352:10.1121/1.1915985
2296:10.1121/1.1910976
1802:Acoustic location
1440:Lateral Lemniscus
1419:by up to 15
1388:Signal processing
1302:and the external
1235:{\displaystyle r}
587:{\displaystyle f}
548:
537:
515:
495:
484:
462:
414:{\displaystyle c}
394:{\displaystyle r}
354:{\displaystyle f}
251:precedence effect
234:, intensity, and
184:precedence effect
180:cross-correlation
75:
74:
21:acoustic location
3314:
3262:
3261:
3250:
3249:
3227:Mechanoreception
3222:Electroreception
3135:Masakazu Konishi
3100:Jörg-Peter Ewert
2955:
2948:
2941:
2932:
2931:
2862:
2861:
2843:
2834:
2817:
2816:
2798:
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2791:
2755:
2744:
2736:(9), 2415–2424.
2726:
2715:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2639:10.1038/35070564
2633:(6829): 686–90.
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2616:
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2579:
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2572:
2561:10.1121/1.413830
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2307:
2282:(6): 1255–1259.
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2226:
2220:
2219:
2214:. Archived from
2208:
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2184:
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2165:10.1037/h0054629
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2100:
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2046:
2041:. Archived from
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2014:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1993:
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1881:
1870:10.1037/h0061495
1853:
1761:(1805–1849) and
1757:(1795–1878) and
1733:binocular vision
1281:
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141:into the brain.
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3192:Vision in toads
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3095:Erich von Holst
3090:Karl von Frisch
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2846:Acoustics Today
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2117:10.2307/1418275
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2017:
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1832:Psychoacoustics
1812:Binaural fusion
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1610:
1604:
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1452:Franssen effect
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1312:auditory system
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161:. According to
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135:spiral ganglion
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89:auditory system
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43:This article's
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3212:Vocal learning
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3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3085:Donald Kennedy
3082:
3080:Donald Griffin
3077:
3072:
3070:Niko Tinbergen
3067:
3062:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3028:Hebbian theory
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2983:
2978:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2958:
2957:
2950:
2943:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2910:Sound and Room
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2870:
2869:External links
2867:
2864:
2863:
2818:
2811:
2793:
2745:
2716:
2703:
2660:
2617:
2574:
2547:(6): 3059–70.
2531:
2469:
2455:
2398:
2370:
2357:
2338:(4): 270–274.
2322:
2309:
2262:
2241:(2): 182–186.
2221:
2218:on 2013-09-13.
2203:
2194:
2185:
2170:
2159:(4): 339–368.
2138:
2111:(3): 315–336.
2092:
2077:
2066:
2048:
2045:on 2010-04-10.
2029:
2015:
2006:
1994:
1980:
1960:
1951:
1892:
1883:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1759:August Seebeck
1701:
1698:
1628:
1625:
1612:Most owls are
1606:Main article:
1603:
1600:
1580:model organism
1575:Ormia ochracea
1569:
1566:
1560:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1531:
1528:
1514:
1511:
1497:
1494:
1484:
1481:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1394:critical bands
1389:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1381:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1344:
1341:
1291:
1288:
1271:
1251:
1231:
1211:
1191:
1169:
1165:
1142:
1138:
1115:
1111:
1088:
1084:
1061:
1057:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
974:
971:
966:
962:
958:
955:
952:
949:
946:
943:
940:
937:
934:
931:
928:
925:
920:
916:
912:
907:
903:
883:
880:
877:
874:
871:
866:
862:
857:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
818:
814:
810:
807:
804:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
786:
783:
780:
777:
772:
768:
764:
759:
755:
716:
713:
696:
695:
692:
685:
674:
671:
668:
665:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
603:
583:
568:
554:
544:
541:
533:
531:
528:
525:
522:
519:
514:
511:
506:
503:
500:
499:
491:
488:
480:
478:
475:
472:
469:
466:
461:
458:
453:
450:
447:
446:
444:
439:
436:
433:
430:
410:
390:
370:
350:
339:
311:
304:
303:
302:
294:
287:
286:
285:
284:
283:
258:
255:
202:
199:
146:
143:
139:cochlear nerve
127:organ of Corti
97:
94:
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3319:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3292:Neuroethology
3290:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3267:
3266:
3257:
3255:
3254:
3245:
3244:
3241:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3147:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3075:Konrad Lorenz
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3008:NMDA receptor
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2962:Neuroethology
2956:
2951:
2949:
2944:
2942:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2927:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2840:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2814:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2772:10.1068/p5327
2769:
2766:(6): 645–68.
2765:
2761:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2713:
2707:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:(4): 417–29.
2675:
2671:
2664:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2621:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2578:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2473:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2402:
2388:
2381:
2374:
2367:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2319:
2313:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2207:
2198:
2189:
2181:
2174:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2099:
2097:
2089:
2086:
2081:
2074:
2069:
2067:9780471741091
2063:
2059:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2010:
2001:
1999:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1887:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1770:sound signals
1766:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1742:
1741:Lord Rayleigh
1738:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1697:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1624:
1622:
1621:birds of prey
1619:
1615:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1592:neural coding
1589:
1585:
1581:
1578:has become a
1577:
1576:
1565:
1556:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1537:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1493:
1490:
1476:
1472:
1470:
1469:stereo system
1455:
1453:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1398:hearing range
1395:
1382:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1347:
1340:
1338:
1335:In the 1960s
1333:
1330:
1324:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1283:
1269:
1249:
1229:
1209:
1189:
1167:
1163:
1140:
1136:
1113:
1109:
1086:
1082:
1059:
1055:
1045:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1012:
1008:
1003:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
972:
964:
960:
956:
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:
929:
926:
918:
914:
910:
905:
901:
878:
875:
872:
864:
860:
855:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
824:
816:
812:
808:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
787:
784:
781:
778:
770:
766:
762:
757:
753:
744:
742:
733:
729:
721:
712:
710:
704:
701:
693:
690:
686:
672:
669:
666:
663:
658:
650:
646:
642:
636:
633:
630:
627:
624:
621:
601:
581:
573:
569:
542:
539:
529:
526:
523:
520:
517:
512:
509:
504:
501:
489:
486:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
459:
456:
451:
448:
442:
437:
434:
431:
428:
408:
388:
368:
348:
340:
337:
333:
329:
326:
325:
324:
314:
308:
297:
291:
280:Duplex theory
278:
274:
270:
268:
264:
257:Duplex theory
254:
252:
248:
242:
239:
237:
233:
228:
225:
223:
219:
214:
210:
208:
198:
196:
191:
187:
185:
181:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
117:and into the
116:
112:
108:
104:
93:
90:
85:
83:
79:
69:
59:
53:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
31:
26:
22:
3263:
3251:
3232:Lateral line
3182:Waggle dance
3120:Eric Knudsen
3037:
2985:
2852:(3): 16–27.
2849:
2845:
2802:
2796:
2763:
2759:
2733:
2729:
2711:
2706:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2630:
2626:
2620:
2590:(1): 29–44.
2587:
2583:
2577:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2524:12 September
2522:. Retrieved
2486:
2482:
2472:
2415:
2411:
2401:
2390:. Retrieved
2386:
2373:
2365:
2360:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2317:
2312:
2279:
2275:
2265:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2216:the original
2206:
2197:
2188:
2179:
2173:
2156:
2152:
2108:
2104:
2087:
2080:
2071:
2057:
2051:
2043:the original
2032:
2009:
1954:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1886:
1864:(1): 35–39.
1861:
1857:
1851:
1767:
1751:tuning forks
1745:
1726:
1723:
1715:psychologist
1703:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1669:echolocation
1662:
1657:echolocation
1650:
1646:
1645:
1640:echolocation
1630:
1611:
1596:arrival time
1573:
1571:
1562:
1559:Head tilting
1553:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1520:active sonar
1516:
1499:
1486:
1466:
1448:
1444:
1429:
1410:
1391:
1356:
1348:
1346:
1334:
1329:Hans Wallach
1325:
1293:
1284:
1046:
745:
738:
726:
709:group delays
705:
697:
689:phase delays
572:head shadows
547: 4000Hz
494:4000Hz
336:group delays
332:Phase delays
321:
271:
260:
243:
240:
229:
226:
215:
211:
204:
192:
188:
148:
99:
86:
77:
76:
63:
47:
45:lead section
3156:Patch clamp
3125:Eric Kandel
3105:Franz Huber
2976:Feedforward
1786:stethoscope
1778:stethophone
1711:philosopher
1707:Carl Stumpf
1636:odontocetes
1634:(and other
1618:crepuscular
247:Haas effect
167:delay lines
151:vertebrates
115:oval window
3281:Categories
3130:Nobuo Suga
3045:in insects
2760:Perception
2392:2023-11-30
2037:Ian Pitt.
1843:References
1688:amino acid
1680:amino acid
1638:) rely on
1294:The human
1290:Other cues
700:wavelength
123:hair cells
111:middle ear
66:April 2023
3287:Acoustics
2714:, 151-159
2519:252223827
2511:1558-1748
2432:0270-6474
1928:1664-1078
1614:nocturnal
1432:reflected
1304:ear canal
1296:outer ear
1270:α
1250:ω
1210:φ
1190:θ
1027:ω
997:α
991:ω
985:φ
979:θ
951:α
945:ω
939:φ
933:θ
879:ω
849:α
843:ω
837:φ
831:θ
803:α
797:ω
791:φ
785:θ
673:θ
670:
664:×
602:θ
527:θ
524:
518:×
505:×
490:≤
474:θ
471:
465:×
452:×
369:θ
159:brainstem
50:summarize
3253:Category
2993:Instinct
2969:Concepts
2788:43674057
2780:16042189
2690:16380842
2647:11287954
2612:21452506
2366:Newsweek
2180:Newsweek
2133:18134356
1946:39049946
1937:11267622
1878:18904764
1796:See also
1719:stimulus
1632:Dolphins
1627:Dolphins
1442:(DNLL).
1425:loudness
1378:parallax
536:if
483:if
236:spectral
163:Jeffress
129:, which
107:ear drum
3297:Hearing
3265:Commons
3170:Systems
3149:Methods
2698:5881898
2655:4370356
2604:8965258
2569:8550933
2549:Bibcode
2491:Bibcode
2450:8929445
2441:6578946
2340:Bibcode
2304:5659493
2284:Bibcode
2257:1549436
2125:1418275
1700:History
1693:Prestin
1665:Prestin
1653:Prestin
1513:Animals
1404:or 100
1337:Batteau
171:neurons
157:of the
131:synapse
125:in the
119:cochlea
3053:People
2987:Umwelt
2809:
2786:
2778:
2696:
2688:
2653:
2645:
2627:Nature
2610:
2602:
2567:
2517:
2509:
2448:
2438:
2430:
2302:
2255:
2131:
2123:
2064:
1944:
1934:
1926:
1876:
1522:, see
1489:Qsound
1396:. The
232:timbre
222:pinnae
3302:Sound
2842:(PDF)
2784:S2CID
2694:S2CID
2651:S2CID
2608:S2CID
2515:S2CID
2383:(PDF)
2121:JSTOR
1352:pinna
1300:pinna
207:sound
133:onto
103:pinna
82:sound
2807:ISBN
2776:PMID
2686:PMID
2643:PMID
2600:PMID
2565:PMID
2526:2022
2507:ISSN
2446:PMID
2428:ISSN
2300:PMID
2253:PMID
2129:PMID
2062:ISBN
1942:PMID
1924:ISSN
1874:PMID
1713:and
1402:Bark
1155:and
1074:and
735:HRIR
723:HRTF
651:1000
543:>
175:axon
23:and
2854:doi
2768:doi
2738:doi
2678:doi
2674:192
2635:doi
2631:410
2592:doi
2588:179
2557:doi
2499:doi
2436:PMC
2420:doi
2348:doi
2292:doi
2243:doi
2161:doi
2113:doi
1932:PMC
1914:doi
1866:doi
1780:by
1616:or
1584:ear
1503:5.1
1427:.
1406:Mel
667:sin
659:0.8
634:1.0
521:sin
468:sin
267:ear
149:In
3283::
2848:.
2844:.
2821:^
2782:.
2774:.
2764:34
2762:.
2748:^
2734:31
2732:,
2719:^
2692:.
2684:.
2672:.
2649:.
2641:.
2629:.
2606:.
2598:.
2586:.
2563:.
2555:.
2545:98
2543:.
2513:.
2505:.
2497:.
2487:22
2485:.
2481:.
2458:^
2444:.
2434:.
2426:.
2416:16
2414:.
2410:.
2385:.
2346:.
2336:10
2334:.
2298:.
2290:.
2280:43
2278:.
2274:.
2251:.
2239:51
2237:.
2233:.
2157:27
2155:.
2141:^
2127:.
2119:.
2109:62
2107:.
2095:^
2070:.
2018:^
1997:^
1983:^
1963:^
1940:.
1930:.
1922:.
1912:.
1910:15
1908:.
1904:.
1872:.
1862:41
1860:.
1735:.
1526:.
1454:)
1421:dB
1282:.
224:.
169::
2954:e
2947:t
2940:v
2860:.
2856::
2850:4
2815:.
2790:.
2770::
2740::
2700:.
2680::
2657:.
2637::
2614:.
2594::
2571:.
2559::
2551::
2528:.
2501::
2493::
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