573:) and the level of the middle of the stapes. The eardrum is actually attached to the malleus handle over about a 0.5 cm distance. In addition, the eardrum itself moves in a very chaotic fashion at frequencies >3 kHz. The linear attachment of the eardrum to the malleus actually smooths out this chaotic motion and allows the ear to respond linearly over a wider frequency range than a point attachment. The auditory ossicles can also reduce sound pressure (the inner ear is very sensitive to overstimulation), by uncoupling each other through particular muscles.
131:
660:
275:
569:. There is a steadily increasing body of evidence that shows that the lever arm ratio is actually variable, depending on frequency. Between 0.1 and 1 kHz it is approximately 2, it then rises to around 5 at 2 kHz and then falls off steadily above this frequency. The measurement of this lever arm ratio is also somewhat complicated by the fact that the ratio is generally given in relation to the tip of the malleus (also known as the
22:
565:), with a lever arm factor of 1.3. Since the effective vibratory area of the eardrum is about 14 fold larger than that of the oval window, the sound pressure is concentrated, leading to a pressure gain of at least 18.1. The eardrum is merged to the malleus, which connects to the incus, which in turn connects to the stapes. Vibrations of the stapes footplate introduce pressure waves in the
1154:
1046:
to the side of the head in front of the main gill slits. In fish embryos, the spiracle forms as a pouch in the pharynx, which grows outward and breaches the skin to form an opening; in most tetrapods, this breach is never quite completed, and the final vestige of tissue separating it from the outside
927:
The middle ear is hollow in the tympanic cavity and
Eustachian tube. In a high-altitude environment or on diving into water, there will be a pressure difference between the middle ear and the outside environment. This pressure will pose a risk of bursting or otherwise damaging the tympanum (eardrum)
1062:
which is homologous with the stapes, or "stirrup" of mammals. This is connected indirectly with the eardrum via a mostly cartilaginous extracolumella and medially to the inner-ear spaces via a widened footplate in the fenestra ovalis. The columella is an evolutionary derivative of the bone known as
1107:
independently of the various single-ossicle middle ears of other land vertebrates, all during the
Triassic period of geological history. Functionally, the mammalian middle ear is very similar to the single-ossicle ear of non-mammals, except that it responds to sounds of higher frequency, because
1116:
bone in mammals led to the evolution of an entirely new jaw joint, freeing up the old joint to become part of the ear. For a period of time, both jaw joints existed together, one medially and one laterally. The evolutionary process leading to a three-ossicle middle ear was thus an "accidental"
916:. The collected pressure of sound vibration that strikes the tympanic membrane is therefore concentrated down to this much smaller area of the footplate, increasing the force but reducing the velocity and displacement, and thereby coupling the acoustic energy.
1002:, is a prevalent condition, especially among infants under six months old. This ailment occurs when the middle ear, typically filled with air, becomes infected or obstructed by fluid behind the eardrum. In certain cases, a surgical intervention called
881:
Area Ratio: The area of the tympanic membrane is about 20 times larger than that of the stapes footplate in the cochlea. The forces collected over the eardrum are concentrated over a smaller area, thus increasing the pressure over the oval
994:
infection. Indeed, DNAs belonging to oncogenic HPVs, i.e., HPV16 and HPV18, have been detected in normal middle ear specimens, thereby indicating that the normal middle ear mucosa could potentially be a target tissue for HPV infection.
896:, using the principle of "mechanical advantage" in the form of the "hydraulic principle" and the "lever principle". The vibratory portion of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) is many times the surface area of the footplate of the
1577:
1550:
1121:, not found in other vertebrates. A bulla evolved late in time and independently numerous times in different mammalian clades, and it can be surrounded by membranes, cartilage or bone. The bulla in humans is part of the
671:
of sound traveling in air to acoustic waves traveling in a system of fluids and membranes in the inner ear. This system should not be confused, however, with the propagation of sound as compression waves in liquid.
1604:
642:. Damage to the horizontal branch during ear surgery can lead to paralysis of the face (same side of the face as the ear). The chorda tympani is the branch of the facial nerve that carries taste from the
802:
1255:
1641:
1079:, it is similar to that of reptiles, but in other amphibians, the middle ear cavity is often absent. In these cases, the stapes either is also missing or, in the absence of an eardrum, connects to the
872:
733:
1010:
may be necessary to alleviate the symptoms and complications associated with this condition. The risk of otitis media can be mitigated through various preventive measures, such as receiving
1382:
Malagutti N, Rotondo JC, Cerritelli L, Melchiorri C, De Mattei M, Selvatici R, Oton-Gonzalez L, Stomeo F, Mazzoli M, Borin M, Mores B, Ciorba A, Tognon M, Pelucchi S, Martini F (2020).
1667:
Lieberthal AS, Carroll AE, Chonmaitree T, Ganiats TG, Hoberman A, Jackson MA, Joffe MD, Miller DT, Rosenfeld RM, Sevilla XD, Schwartz RH, Thomas PA, Tunkel DE (March 2013).
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in the skull, although, it is presumed, it still has some ability to transmit vibrations to the inner ear. In many amphibians, there is also a second auditory ossicle, the
1825:
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The middle ear is able to dampen sound conduction substantially when faced with very loud sound, by noise-induced reflex contraction of the middle-ear muscles.
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these are better taken up by the inner ear (which also responds to higher frequencies than those of non-mammals). The malleus, or "hammer", evolved from the
1112:
bone of the lower jaw, and the incus, or "anvil", from the quadrate. In other vertebrates, these bones form the primary jaw joint, but the expansion of the
944:
is to help keep middle ear pressure the same as air pressure. The
Eustachian tubes are normally pinched off at the nose end, to prevent being clogged with
1117:
byproduct of the simultaneous evolution of the new, secondary jaw joint. In many mammals, the middle ear also becomes protected within a cavity, the
1091:
in fishes). This is a flat, plate-like bone, overlying the fenestra ovalis, and connecting it either to the stapes or, via a special muscle, to the
1022:
infants, and avoiding secondhand smoke. Furthermore, the use of analgesics plays a vital role in alleviating the pain caused by acute otitis media.
1818:
1740:
Mao, Fangyuan; Zhang, Chi; Ren, Jicheng; Wang, Tao; Wang, Guofu; Zhang, Fakui; Rich, Thomas; Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Meng, Jin (2024-04-03).
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Ordinarily, when sound waves in air strike liquid, most of the energy is reflected off the surface of the liquid. The middle ear allows the
222:
900:(the third ossicular bone which attaches to the oval window); furthermore, the shape of the articulated ossicular chain is a complex
622:. These muscles contract in response to loud sounds, thereby reducing the transmission of sound to the inner ear. This is called the
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The middle ear is well protected from most minor external injuries by its internal location, but is vulnerable to pressure injury (
547:
1211:
Koike, Takuji; Wada, Hiroshi; Kobayashi, Toshimitsu (2002). "Modeling of the human middle ear using the finite-element method".
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The middle ear's impedance matching mechanism increases the efficiency of sound transmission. Two processes are involved:
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460:(malleus, incus, and stapes), which transfer the vibrations of the eardrum into waves in the fluid and membranes of the
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world becomes the eardrum. The inner part of the spiracle, still connected to the pharynx, forms the eustachian tube.
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Together, they amplify pressure by 26 times, or about 30 dB. The actual value is around 20 dB across 200 to 10000 Hz.
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of the outer ear and middle ear gives humans a peak sensitivity to frequencies between 1 kHz and 3 kHz.
476:(also known as the Eustachian tube or the pharyngotympanic tube) joins the tympanic cavity with the nasal cavity (
65:
43:
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1964:
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is attached to the upper end of the medial surface of the handle of malleus and is under the control of the
526:. The ossicles were given their Latin names for their distinctive shapes; they are also referred to as the
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that also pass through the middle ear space. These are the horizontal portion of the facial nerve and the
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2014:
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Qureishi, Ali; Lee, Yan; Belfield, Katherine; Birchall, John P; Daniel, Matija (2014-01-10).
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602:, the smallest skeletal muscle in the body, connects to the stapes and is controlled by the
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Portion of the ear internal to the eardrum, and external to the oval window of the inner ear
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The primary function of the middle ear is to efficiently transfer acoustic energy from
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1307:"What middle ear parameters tell about impedance matching and high frequency hearing"
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show intermediary steps of middle ear evolution. A new morganucodontan-like species,
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804:) is approximately equal to that of sea water. Because of this high impedance, only
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The ossicles are classically supposed to mechanically convert the vibrations of the
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the hyomandibula in fish ancestors, a bone that supported the skull and braincase.
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of incident energy could be directly transmitted from the air to cochlear fluids.
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or chewing helps relieve the pressure felt in the ears when on board an aircraft.
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The middle ear efficiency peaks at a frequency of around 1 kHz. The combined
538:, respectively. The ossicles directly couple sound energy from the eardrum to the
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1435:"Influenza vaccines for preventing acute otitis media in infants and children"
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1742:"Fossils document evolutionary changes of jaw joint to mammalian middle ear"
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obstruction may result in fluid build up in the middle ear, which causes a
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Recent findings indicate that the middle ear mucosa could be subjected to
659:
2154:
1944:
1860:
1384:"High Human Papillomavirus DNA loads in Inflammatory Middle Ear Diseases"
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948:, but they may be opened by lowering and protruding the jaw; this is why
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893:
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477:
446:
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1177: – Hole in the temporal bone of the skull carrying the facial nerve
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1058:, and early fossil tetrapods, there is a single auditory ossicle, the
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480:), allowing pressure to equalize between the middle ear and throat.
21:
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1996:
1719:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 480–488.
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The movement of the ossicles may be stiffened by two muscles. The
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2004:
1902:
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Promenade Around the
Cochlea - Middle ear at iurc.montp.inserm.fr
1579:
Beyond
Toddlerdom: Keeping five- to twelve-year-olds on the rails
1552:
Ear
Infection Essentials: Understanding, Treating, and Preventing
1433:
Norhayati, Mohd N; Ho, Jacqueline J; Azman, Mohd Y (2017-10-17).
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Gray's
Anatomy E-Book: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice
2043:
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Paparella, Michael M.; Costa, Sady
Saleaiman da; Fagan, Johan.
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if it is not relieved. If middle ear pressure remains low, the
897:
522:
348:
797:{\displaystyle Z_{2}=1.5\times 10^{6}\;\mathrm {Pa\cdot s/m} }
282:
This article is one of a series documenting the anatomy of the
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The middle ear couples sound from air to the fluid via the
464:. The hollow space of the middle ear is also known as the
1620:
1153:
663:
The middle ear matches mechanical impedance, like a lever.
548:
evolved from lower and upper jaw bones present in reptiles
438:
287:
1305:
Hemilä, Simo; Nummela, Sirpa; Reuter, Tom (1995-05-01).
912:, and the short arm being the lenticular process of the
1183: – Sensory perception of sound by living organisms
885:
Lever: The malleus is 1.3 times longer than the incus.
504:
The middle ear contains three tiny bones known as the
1075:
varies considerably and is often degenerate. In most
810:
741:
685:
1669:"The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media"
867:{\displaystyle {\frac {2Z_{1}}{Z_{1}+Z_{2}}}=0.05\%}
542:
of the cochlea. While the stapes is present in all
1715:Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977).
1492:"Update on otitis media – prevention and treatment"
1304:
46:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1609:. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. p. 108.
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936:into the middle ear. One of the functions of the
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557:into amplified pressure waves in the fluid of the
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728:{\displaystyle Z_{1}=400\;\mathrm {Pa\cdot s/m} }
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1639:
1432:
1213:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
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1640:Gradwell, David; Rainford, David (2016-01-20).
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634:Of surgical importance are two branches of the
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998:Inflammation of the middle ear, also known as
1819:
904:, the long arm being the long process of the
414:
1095:. It is not found in any other vertebrates.
1439:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
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1812:
1071:The structure of the middle ear in living
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735:, while the impedance of cochlear fluids (
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487:in air to fluid–membrane waves within the
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135:A diagram of the anatomy of the human ear:
1684:
1660:
1643:Ernsting's Aviation and Space Medicine 5E
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106:Learn how and when to remove this message
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456:The mammalian middle ear contains three
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964:is an inflammation of the middle ear.
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1708:
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908:, the fulcrum being the body of the
44:adding citations to reliable sources
15:
1355:Biomedical Engineering Fundamentals
1282:"Journey into the world of hearing"
940:that connect the middle ear to the
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1105:evolved a three-ossicle middle-ear
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470:tympanic part of the temporal bone
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1582:. Ebury Publishing. p. 232.
1576:Green, Christopher (2011-08-31).
1549:Anderson, Ethan D. (2023-11-27).
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646:half (same side) of the tongue.
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1254:Standring, Susan (2015-08-07).
1128:Recently found fossils such as
1042:of fishes, an opening from the
932:(tympanic membrane) may become
31:needs additional citations for
2222:Reissner's/vestibular membrane
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1451:10.1002/14651858.CD010089.pub3
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1965:promontory of tympanic cavity
1496:Infection and Drug Resistance
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1103:Mammals are unique in having
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1323:10.1016/0378-5955(95)00031-X
1260:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
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1955:secondary tympanic membrane
1352:Joseph D. Bronzino (2006).
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1960:prominence of facial canal
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1980:aditus to mastoid antrum
1401:10.3390/pathogens9030224
546:, the malleus and incus
1026:Diversity and evolution
958:conductive hearing loss
449:of the cochlea (of the
1686:10.1542/peds.2012-3488
1168:anatomical terminology
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612:medial pterygoid nerve
437:is the portion of the
254:Anatomical terminology
182:Glossopharyngeal nerve
1971:Posterior structures
1138:, shows parts of the
974:Middle ear barotrauma
972:Further information:
923:Clinical significance
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608:tensor tympani muscle
2212:Cochlear duct /
2176:Perilymphatic space
2076:Auditory tube /
992:human papillomavirus
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445:, and distal to the
40:improve this article
2478:Otorhinolaryngology
2394:Semicircular canals
2367:Vestibular aqueduct
1758:2024Natur.628..576M
1717:The Vertebrate Body
1225:2002ASAJ..111.1306K
1135:Dianoconodon youngi
393:Semicircular canals
2372:endolymphatic duct
2360:Otolithic membrane
2273:Tectorial membrane
2232:Reticular membrane
2037:posterior ligament
1985:pyramidal eminence
1941:Medial structures
1509:10.2147/IDR.S39637
1166:This article uses
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2020:anterior ligament
2010:superior ligament
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1881:intertragic notch
1752:(8008): 576–581.
1726:978-0-03-910284-5
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1589:978-1-4464-8942-0
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1146:Additional images
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56:
52:
51:Find sources:
45:
41:
35:
34:
29:This article
27:
23:
18:
17:
2277:
1950:round window
1924:
1749:
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1624:. Retrieved
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1317:(1): 31–44.
1314:
1310:
1300:
1289:. Retrieved
1285:
1276:
1256:
1249:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1187:External ear
1175:Facial canal
1133:
1130:Morganucodon
1127:
1102:
1084:
1070:
1049:
1029:
1012:pneumococcal
1000:otitis media
997:
989:
977:
962:Otitis media
926:
918:
891:
888:
876:
674:
666:
636:facial nerve
633:
604:facial nerve
597:
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432:
321:
223:A15.3.02.001
198:
151:
102:
96:January 2023
93:
83:
76:
69:
62:
55:"Middle ear"
50:
38:Please help
33:verification
30:
2261:stereocilia
2214:scala media
2155:Helicotrema
1945:oval window
1834:Anatomy of
1004:myringotomy
942:nasopharynx
894:oval window
644:ipsilateral
540:oval window
478:nasopharynx
447:oval window
199:auris media
188:Identifiers
2488:Middle ear
2452:Categories
2412:Horizontal
2350:Kinocilium
2115:membranous
2108:Labyrinths
1925:Middle ear
1876:antitragus
1673:Pediatrics
1626:2024-07-15
1394:(3): 224.
1291:2024-06-15
1198:References
1073:amphibians
1067:Amphibians
986:Infections
980:barotrauma
435:middle ear
371:Vestibules
322:Middle ear
152:middle ear
124:Middle ear
66:newspapers
2473:Audiology
2407:Posterior
2318:Vestibule
2266:tip links
2239:Endolymph
2200:Boettcher
2180:Perilymph
2100:Inner ear
2059:stapedius
1893:Ear canal
1866:antihelix
1848:Outer ear
1774:1476-4687
1518:1178-6973
1502:: 15–24.
1459:1469-493X
1388:Pathogens
1331:0378-5955
1192:Inner ear
1110:articular
1085:operculum
1060:columella
1038:with the
1036:analogous
1032:tetrapods
934:retracted
862:%
780:⋅
759:×
711:⋅
567:inner ear
563:inner ear
544:tetrapods
495:Structure
462:inner ear
451:inner ear
364:Inner ear
309:Ear canal
297:Outer ear
288:Human ear
162:inner ear
142:outer ear
2422:Ampullae
2402:Superior
2288:internus
2283:externus
2195:Claudius
2165:Modiolus
2055:Muscles
1997:Ossicles
1782:38570677
1695:23439909
1536:24453496
1477:29039160
1420:32197385
1241:11931308
1162:See also
1140:mandible
1052:reptiles
1040:spiracle
968:Injuries
650:Function
506:ossicles
500:Ossicles
458:ossicles
334:Ossicles
2468:Otology
2355:Otolith
2338:Saccule
2326:Utricle
2145:Cochlea
2138:General
2005:Malleus
1903:Eardrum
1886:earlobe
1856:Auricle
1840:balance
1836:hearing
1754:Bibcode
1527:3894142
1468:6485791
1411:7157545
1339:7559177
1221:Bibcode
1181:Hearing
1114:dentary
1099:Mammals
1093:scapula
1044:pharynx
950:yawning
930:eardrum
906:malleus
882:window.
618:of the
584:Muscles
559:cochlea
555:eardrum
536:stirrup
511:malleus
489:cochlea
443:eardrum
388:Cochlea
381:Saccule
376:Utricle
339:Malleus
304:Auricle
211:D004432
171:Details
80:scholar
2343:macula
2331:macula
2191:Cells
2044:Stapes
1871:tragus
1780:
1772:
1746:Nature
1723:
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898:stapes
630:Nerves
606:; the
534:, and
528:hammer
523:stapes
520:, and
472:. The
349:Stapes
158:
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2027:Incus
1861:helix
1056:birds
946:mucus
914:incus
910:incus
902:lever
532:anvil
517:incus
453:).
344:Incus
258:[
247:56513
194:Latin
177:Nerve
87:JSTOR
73:books
2120:bony
1908:umbo
1838:and
1778:PMID
1770:ISSN
1721:ISBN
1691:PMID
1648:ISBN
1584:ISBN
1557:ISBN
1532:PMID
1514:ISSN
1473:PMID
1455:ISSN
1443:2017
1416:PMID
1360:ISBN
1335:PMID
1327:ISSN
1262:ISBN
1237:PMID
1014:and
1006:and
859:0.05
675:The
592:and
571:umbo
561:(or
433:The
235:6877
218:TA98
206:MeSH
59:news
2463:Ear
1762:doi
1750:628
1681:doi
1677:131
1522:PMC
1504:doi
1463:PMC
1447:doi
1406:PMC
1396:doi
1319:doi
1229:doi
1217:111
1050:In
1034:is
982:).
756:1.5
700:400
439:ear
242:FMA
230:TA2
42:by
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
