607:. The stability of long-term memory can persist for many years; nevertheless, synapses, the neurological basis of memory, are very dynamic. The formation of synaptic connections significantly depends on activity-dependent synaptic plasticity observed in various synaptic pathways. Indeed, the connection between memory formation and alterations in synaptic efficacy enables the reinforcement of neuronal interactions between neurons. As neurotransmitters activate receptors across the synaptic cleft, the connection between the two neurons is strengthened when both neurons are active at the same time, as a result of the receptor's signaling mechanisms. The strength of two connected neural pathways is thought to result in the storage of information, resulting in memory. This process of synaptic strengthening is known as
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diseases, synaptopathy is thought to be the inevitable end-result of an ongoing pathophysiological cascade. These diseases are identified by a gradual loss in cognitive and behavioral function and a steady loss of brain tissue. Moreover, these deteriorations have been mostly linked to the gradual build-up of protein aggregates in neurons, the composition of which may vary based on the pathology; all have the same deleterious effects on neuronal integrity. Furthermore, the high number of mutations linked to synaptic structure and function, as well as dendritic spine alterations in post-mortem tissue, has led to the association between synaptic defects and neurodevelopmental disorders, such as ASD and SCZ, characterized by abnormal behavioral or cognitive phenotypes.
319:. Opening Cl- channels tends to buffer the membrane potential, but this effect is countered when the membrane starts to depolarize, allowing more negatively charged Cl- ions to enter the cell. Consequently, it becomes more difficult to depolarize the membrane and excite the cell when Cl- channels are open. Similar effects result from the opening of K+ channels. The significance of inhibitory neurotransmitters is evident from the effects of toxins that impede their activity. For instance, strychnine binds to glycine receptors, blocking the action of glycine and leading to muscle spasms, convulsions, and death.
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reducing firing. Depending on their release location, the receptors they bind to, and the ionic circumstances they encounter, various transmitters can be either excitatory or inhibitory. For instance, acetylcholine can either excite or inhibit depending on the type of receptors it binds to. For example, glutamate serves as an excitatory neurotransmitter, in contrast to GABA, which acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Additionally, dopamine is a neurotransmitter that exerts dual effects, displaying both excitatory and inhibitory impacts through binding to distinct receptors.
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99:. Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses. Moreover, SAMs coordinate the formation of synapses, with various types working together to achieve the remarkable specificity of synapses. In essence, SAMs function in both excitatory and inhibitory synapses, likely serving as devices for signal transmission.
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molecule binding, causing a momentary alteration in the membrane's permeability. Additionally, transmitter-gated channels are comparatively less sensitive to the membrane potential than voltage-gated channels, which is why they are unable to generate self-amplifying excitement on their own. However, they result in graded variations in membrane potential due to local permeability, influenced by the amount and duration of neurotransmitter released at the synapse.
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an electrical alteration in the postsynaptic cell and rapidly diffuses across the synaptic cleft. Once released, the neurotransmitter is swiftly eliminated, either by being absorbed by the nerve terminal that produced it, taken up by nearby glial cells, or broken down by specific enzymes in the synaptic cleft. Numerous Na+-dependent neurotransmitter carrier proteins recycle the neurotransmitters and enable the cells to maintain rapid rates of release.
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to environmental biochemical processes can lead to synaptic dysfunction. The synapse is the primary unit of information transfer in the nervous system, and correct synaptic contact creation during development is essential for normal brain function. In addition, several mutations have been connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, and that compromised function at different synapse locations is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases.
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that are capable of passing an electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. In fact, gap junctions facilitate the direct flow of electrical current without the need for neurotransmitters, as well as small molecules like calcium.
55:
Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one neuron to another, playing a key role in enabling rapid and direct communication by creating circuits. In addition, a synapse serves as a junction where both the transmission and processing of information occur, making it a vital
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Nevertheless, due to limited access to human tissue at late stages and a lack of thorough assessment of the essential components of human diseases in the available experimental animal models, it has been difficult to fully grasp the origin and role of synaptic dysfunction in neurological disorders.
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Synaptic defects are causally associated with early appearing neurological diseases, including autism spectrum disorders (ASD), schizophrenia (SCZ), and bipolar disorder (BP). On the other hand, in late-onset degenerative pathologies, such as
Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson's (PD), and Huntington's (HD)
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Synapses function as ensembles within particular brain networks to control the amount of neuronal activity, which is essential for memory, learning, and behavior. Consequently, synaptic disruptions might have negative effects. In fact, alterations in cell-intrinsic molecular systems or modifications
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Moreover, Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is best recognized for its roles in the brain, particularly in the neocortex and hippocampal regions because it serves as a ubiquitous mediator of cellular Ca2+ signals. CaMKII is abundant in the nervous system, mainly concentrated
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In nerve terminals, synaptic vesicles are produced quickly to compensate for their rapid depletion during neurotransmitter release. Their biogenesis involves segregating synaptic vesicle membrane proteins from other cellular proteins and packaging those distinct proteins into vesicles of appropriate
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At chemical synapses, transmitter-gated ion channels play a vital role in rapidly converting extracellular chemical impulses into electrical signals. These channels are located in the postsynaptic cell's plasma membrane at the synapse region, and they temporarily open in response to neurotransmitter
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Neurotransmitters are tiny signal molecules stored in membrane-enclosed synaptic vesicles and released via exocytosis. Indeed, a change in electrical potential in the presynaptic cell triggers the release of these molecules. By attaching to transmitter-gated ion channels, the neurotransmitter causes
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Drugs have long been considered crucial targets for transmitter-gated ion channels. The majority of medications utilized to treat schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, and sleeplessness work at chemical synapses, and many of these pharmaceuticals function by binding to transmitter-gated channels. For
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Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. These
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However, while the synaptic gap remained a theoretical construct, and was sometimes reported as a discontinuity between contiguous axonal terminations and dendrites or cell bodies, histological methods using the best light microscopes of the day could not visually resolve their separation which is
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While Ca2+/CaM binding stimulates CaMKII activity, Ca2+-independent autonomous CaMKII activity can also be produced by a number of other processes. CaMKII becomes active by autophosphorylating itself upon Ca2+/calmodulin binding. CaMKII is still active and phosphorylates itself even after Ca2+ is
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to travel directionally (from dendrites to cell body down the axon), and for these signals to then be received and carried on by post-synaptic neurons or received by effector cells. Nerve cells have long been used as models for cellular polarization, and of particular interest are the mechanisms
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process, in which these compounds are synthesized in and released from postsynaptic neuronal elements and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to act on the CB1 receptor for short-term or long-term synaptic depression, that causes a short or long lasting decrease in neurotransmitter release.
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An influx of Na+ driven by excitatory neurotransmitters opens cation channels, depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane toward the action potential threshold. In contrast, inhibitory neurotransmitters cause the postsynaptic membrane to become less depolarized by opening either Cl- or K+ channels,
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Neurotransmitters bind to ionotropic receptors on postsynaptic neurons, either causing their opening or closing. The variations in the quantities of neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron may play a role in regulating the effectiveness of synaptic transmission. In fact, the
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Furthermore, psychoactive drugs could potentially target many other synaptic signalling machinery components. In fact, numerous neurotransmitters are released by Na+-driven carriers and are subsequently removed from the synaptic cleft. By inhibiting such carriers, synaptic transmission is
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strengthened as the action of the transmitter is prolonged. For example, Prozac is an antidepressant medication that works by preventing the absorption of serotonin neurotransmitter. Also, other antidepressants operate by inhibiting the reabsorption of both serotonin and norepinephrine.
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cleaved; as a result, the brain stores long-term memories using this mechanism. Nevertheless, when the CaMKII enzyme is dephosphorylated by a phosphatase enzyme, it becomes inactive, and memories are lost. Hence, CaMKII plays a vital role in both the induction and maintenance of LTP.
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located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical response or a secondary messenger pathway that may either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Chemical synapses can be classified according to the neurotransmitter released:
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in the synapses in the nerve cells. Indeed, CaMKII has been definitively identified as a key regulator of cognitive processes, such as learning, and neural plasticity. The first concrete experimental evidence for the long-assumed function of CaMKII in memory storage was demonstrated
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By altering the release of neurotransmitters, the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors. Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a
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The formation of neural circuits in nervous systems appears to heavily depend on the crucial interactions between chemical and electrical synapses. Thus these interactions govern the generation of synaptic transmission. Synaptic communication is distinct from an
181:
now known to be about 20 nm. It needed the electron microscope in the 1950s to show the finer structure of the synapse with its separate, parallel pre- and postsynaptic membranes and processes, and the cleft between the two.
584:, which conceptualizes Alzheimer's as an imbalance between these processes. As of October 2023, studies concerning this protocol remain small and few results have been obtained within a standardized control framework.
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genes demonstrated behavioral and localization defects, which were rescued by expression of IMPase. This led to the conclusion that IMPase is required for the correct localization of synaptic protein components. The
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instance, some drugs like barbiturates and tranquilizers bind to GABA receptors and enhance the inhibitory effect of GABA neurotransmitter. Thus, reduced concentration of GABA enables the opening of Cl- channels.
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Mixed chemical electrical synapses are synaptic sites that feature both a gap junction and neurotransmitter release. This combination allows a signal to have both a fast component (electrical) and a slow component
339:
In fact, the axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue.
501:. The activation of GPCRs located at the presynaptic terminal, can decrease the probability of neurotransmitter release. This presynaptic depression involves activation of
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Recently, mechanical tension, a phenomenon never thought relevant to synapse function has been found to be required for those on hippocampal neurons to fire.
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means of communication between neurons. Neurons are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so.
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gene were largely reversed. These results suggest that PIP2 signaling establishes polarized localization of synaptic components in living neurons.
714:
2335:"Synaptic dysfunction in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases: an overview of induced pluripotent stem-cell-based disease models"
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refer to synapse-producing and synapse-removing activities within the biochemical signalling chain. This terminology is associated with the
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623:(LTD) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell, which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses.
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Inhibitory synapse: Diminishes the probability of depolarization in postsynaptic neurons and the initiation of an action potential.
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that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process. In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an
1917:"Synaptic polarity depends on phosphatidylinositol signaling regulated by myo-inositol monophosphatase in Caenorhabditis elegans"
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Excitatory synapse: Enhances the probability of depolarization in postsynaptic neurons and the initiation of an action potential.
1970:"Inositol monophosphatase regulates localization of synaptic components and behavior in the mature nervous system of C. elegans"
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Sotelo C, Palay SL (February 1970). "The fine structure of the later vestibular nucleus in the rat. II. Synaptic organization".
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Perea G, Navarrete M, Araque A (August 2009). "Tripartite synapses: astrocytes process and control synaptic information".
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concentration of cytoplasmic calcium is involved in regulating the release of neurotransmitters from presynaptic neurons.
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proposed that neurons are not continuous throughout the body, yet still communicate with each other, an idea known as the
1981:
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is a chemical or electrical synapse that forms when the axon of one neuron synapses onto dendrites of the same neuron.
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Stanley EF (1992). "The calyx-type synapse of the chick ciliary ganglion as a model of fast cholinergic transmission".
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685:. These synapses are small, but their pre- and postsynaptic neurons are well separated (CA3 and CA1, respectively).
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also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating
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Thus, the main advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.
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size. Besides, it entails the endocytosis of synaptic vesicle membrane proteins from the plasma membrane.
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Strausfeld NJ, Bassemir UK (December 1983). "Cobalt-coupled neurons of a giant fibre system in
Diptera".
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For technical reasons, synaptic structure and function have been historically studied at unusually large
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prevents Cl- from entering the cell, even when its concentration is much higher outside than inside. The
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2025:. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 184. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 435–477.
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Joy MS, Nall DL, Emon B, Lee KY, Barishman A, Ahmed M, Rahman S, Selvin PR, Saif MT (2023-12-26).
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Lovinger DM (2008). "Presynaptic
Modulation by Endocannabinoids". In Südhof TC, Starke K (eds.).
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1666:"A serotonergic axon-cilium synapse drives nuclear signaling to alter chromatin accessibility"
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336:, axo-secretory, axo-ciliary, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.
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265:, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special channels called
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elements, and the actual term "synapse" was suggested by the
English classical scholar
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Sheu SH, Upadhyayula S, Dupuy V, Pang S, Deng F, Wan J, et al. (September 2022).
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2003:
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1747:"Synapses without tension fail to fire in an in vitro network of hippocampal neurons"
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The word synapse first appeared in 1897, in the seventh edition of
Michael Foster's
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217:, electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron is converted (via the activation of
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1253:"Some features of the submicroscopic morphology of synapses in frog and earthworm"
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Tansey EM (1997). "Not committing barbarisms: Sherrington and the synapse, 1897".
283:, in which communication between neurons occurs via indirect electric fields. An
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126:. Sherrington struggled to find a good term that emphasized a union between two
75:) cell. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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2163:"Changes of synaptic structures associated with learning, memory and diseases"
1451:"Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses"
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114:. The word "synapse" was introduced in 1897 by the English neurophysiologist
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It is widely accepted that the synapse plays a key role in the formation of
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2196:"Regulation of excitatory synapses and fearful memories by stress hormones"
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2007:
1968:
Tanizawa Y, Kuhara A, Inada H, Kodama E, Mizuno T, Mori I (December 2006).
1954:
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located at the presynaptic terminal, are involved in this modulation by a
431:) are molecules that have been shown to affect neuronal polarity. A gene (
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19:
This article is about synapses of the nervous system. For other uses, see
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Chemical and electrical synapses are two ways of synaptic transmission.
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that mediate different inhibitory mechanisms, including inhibition of
258:, chemical synapses can have complex effects on the postsynaptic cell.
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660:(NMJ), a cholinergic synapse in vertebrates, glutamatergic in insects
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385:
Controlling the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
92:
2311:
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Kimata T, Tanizawa Y, Can Y, Ikeda S, Kuhara A, Mori I (June 2012).
1849:. In Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Fisher SK, Uhler MD (eds.).
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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).
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The chemical transmission involves several sequential processes:
350:
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28:
1719:"Scientists discover new kind of synapse in neurons' tiny hairs"
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497:(GPCRs) is a prominent presynaptic mechanism for regulation of
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for Cl- in many neurons is quite negative, nearly equal to the
45:
839:. Vol. 3 (7th ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 929.
1851:
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underlying the polarized localization of synaptic molecules.
379:
Synthesizing neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron.
172:
162:
152:
142:
2333:
Taoufik E, Kouroupi G, Zygogianni O, Matsas R (2018-09-05).
2061:
445:-inositol monophosphatase (IMPase), an enzyme that produces
2822:
616:
80:
1015:"Engineered adhesion molecules drive synapse organization"
2194:
Krugers HJ, Zhou M, Joëls M, Kindt M (October 11, 2011).
1967:
1738:
1618:"Ion Channels and the Electrical Properties of Membranes"
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1615:
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Ceasing the activity of the released neurotransmitters.
388:
Binding of neurotransmitters to postsynaptic receptors.
1914:
1072:
382:
Loading the neurotransmitters into secretory vesicles.
2193:
1810:
Pitman RM (September 1984). "The versatile synapse".
963:
147:), meaning "conjunction", which in turn derives from
862:
134:, a friend of Foster. The word was derived from the
1910:
1908:
1497:
1396:
1394:
1355:
The
Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
1306:
The
Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
1257:
The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
2062:Desnos C, Clift-o'Grady L, Kelly RB (1995-09-01).
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404:. The distinctive structure of nerve cells allows
52:to another neuron or to the target effector cell.
48:(or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical
16:Structure connecting neurons in the nervous system
1012:
834:
193:An example of chemical synapse by the release of
3218:
1905:
1391:
760:Major elements in chemical synaptic transmission
527:, synthesized in and released from postsynaptic
2300:Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
1870:
1751:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1647:"Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Signalling"
1506:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
1113:
1111:
1013:Hale WD, Südhof TC, Huganir RL (January 2023).
964:Missler M, Südhof TC, Biederer T (April 2012).
663:Ciliary calyx in the ciliary ganglion of chicks
366:
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1444:
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626:
598:
351:Conversion of chemical into electrical signals
2401:
2248:
910:
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548:Effects of drugs on ligand-gated ion channels
417:plays an integral role in synaptic polarity.
1723:Howard Hughes Medical Institute via phys.org
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858:
856:
469:β (PLCβ), an enzyme that cleaves PIP2. When
290:
1559:
1530:
1524:
1439:
1400:
1299:
1251:De Robertis ED, Bennett HS (January 1955).
2408:
2394:
2064:"Biogenesis of synaptic vesicles in vitro"
1844:
970:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
903:
825:
221:) into the release of a chemical called a
83:and the postsynaptic part is located on a
32:Diagram of a chemical synaptic connection.
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1997:
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1276:
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989:
940:
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254:). Because of the complexity of receptor
2023:Pharmacology of Neurotransmitter Release
2020:
1403:Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach
1351:"Synapses in the central nervous system"
736:A typical central nervous system synapse
689:
395:
341:
188:
27:
2297:
1871:Arimura N, Kaibuchi K (December 2005).
1498:Caire MJ, Reddy V, Varacallo M (2023).
917:"The cell biology of synapse formation"
477:gene, the defects caused by the faulty
3219:
1809:
1448:
1138:
914:
748:The synapse and synaptic vesicle cycle
639:
2389:
2161:Yang Y, Lu J, Zuo Y (December 2018).
2121:
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2115:
1873:"Key regulators in neuronal polarity"
1640:
1638:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1348:
400:The function of neurons depends upon
2249:Bayer KU, Schulman H (August 2019).
2200:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
1300:Palay SL, Palade GE (January 1955).
706:
2251:"CaM Kinase: Still Inspiring at 40"
2124:"Long-term potentiation and memory"
1982:Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
1812:The Journal of Experimental Biology
720:Diagram of the synapse. Please see
619:receptor (NMDAR)-dependent LTP and
13:
2415:
2112:
1635:
1602:
1117:
63:of the signal-passing neuron (the
14:
3243:
835:Foster M, Sherrington CS (1897).
587:
71:with the membrane of the target (
1853:(6th ed.). Lippincott-Raven
753:
741:
729:
713:
2572:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell
2326:
2291:
2242:
2187:
2154:
2055:
2014:
1961:
1864:
1838:
1803:
1657:
1624:(4th ed.). Garland Science
1491:
1405:(4th ed.). San Francisco:
1342:
1302:"The fine structure of neurons"
1293:
1244:
517:, and direct inhibition of the
328:include but are not limited to
2180:10.26599/BSA.2018.2018.9050012
1186:
1132:
1063:
1006:
957:
511:voltage-gated calcium channels
219:voltage-gated calcium channels
44:is a structure that permits a
1:
1622:Molecular Biology of the Cell
1157:10.1016/S0361-9230(97)00312-2
1070:Elias LJ, Saucier DM (2006).
819:
783:Cooperative synapse formation
560:
322:
2267:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.05.033
2031:10.1007/978-3-540-74805-2_14
1890:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.11.007
1545:10.1016/0006-8993(70)90459-2
1455:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
609:long-term potentiation (LTP)
367:Release of neurotransmitters
7:
2682:Postganglionic nerve fibers
2068:The Journal of Cell Biology
1937:10.1534/genetics.111.137844
1929:Genetics Society of America
1845:Holz RW, Fisher SK (1999).
1645:Lasica A, Brewer C (2023).
1125:Online Etymology Dictionary
982:10.1101/cshperspect.a005694
921:The Journal of Cell Biology
765:
627:Mechanism of protein kinase
599:Potentiation and depression
531:elements and their cognate
495:G-protein-coupled receptors
346:Different types of synapses
10:
3248:
2677:Preganglionic nerve fibers
2140:10.1152/physrev.00014.2003
1883:(6). Cell Press: 881–884.
1716:University press release:
1683:10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.026
1218:
1210:
1202:
1194:
881:10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.001
591:
473:mutants also had a mutant
465:gene encodes a homolog of
173:
163:
153:
143:
102:
18:
3187:Olfactory receptor neuron
3142:
3083:
3076:
3012:
2942:
2899:
2859:
2851:Neurofibril/neurofilament
2821:
2803:
2796:
2782:
2729:
2701:
2607:
2598:
2545:
2502:
2495:
2432:
2423:
2122:Lynch MA (January 2004).
1407:Pearson/Benjamin Cummings
1076:Pearson/Allyn & Bacon
291:Excitatory and inhibitory
67:neuron) comes into close
2217:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00062
1568:Journal of Neurocytology
1449:Pereda AE (April 2014).
966:"Synaptic cell adhesion"
798:Neurotransmitter vesicle
617:N-methyl-d-aspartic acid
456:. Organisms with mutant
184:
21:Synapse (disambiguation)
1974:Genes & Development
1847:"Synaptic Transmission"
1771:10.1073/pnas.2311995120
1401:Silverthorn DU (2007).
1234:A Greek–English Lexicon
1141:Brain Research Bulletin
1039:10.1073/pnas.2215905120
915:Südhof TC (July 2021).
865:Trends in Neurosciences
724:for interactive version
648:synapses, for example:
535:, including the (GPCR)
413:signaling regulated by
132:Arthur Woollgar Verrall
3134:Neuromuscular junction
2997:III or Aδ or fast pain
2167:Brain Science Advances
2080:10.1083/jcb.130.5.1041
1349:Palay SL (July 1956).
1179:Textbook of Physiology
837:Textbook of Physiology
658:Neuromuscular junction
485:Presynaptic modulation
438:Caenorhabditis elegans
347:
244:neuromuscular junction
206:
124:Textbook of Physiology
108:Santiago Ramón y Cajal
33:
2128:Physiological Reviews
1824:10.1242/jeb.112.1.199
1676:(18): 3390–3407.e18.
1500:"Physiology, Synapse"
1225:Liddell, Henry George
933:10.1083/jcb.202103052
793:Immunological synapse
690:Synapses and Diseases
499:synaptic transmission
396:Synaptic polarization
345:
192:
31:
3152:Meissner's corpuscle
3117:Postsynaptic density
3014:Efferent nerve fiber
3002:IV or C or slow pain
2944:Afferent nerve fiber
2770:Satellite glial cell
1361:(4 Suppl): 193–202.
808:Postsynaptic density
621:long-term depression
541:retrograde signaling
435:) was identified in
238:(often inhibitory),
234:(often excitatory),
3227:Signal transduction
3157:Merkel nerve ending
2351:10.1098/rsob.180138
1990:10.1101/gad.1497806
1763:2023PNAS..12011995J
1757:(52): e2311995120.
1367:10.1083/jcb.2.4.193
1031:2023PNAS..12015905H
679:Schaffer collateral
653:Squid giant synapse
640:Experimental models
582:Alzheimer's disease
256:signal transduction
116:Charles Sherrington
77:molecular machinery
3192:Photoreceptor cell
3162:Pacinian corpuscle
3093:Electrical synapse
3047:Lower motor neuron
3042:Upper motor neuron
2763:Internodal segment
2703:Connective tissues
2673:Autonomic ganglion
2306:(Suppl): S73–S77.
2208:Frontiers Media SA
1580:10.1007/BF01153345
1318:10.1083/jcb.1.1.69
1269:10.1083/jcb.1.1.47
1025:(3): e2215905120.
515:potassium channels
454:inositol phosphate
348:
313:reversal potential
309:membrane potential
263:electrical synapse
207:
59:At a synapse, the
34:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3177:Free nerve ending
3144:Sensory receptors
3072:
3071:
2987:Ib or Golgi or Aα
2895:
2894:
2778:
2777:
2655:Ramus communicans
2594:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2460:Commissural fiber
2455:Association fiber
2450:Projection fibers
1651:TeachMePhysiology
1416:978-0-8053-6851-2
927:(7): e202103052.
846:978-1-4325-1085-5
707:Additional images
578:Bredesen Protocol
451:dephosphorylating
421:Phosphoinositides
406:action potentials
317:resting potential
281:ephaptic coupling
242:(e.g. vertebrate
195:neurotransmitters
167:) "together" and
97:neurotransmission
3239:
3107:Synaptic vesicle
3102:Chemical synapse
3081:
3080:
2801:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2605:
2604:
2500:
2499:
2430:
2429:
2410:
2403:
2396:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2380:
2370:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2278:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2229:
2219:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2119:
2110:
2109:
2099:
2074:(5): 1041–1049.
2059:
2053:
2052:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2001:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1948:
1912:
1903:
1902:
1892:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1790:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1713:
1695:
1685:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1629:
1613:
1600:
1599:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1478:
1446:
1437:
1436:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1378:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1329:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1280:
1248:
1242:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1212:
1205:
1204:
1197:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1115:
1106:
1105:
1085:978-0-20534361-4
1067:
1061:
1060:
1050:
1010:
1004:
1003:
993:
961:
955:
954:
944:
912:
901:
900:
860:
851:
850:
832:
757:
745:
733:
717:
681:synapses in the
669:in the brainstem
525:Endocannabinoids
513:, activation of
491:neurotransmitter
334:dendro-dendritic
223:neurotransmitter
215:chemical synapse
176:
175:
166:
165:
156:
155:
146:
145:
3247:
3246:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3217:
3216:
3215:
3206:
3138:
3068:
3017:
3008:
2992:II or Aβ and Aγ
2947:
2938:
2891:
2881:Apical dendrite
2876:Dendritic spine
2855:
2817:
2787:
2774:
2758:Node of Ranvier
2753:Myelin incisure
2725:
2697:
2586:
2577:Oligodendrocyte
2560:Ependymal cells
2541:
2491:
2419:
2414:
2384:
2331:
2327:
2312:10.1139/y92-246
2296:
2292:
2247:
2243:
2192:
2188:
2159:
2155:
2120:
2113:
2060:
2056:
2041:
2019:
2015:
1966:
1962:
1913:
1906:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1854:
1843:
1839:
1808:
1804:
1743:
1739:
1727:
1725:
1717:
1662:
1658:
1643:
1636:
1627:
1625:
1614:
1603:
1564:
1560:
1529:
1525:
1516:
1514:
1496:
1492:
1467:10.1038/nrn3708
1447:
1440:
1417:
1409:. p. 271.
1399:
1392:
1347:
1343:
1298:
1294:
1249:
1245:
1239:Perseus Project
1191:
1187:
1137:
1133:
1116:
1109:
1086:
1068:
1064:
1011:
1007:
962:
958:
913:
904:
861:
854:
847:
833:
826:
822:
817:
768:
761:
758:
749:
746:
737:
734:
725:
718:
709:
692:
642:
629:
601:
596:
590:
563:
550:
487:
467:phospholipase C
398:
369:
353:
325:
293:
187:
177:) "to fasten".
112:neuron doctrine
105:
61:plasma membrane
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3245:
3235:
3234:
3232:Neural synapse
3229:
3212:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3204:
3202:Taste receptor
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3172:Muscle spindle
3169:
3167:Ruffini ending
3164:
3159:
3154:
3148:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3129:Ribbon synapse
3126:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3099:
3089:
3087:
3078:
3074:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3023:
3021:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2953:
2951:
2949:Sensory neuron
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2924:
2919:
2917:Pseudounipolar
2914:
2909:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2885:Basal dendrite
2878:
2873:
2865:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2836:Axon terminals
2833:
2827:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2809:
2807:
2798:
2791:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2735:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2688:Nerve fascicle
2685:
2679:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2611:
2609:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2557:
2551:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2508:
2506:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2417:Nervous tissue
2413:
2412:
2405:
2398:
2390:
2383:
2382:
2325:
2290:
2261:(3): 380–394.
2241:
2186:
2153:
2111:
2054:
2039:
2013:
1960:
1904:
1863:
1837:
1818:(1): 199–224.
1802:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1656:
1634:
1601:
1558:
1533:Brain Research
1523:
1490:
1461:(4): 250–263.
1438:
1415:
1390:
1341:
1292:
1243:
1185:
1131:
1107:
1084:
1062:
1005:
976:(4): a005694.
956:
902:
852:
845:
823:
821:
818:
816:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
769:
767:
764:
763:
762:
759:
752:
750:
747:
740:
738:
735:
728:
726:
719:
712:
708:
705:
691:
688:
687:
686:
676:
673:Ribbon synapse
670:
664:
661:
655:
641:
638:
628:
625:
600:
597:
594:Hebbian theory
592:Main article:
589:
588:Role in memory
586:
574:synaptoclastic
570:Synaptoblastic
562:
559:
549:
546:
519:vesicle fusion
489:Modulation of
486:
483:
397:
394:
393:
392:
389:
386:
383:
380:
368:
365:
352:
349:
324:
321:
301:
300:
297:
292:
289:
276:
275:
271:
259:
252:norepinephrine
225:that binds to
186:
183:
120:Michael Foster
104:
101:
38:nervous system
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3244:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3075:
3063:
3062:γ motorneuron
3060:
3058:
3057:β motorneuron
3055:
3053:
3052:α motorneuron
3050:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2771:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2406:
2404:
2399:
2397:
2392:
2391:
2388:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:(9): 180138.
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2181:
2176:
2173:(2): 99–117.
2172:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2134:(1): 87–136.
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2116:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2058:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2040:9783540748052
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:: 3296–3310.
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1909:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1714:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1639:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1574:(6): 971–91.
1573:
1569:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1539:(1): 93–115.
1538:
1534:
1527:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1443:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1395:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1323:
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3097:Gap junction
3084:
3019:Motor neuron
2813:Axon hillock
2789:nerve fibers
2743:Schwann cell
2653:
2636:
2614:
2532:Medium spiny
2445:White matter
2433:Tissue Types
2342:
2339:Open Biology
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2328:
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3112:Active zone
3077:Termination
2927:Interneuron
2831:Telodendron
2739:Myelination
2721:Endoneurium
2716:Perineurium
2537:Interneuron
2527:Von Economo
2475:Decussation
2470:Nerve tract
2440:Grey matter
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773:Active zone
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493:release by
274:(chemical).
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240:cholinergic
65:presynaptic
3221:Categories
3182:Nociceptor
2922:Multipolar
2871:Nissl body
2748:Neurilemma
2711:Epineurium
2496:Cell Types
1857:2024-01-04
1728:19 October
1628:2024-01-20
1517:2024-01-01
1504:StatPearls
1425:2005056517
1118:Harper D.
1094:2005051341
1074:. Boston:
873:Cell Press
820:References
788:Exocytosis
561:Biogenesis
507:G-proteins
330:axo-axonic
323:Interfaces
248:adrenergic
93:Astrocytes
69:apposition
3197:Hair cell
2731:Neuroglia
2693:Funiculus
2582:Microglia
2555:Astrocyte
2512:Pyramidal
2465:Lemniscus
2359:2046-2441
2088:0021-9525
1779:0027-8424
1710:251958800
1203:συνάπτειν
1120:"synapse"
533:receptors
521:process.
236:GABAergic
227:receptors
154:συνάπτειν
149:synaptein
2982:Ia or Aα
2912:Unipolar
2861:Dendrite
2846:Axolemma
2841:Axoplasm
2625:Ganglion
2565:Tanycyte
2517:Purkinje
2504:Neuronal
2487:Meninges
2482:Neuropil
2377:30185603
2285:31394063
2236:22013419
2148:14715912
2049:18064422
2008:17158747
1955:22446320
1921:Genetics
1899:16364893
1797:38113266
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1702:36055200
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1512:30252303
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1433:62742632
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1149:Elsevier
1102:61131869
1057:36638214
1000:22278667
951:34086051
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803:Neurexin
766:See also
529:neuronal
447:inositol
157:), from
139:synapsis
128:separate
85:dendrite
3124:Autapse
3085:Synapse
2932:Renshaw
2907:Bipolar
2784:Neurons
2637:Ventral
2608:General
2522:Granule
2368:6170506
2320:1338300
2276:6688632
2227:3190121
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2097:2120557
1999:1686606
1946:3374314
1832:6150966
1759:Bibcode
1693:9789380
1588:6420522
1553:4313893
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1278:2223594
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1195:σύναψις
1165:9323432
1048:9934208
1027:Bibcode
991:3312681
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285:autapse
246:), and
169:haptein
144:σύναψις
103:History
42:synapse
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2797:Parts
2666:White
2647:Ramus
2630:Ramus
2547:Glial
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1592:S2CID
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