Infection - Knowledge

2399:. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the 2745: 1491:. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus. 2825: 1192: 1723: 1515:(PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, 2210:) of those affected. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use. Infectious diseases are commonly transmitted from person to person through direct contact. The types of contact are through person to person and droplet spread. Indirect contact such as airborne transmission, contaminated objects, food and drinking water, animal person contact, animal reservoirs, insect bites, and environmental reservoirs are another way infectious diseases are transmitted. 1714:. An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally, the expression of symptoms is often atypical, making a clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A rapid, sensitive, specific, and untargeted test for all known human pathogens that detects the presence of the organism's DNA rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable. 1504: 2174:, or the study and analysis of who, why and where disease occurs, and what determines whether various populations have a disease, is another important tool used to understand infectious disease. Epidemiologists may determine differences among groups within a population, such as whether certain age groups have a greater or lesser rate of infection; whether groups living in different neighborhoods are more likely to be infected; and by other factors, such as gender and race. Researchers also may assess whether a disease 622: 3945: 1772:. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large. 3344: 12036: 716: 12066: 1231:), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of 3930:

explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygyny may also be due to a lower male: female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.

598: 12076: 1557: 2450: 12056: 2301: 12046: 13988: 13976: 2206:). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called 860: 613:. The chain of events involves several steps – which include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place. 2107:. The second is an iatrogenic infection. This type of infection is one that is transmitted from a health care worker to a patient. A nosocomial infection is also one that occurs in a health care setting. Nosocomial infections are those that are acquired during a hospital stay. Lastly, a community-acquired infection is one in which the infection is acquired from a whole community. 55: 791:'s "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88). 3921:

transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher

787:. Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the 3965:, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur 2388:) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an 1941:(the severity of the disease they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect humans, however, many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from the environment or that infect non-human hosts. 654:, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids. 2699:

show that people dramatically differ in their susceptibility to infection. This may be because of general health, age, or their immune status, e.g. when they have been infected previously. However, it also has become clear that there are genetic factor which determine susceptibility to infection. For

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and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depend upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However, a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself

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Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not

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The classic symptoms of a bacterial infection are localized redness, heat, swelling and pain. One of the hallmarks of a bacterial infection is local pain, pain that is in a specific part of the body. For example, if a cut occurs and is infected with bacteria, pain occurs at the site of the infection.

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virus, for example, incapacitate those infected extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, those affected by this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the

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methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This

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Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those with compromised or weakened immune systems have an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have

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theorized: "Leprosy, fever, consumption, diseases of the eye, and other infectious diseases spread from one person to another by sexual union, physical contact, eating together, sleeping together, sitting together, and the use of same clothes, garlands and pastes." This book has been dated to about

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for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s,

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sequencing-based diagnostic tests are currently being developed for clinical use and show promise as a sensitive, specific, and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test is similar to current PCR tests; however, an untargeted whole genome amplification is used

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Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost-effective automated

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and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by

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Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some

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The organism that is the target of an infecting action of a specific infectious agent is called the host. The host harbouring an agent that is in a mature or sexually active stage phase is called the definitive host. The intermediate host comes in contact during the larvae stage. A host can be

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when given as prevention rather as treatment of infection. However, long term use of antibiotics leads to resistance of bacteria. While humans do not become immune to antibiotics, the bacteria does. Thus, avoiding using antibiotics longer than necessary helps preventing bacteria from forming

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Several studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen

3556:. Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended "passengers", that can spread diseases to faraway destinations. While with international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a disease can carry it to distant lands, or home to their families, before their first symptoms appear. 3929:

which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative

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are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other

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exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were affected by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another

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is the concept that healthcare providers should treat an infection with an antimicrobial that specifically works well for the target pathogen for the shortest amount of time and to only treat when there is a known or highly suspected pathogen that will respond to the medication.

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is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.

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Given the wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminthic pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illnesses, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of

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viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.

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The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called

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An English translation of the Sushruta samhita, based on original Sanskrit text. Edited and published by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna. With a full and comprehensive introd., translation of different readings, notes, comparative views, index, glossary and

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Many infectious organisms are identified without culture and microscopy. This is especially true for viruses, which cannot grow in culture. For some suspected pathogens, doctors may conduct tests that examine a patient's blood or other body fluids for

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attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as

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anything living and can attain to asexual and sexual reproduction. The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1

691:. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most 554:

In general, viral infections are systemic. This means they involve many different parts of the body or more than one body system at the same time; i.e. a runny nose, sinus congestion, cough, body aches etc. They can be local at times as in viral

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killed an estimated 60 million Europeans during the 18th century (approximately 400,000 per year). Up to 30% of those infected, including 80% of the children under 5 years of age, died from the disease, and one-third of the survivors went

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Ge D, Fellay J, Thompson AJ, Simon JS, Shianna KV, Urban TJ, Heinzen EL, Qiu P, Bertelsen AH, Muir AJ, Sulkowski M, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB (2009). "Genetic variation in IL28B predicts hepatitis C treatment-induced viral clearance".

1304:. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound 1480:, that is retrieved from a patient's throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require 3329:. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world. 907:, wherein foodstuffs or water become contaminated (by people not washing their hands before preparing food, or untreated sewage being released into a drinking water supply) and the people who eat and drink them become infected. Common 885:

For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes:

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As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. Distinguishing the two is important, since viral infections cannot be cured by

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to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include

2581:, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in 1751:

as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific

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did important work demonstrating the contagiousness of typhoid and cholera through contaminated water. Both are credited with decreasing epidemics of cholera in their towns by implementing measures to prevent contamination of water.

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is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the

1743:, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of 1257:

can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in

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to the areas of Central and South America by European explorers during the 15th and 16th centuries caused pandemics among the native inhabitants. Between 1518 and 1568 disease pandemics are said to have caused the population of

3542:. As countries make use of their rain forests, by building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring previously unknown microorganisms. 2071:(the root cause) is a secondary infection. Primary pathogens often cause primary infection and often cause secondary infection. Usually, opportunistic infections are viewed as secondary infections (because immunodeficiency or 2127:

be identifiable only in patients who have the disease, and not in healthy controls, and second, that patients who contract the infectious agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that

3720:(1313–1374) hypothesised that infectious diseases were caused by "minute bodies" and described how they can be transmitted through garments, vessels and earrings. Ideas of contagion became more popular in Europe during the 1235:: the medium, in this case, being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". 5944:

Van den Bruel A, Haj-Hassan T, Thompson M, Buntinx F, Mant D (March 2010). "Diagnostic value of clinical features at presentation to identify serious infection in children in developed countries: a systematic review".

2587:, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from 2365:

One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include

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for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an

1223:, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a 9110: 9091: 7431:

Thomas DL, Thio CL, Martin MP, Qi Y, Ge D, O'Huigin C, Kidd J, Kidd K, Khakoo SI, Alexander G, Goedert JJ, Kirk GD, Donfield SM, Rosen HR, Tobler LH, Busch MP, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB, Carrington M (2009).

3549:. The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries tends to concentrate large numbers of people into crowded areas with poor sanitation. These conditions foster transmission of contagious diseases. 1072:

is complex; with studies have shown that there were no clear relationship between the two. There is still a small number of evidence that partially suggests a link between virulence and transmissibility.

4955: 1227:, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its 1356:

allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the

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is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Many pathogenic

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Immune resistance to an infectious disease requires a critical level of either antigen-specific antibodies and/or T cells when the host encounters the pathogen. Some individuals develop natural

2324:, wearing gloves, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important. 1155:

The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is likely to be

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origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with

783:, and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly 5643:

Mordecai EA, Cohen JM, Evans MV, Gudapati P, Johnson LR, Lippi CA, Miazgowicz K, Murdock CC, Rohr JR, Ryan SJ, Savage V, Shocket MS, Stewart Ibarra A, Thomas MB, Weikel DP (27 April 2017).

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of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over five years. The plague reduced the old world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.

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Horneck G., Eschweiler, U., Reitz, G., Wehner, J., Willimek, R., Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I".

4359:"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study" 2704:

infections may be asymptomatic, suggesting that many people are naturally protected from disease. Large genetic studies have defined risk factors for severe SARS-CoV-2 infections, and

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Infection with most pathogens does not result in death of the host and the offending organism is ultimately cleared after the symptoms of the disease have waned. This process requires

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Infectious disease is the subspecialty of internal medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of communicable diseases of all types, in all organs, and in all ages of patients.

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Hosainzadegan H, Khalilov R, Gholizadeh P (February 2020). "The necessity to revise Koch's postulates and its application to infectious and non-infectious diseases: a mini-review".

1312:. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with 1183:

increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C.

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Klunk J, Vilgalys TP, Demeure CE, Cheng X, Shiratori M, Madej J, Beau R, Elli D, Patino MI, Redfern R, DeWitte SN, Gamble JA, Boldsen JL, Carmichael A, Varlik N (November 2022).

3695:, gave warnings about how contagion can contaminate water, food, and garments, and could spread through the water supply, and may have implied contagion to be unseen particles. 3528:. The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas force animals to live in dense populations, creating opportunities for microbes to mutate and emerge. 845:

Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year. Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries.

13664: 2733:. People who inherited two copies of a complete variant of the gene were twice as likely to have survived the plague as those who inherited two copies of a truncated variant. 2712:(IFN). Autoantibodies against type I IFNs were found in up to 13.7% of patients with life-threatening COVID-19, indicating that a complex interaction between genetics and the 901:. If an infected person coughs or sneezes on another person the microorganisms, suspended in warm, moist droplets, may enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye surfaces. 2139:

However, Koch's postulates cannot usually be tested in modern practice for ethical reasons. Proving them would require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a

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from 659 patients with severe COVID-19 revealed genetic variants that appear to be associated with life-threatening disease. One gene identified in these studies is type I

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Susceptibility also determined the epidemiology of infection, given that different populations have different genetic and environmental conditions that affect infections.

7036:"The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures including hand-washing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings" 5408: 4406: 2541:

which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.

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until the incubation period has passed and the disease manifests itself or the person remains healthy. Groups may undergo quarantine, or in the case of communities, a

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Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as

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remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a

1140:) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone 11053: 9336: 1919:

in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians, therefore, classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses – either as

8950: 7086: 2190:, which is a global epidemic. If the cause of the infectious disease is unknown, epidemiology can be used to assist with tracking down the sources of infection. 4963: 3925:

and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with

457:, can also cause human disease, which conceptually are similar to infections, but invasion of a human or animal body by these macroparasites is usually termed 10220: 8343:

Peter Daszak, Andrew A. Cunningham, Alex D. Hyatt (27 January 2000). "Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife – Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health".

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Hotez PJ, Bundy DA, Beegle K, Brooker S, Drake L, de Silva N, Montresor A, Engels D, Jukes M (2006), Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G (eds.),

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together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an

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is more likely to be diagnosed as bacterial if the pain occurs in only one ear. A cut that produces pus and milky-colored liquid is most likely infected.

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colonization refers to non-replicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All

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and attempting to blend it with his own early contagion theory. He mentioned that people can transmit disease to others by breath, noted contagion with

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can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (

708:, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding 13564: 7821: 2168:. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. 3856:(lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as 3309:. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include 3535:. The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases. 2043:). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host. 6082:"Trypanosoma cruzi, etiological agent of Chagas disease, is virulent to its triatomine vector Rhodnius prolixus in a temperature-dependent manner" 4336: 1699:

genomes are sequenced and aligned to the taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to

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of some agents although they have had little or no contact with the agent, these natural antibodies confer specific protection to adults and are

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Mideo N, Alizon S, Day T (September 2008). "Linking within- and between-host dynamics in the evolutionary epidemiology of infectious diseases".

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Torgerson PR, Devleesschauwer B, Praet N, Speybroeck N, Willingham AL, Kasuga F, Rokni MB, Zhou XN, Fèvre EM, Sripa B, Gargouri N (2015-12-03).

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Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another.

12601: 6722: 6015:"Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2α promotes the extracellular survival of obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii" 4572: 1543:. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria. 6166:"Single Viruses on the Fluorescence Microscope: Imaging Molecular Mobility, Interactions and Structure Sheds New Light on Viral Replication" 2316:

was introduced in medicine and surgery in the late 19th century and greatly reduced the incidence of infections caused by surgery. Frequent

12752: 12747: 11046: 10212: 9329: 9208: 8256: 4166: 1539:). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent 8175: 8063: 5247:"World Health Organization Estimates of the Global and Regional Disease Burden of 11 Foodborne Parasitic Diseases, 2010: A Data Synthesis" 1443:

from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither

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stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups

4240: 11565: 7870: 2634:) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied 3658:, and discussed the transmission of disease through water and dirt. The concept of invisible contagion was later discussed by several 1484:. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive. 11906: 4307: 2091:, and community-acquired infection. A mixed infection is an infection that is caused by two or more pathogens. An example of this is 5359: 13671: 7793: 772: 2143:

produced as a pure culture. Conversely, even clearly infectious diseases do not always meet the infectious criteria; for example,

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Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic

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eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent.

13144: 11505: 11063: 11039: 9322: 7999: 6708: 4011: 2744: 2533:. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for 1914:, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few 1451:, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic., of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein 222: 83: 29: 12933: 6756: 6700: 2591:

demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus.

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infections, symptoms take longer to develop than in acute infections but arise more quickly than those of chronic infections. A

1376:, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinomycetota genera 12762: 11240: 10993: 10980: 9594: 9350: 5561:"Spatial and temporal dynamics of epidemics of the rust fungus Uromyces valerianae on populations of its host Valeriana salina" 5400: 4410: 4181: 3829: 3659: 3446:

interactions. Diseases can emerge when existing parasites become pathogenic or when new pathogenic parasites enter a new host.

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killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe; by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by TB.

1937:

Primary pathogens cause disease as a result of their presence or activity within the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic

5538: 4688: 13615: 13543: 10265: 8286: 7894: 7278: 7156: 7131: 6678: 6632: 6489: 6148: 5997: 5317: 4613: 9607: 7546: 6455: 4442: 1470:

binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "

13149: 11805: 10782: 10240: 7179: 4480: 4015: 1868:) when they mean that some of the pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present. 8240: 4070:

in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence". More recently, in 2017,

3642:(1025), which later became the most authoritative medical textbook in Europe up until the 16th century. In Book IV of the 2954:. The following table lists the top infectious disease by number of deaths in 2002. 1993 data is included for comparison. 13181: 12938: 12864: 12717: 12112: 9919: 8856: 6646: 5331: 4642: 1245:

In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as

12544: 8940: 4797: 1621: 1288:

bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of

13591: 12903: 12536: 12423: 11941: 11283: 10985: 8609: 8578: 4672: 4156: 4136: 3785: 9989: 4752: 4508: 1593: 1266:

is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent,

13003: 10415: 10410: 8148: 7094: 6742: 5715: 5133: 5087: 4783: 3014: 1640: 1101:

epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified.

1016: 10020: 5383: 723:

The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include:

13632: 13570: 12545: 12391: 10954: 10494: 9901: 9517: 9201: 4047: 3692: 2600: 995: 831: 804:

can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host.

7308: 6339:"Erythrocyte Binding Preference of Human Pandemic Influenza Virus A and Its Effect on Antibody Response Detection" 3355:

With their potential for unpredictable and explosive impacts, infectious diseases have been major actors in human

13191: 13159: 13154: 12988: 11193: 10088: 5216: 4151: 3967: 1658:, a severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed,despite extensive testing using the standard of care ( 1600: 5892:"Review: Chlamydia trachonmatis and Genital Mycoplasmias: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health" 2943:

An estimated 1,680 million people died of infectious diseases in the 20th century and about 10 million in 2010.

514:. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host. 482:

of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as

13249: 12859: 12059: 11931: 11365: 10829: 10427: 10146: 10124: 9555: 7946: 7841: 5645:"Detecting the impact of temperature on transmission of Zika, dengue, and chikungunya using mechanistic models" 3500:. Under disease invasion, when a parasite invades a new host species, it may become pathogenic in the new host. 2824: 1700: 1578: 954: 822:. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with 8973: 6456:"Metagenomic Next Generation Sequencing: How Does It Work and Is It Coming to Your Clinical Microbiology Lab?" 4926: 3283:

Note: Other causes of death include maternal and perinatal conditions (5.2%), nutritional deficiencies (0.9%),

2395:

Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of

13047: 12757: 10797: 9495: 2828: 2574: 2570: 2005: 1474:" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, 835: 695:

organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as

33: 8972:

Dose K, Bieger-Dose A, Dillmann R, Gill M, Kerz O, Klein A, Meinert H, Nawroth T, Risi S, Stridde C (1995).

14008: 13884: 11911: 10824: 9977: 9740: 9455: 5041:

Reddy M, Gill SS, Wu W, et al. (Feb 2012). "Does this patient have an infection of a chronic wound?".

4206: 2381: 1607: 9649: 7818: 5431: 4986:"Staphylococcus aureus Infections: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management" 963:, diseases that are transmitted primarily by oral means may be caught through direct oral contact such as 11555: 10866: 10737: 10673: 10641: 10589: 9886: 9868: 9194: 9175:

Information concerning vaccine research clinical trials for Emerging and re-Emerging Infectious Diseases.

6337:

Makkoch J, Prachayangprecha S, Payungporn S, Chieochansin T, Songserm T, Amonsin A, Poovorawan Y (2012).

4722: 4176: 4161: 4131: 4116: 4059: 3477: 2422: 2240: 2088: 1676: 1417: 643: 3616:

speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air. In the

13966: 13879: 13169: 12611: 12594: 11535: 10422: 9835: 9575: 8601: 8398: 8191:

Barquet N (15 October 1997). "Smallpox: The Triumph over the Most Terrible of the Ministers of Death".

4328: 4121: 3752:

proved beyond doubt that certain diseases are caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for

1672: 1668: 1574: 1516: 246: 22: 8797:

Nettle D (2009). "Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity: a review of recent findings".

5776:

Weaver JS, Omar IM, Mar WA, Klauser AS, Winegar BA, Mlady GW, McCurdy WE, Taljanovic MS (2022-03-05).

1707:

and allow for the optimization of treatment using the most effective drugs for a patient's infection.

1589: 664:

are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a

217:. Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths). The branch of 13925: 13219: 11964: 11250: 10926: 10916: 10611: 10547: 10270: 10235: 10038: 10015: 9801: 9614: 9172: 8684:

Beretta M (2003). "The revival of Lucretian atomism and contagious diseases during the renaissance".

8386: 8060: 7789: 4171: 3513: 3348: 2947: 2683: 1704: 1512: 1145: 8442:"The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the Greeks to the Renaissance" 7258: 7035: 6882:"The history of tuberculosis: from the first historical records to the isolation of Koch's bacillus" 1191: 490:, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin 13915: 13838: 13174: 13139: 13134: 13129: 11756: 11678: 11673: 11593: 11353: 11213: 11122: 10744: 10606: 10481: 10335: 9450: 9440: 9125: 8851: 8204: 3629: 2672: 2426: 2260: 1981: 1692: 1684: 1357: 6719: 4564: 2723:

gene, encoding endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 2, seem to increase the susceptibility to the

13657: 13620: 13553: 13534: 13330: 13302: 13264: 13259: 13239: 12767: 12498: 12105: 11736: 11710: 11127: 11117: 10931: 10849: 10715: 10245: 10043: 9750: 9688: 9522: 9490: 4201: 4146: 2679: 2230: 2158: 2060: 2000:). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of 1976: 1964: 1950: 1925: 1722: 1659: 1567: 1332: 1272:

in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case,

1208: 854: 639: 9602: 8260: 8168: 1979:, and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in 1838:

any presence of a particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a

13856: 13833: 13802: 13601: 13530: 12529: 11328: 11276: 10518: 10303: 10053: 9926: 9532: 9389: 9379: 9179: 4196: 4030: 3998:. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the 3805: 3566: 2534: 2179: 1884:

infection, symptoms usually develop gradually over weeks or months and are slow to resolve. In

865: 661: 187: 8083: 1846:

infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some

808:

can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example,

14013: 13779: 13596: 13430: 13425: 12881: 12827: 12737: 12286: 12254: 11979: 11865: 11838: 11811: 11763: 11717: 11412: 10839: 10471: 10340: 9848: 9755: 9674: 8564: 7863: 7202:"The foot-and-mouth epidemic in Great Britain: pattern of spread and impact of interventions" 4232: 4186: 3740: 3729: 3638: 3509: 3481: 2647: 2619: 2407: 2245: 2084: 1955:

Opportunistic pathogens can cause an infectious disease in a host with depressed resistance (

1801: 1793:, whereas an infection that is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called 1769: 1731: 1448: 1433: 1277: 1043: 929: 704: 264: 252: 206: 9619: 6479: 358:, a group of organisms causing infection of skin and other superficial structures in humans. 13920: 13866: 13479: 13420: 13211: 12854: 12732: 12683: 12650: 12584: 12456: 12451: 12408: 12358: 12249: 12228: 11999: 11959: 11826: 11640: 11635: 11615: 11550: 11402: 11245: 11183: 10921: 10814: 10760: 10688: 10678: 10370: 10225: 10098: 9705: 9314: 9038: 8988: 8893: 8352: 7737: 7445: 7389: 7213: 6026: 5572: 4111: 3911:

The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated

3825: 3761: 3736:

by being the first to observe microorganisms, allowing for easy visualization of bacteria.

3688: 3677: 2668: 2611: 2553: 2526: 2425:

may be imposed to prevent infection from spreading beyond the community, or in the case of

2396: 2116: 2097: 1396:

Biochemical tests used in the identification of infectious agents include the detection of

1247: 1029: 908: 560: 511: 179: 7567:

O'Brien DJ, Gould IM (August 2013). "Maximizing the impact of antimicrobial stewardship".

4261: 2529:

of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by

2202:

when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g.,

1523:

of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.

629:; there is pus (yellow) and resultant inflammation (redness and swelling around the nail). 8: 13948: 13889: 13820: 13753: 13402: 13368: 13254: 13077: 13020: 13015: 12966: 12797: 12665: 12637: 12589: 12413: 12381: 12223: 12191: 12079: 12021: 12004: 11663: 11380: 11112: 11107: 11082: 11008: 10998: 10964: 10569: 10007: 9843: 9654: 9243: 9114: 5351: 4211: 4191: 4101: 3725: 3572: 3439: 3371: 2643: 2370:, distance traveled by those affected, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of 2052: 1968: 1893: 1855: 1814: 1760:

or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the

1309: 665: 584: 544: 241: 210: 194: 163: 93: 63: 13072: 12817: 9119: 9042: 8992: 8897: 8761: 8547: 8529: 8356: 7741: 7449: 7393: 7217: 6992: 6982: 6965: 6030: 5576: 2031:, or as a result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with 1211:

to isolate a pathogen from the appropriate clinical specimen. In a microbial culture, a

567:

Bacterial throat pain is often characterized by more pain on one side of the throat. An

13735: 13435: 13269: 13010: 12976: 12961: 12837: 12822: 12807: 12727: 12645: 12441: 12433: 12418: 12386: 12366: 12274: 12098: 11969: 11926: 11916: 11705: 11658: 11625: 11620: 11370: 11348: 11092: 11087: 11077: 10732: 10727: 10636: 10616: 10250: 10093: 10058: 9912: 9878: 9428: 9296: 8916: 8879: 8782: 8737: 8712: 8661: 8626: 8474: 8441: 8328: 8303: 8216: 8108: 7995: 7766: 7725: 7706: 7644: 7611: 7592: 7515: 7490: 7466: 7433: 7413: 7356: 7331: 7270: 7239: 7060: 7005: 6946: 6898: 6881: 6857: 6832: 6808: 6781: 6596: 6563: 6539: 6506: 6431: 6398: 6371: 6338: 6314: 6281: 6200: 6165: 6116: 6081: 6057: 6014: 5970: 5918: 5891: 5867: 5834: 5810: 5777: 5726: 5707: 5695: 5671: 5644: 5590: 5530: 5483: 5281: 5246: 5193: 5160: 5144: 5125: 5113: 5018: 4985: 4903: 4878: 4854: 4819: 4546: 4383: 4358: 4299: 4262:"Trends in Epidemiology and Microbiology of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock in Children" 3995: 3809: 3492:

that had been confined to a remote habitat has a wider distribution and possibly a new

2522: 2518:, and has the potential to be more devastating than direct damage caused by a microbe. 2473: 2255: 2199: 2145: 2068: 2028: 1876:

Different terms are used to describe how and where infections present over time. In an

1710:

Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is

1680: 1614: 1253: 1097: 1093: 810: 673: 579: 479: 416: 9664: 9186: 6732: 6697: 6257: 6224: 5958: 4374: 3508:

human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia, and spread of

2460:. Over the course of her career as a cook, she infected 53 people, three of whom died. 1880:

infection, symptoms develop rapidly; its course can either be rapid or protracted. In

1327:(fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific 13807: 13725: 13694: 13558: 13525: 13358: 13199: 13089: 12983: 12844: 12669: 12632: 12522: 12478: 12065: 12039: 11921: 11891: 11870: 11833: 11816: 11731: 11695: 11685: 11580: 11500: 11444: 11407: 11392: 11333: 11300: 11269: 11219: 11143: 11097: 11018: 10959: 10819: 10772: 10574: 10076: 9745: 9735: 9725: 9527: 9510: 9374: 9267: 9136: 9054: 9050: 9004: 9000: 8921: 8814: 8742: 8693: 8666: 8648: 8605: 8574: 8510: 8479: 8461: 8368: 8282: 8208: 8043: 7771: 7753: 7710: 7698: 7690: 7649: 7631: 7584: 7520: 7471: 7405: 7361: 7274: 7231: 7152: 7127: 7010: 6997: 6950: 6938: 6903: 6862: 6813: 6748: 6738: 6674: 6638: 6628: 6601: 6583: 6544: 6526: 6485: 6436: 6418: 6376: 6358: 6319: 6301: 6262: 6244: 6240: 6205: 6187: 6144: 6121: 6103: 6062: 6044: 5993: 5962: 5923: 5872: 5854: 5815: 5797: 5711: 5696:"Principles of Infectious Diseases: Transmission, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control" 5676: 5625: 5585: 5560: 5522: 5475: 5323: 5313: 5286: 5268: 5198: 5180: 5129: 5058: 5023: 5005: 4908: 4859: 4841: 4789: 4779: 4668: 4609: 4472: 4388: 4303: 4291: 4283: 4141: 4126: 4096: 4067: 3962: 3879: 3841: 3789: 3663: 3367:) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area. For example: 3338: 2709: 2489: 2430: 2338: 2295: 2013: 1997: 1711: 1268: 1068: 974: 776: 757: 387: 375: 101: 78: 13504: 8941:"Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space" 8498: 8424: 8220: 7243: 5974: 5594: 5534: 5487: 4356: 826:

develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The

605:

There is a general chain of events that applies to infections, sometimes called the

13851: 13484: 13469: 13325: 13186: 13099: 12398: 12264: 12150: 12049: 11741: 11726: 11603: 11478: 11434: 11173: 11148: 11102: 11013: 10949: 10936: 10765: 10754: 10646: 10626: 10461: 10375: 10350: 10081: 10028: 9967: 9858: 9505: 9433: 9046: 8996: 8911: 8901: 8806: 8777: 8769: 8732: 8724: 8656: 8640: 8469: 8453: 8394: 8360: 8323: 8315: 8200: 8098: 8033: 7941: 7919: 7887: 7761: 7745: 7680: 7639: 7623: 7596: 7576: 7510: 7502: 7461: 7453: 7417: 7397: 7351: 7343: 7266: 7221: 7055: 7047: 6987: 6977: 6930: 6893: 6852: 6844: 6803: 6793: 6591: 6575: 6534: 6518: 6426: 6410: 6366: 6350: 6309: 6293: 6252: 6236: 6195: 6177: 6111: 6093: 6052: 6034: 5954: 5913: 5903: 5862: 5846: 5805: 5789: 5721: 5703: 5666: 5656: 5617: 5580: 5514: 5465: 5276: 5258: 5188: 5172: 5139: 5121: 5050: 5013: 4997: 4898: 4890: 4849: 4831: 4692: 4538: 4378: 4370: 4273: 3978: 3898: 3894: 3617: 3598: 3517: 3485: 3462: 3425:) killed 25–50 million people (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion). Today 3261: 2724: 2583: 2510:

The immune system response to a microorganism often causes symptoms such as a high

2124: 2103: 1972: 1956: 1688: 1305: 1228: 1224: 1033: 935: 898: 339: 333: 323: 258: 124: 13025: 8835:, edited by Tanke, D. H., and Carpenter, K., Indiana University Press, pp. 337–63. 5502: 4542: 13980: 13766: 13740: 13489: 13287: 13094: 13052: 12943: 12923: 12893: 12876: 12802: 12792: 12722: 12661: 12657: 12606: 12466: 12446: 12069: 12014: 11875: 11860: 11843: 11783: 11778: 11722: 11700: 11397: 11343: 11323: 11031: 10881: 10876: 10720: 10668: 10476: 10453: 10298: 10275: 9659: 9624: 9500: 9445: 9130: 8906: 8595: 8364: 8244: 8179: 7982: 7978: 7825: 7580: 7538: 6966:"Differentiating Epidemic from Endemic or Sporadic Infectious Disease Occurrence" 6726: 6715: 6704: 6098: 5661: 5435: 5387: 5263: 4434: 3470: 3404:

epidemic occurred between 1556 and 1560, with an estimated mortality rate of 20%.

3062: 2729: 1989: 1726:

A temporary drive-in testing site for COVID-19 set up with tents in a parking lot

1456: 1404:

products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment

1105: 944: 913: 874: 680: 647: 355: 277: 9629: 8773: 8233: 7173: 13992: 13861: 13626: 13353: 13244: 13204: 13084: 12910: 12849: 12488: 12483: 12403: 11901: 11855: 11668: 11598: 11417: 10911: 10844: 10787: 10559: 10448: 10440: 10365: 10318: 10313: 10260: 9984: 9765: 9760: 9720: 9669: 9634: 9472: 9408: 9141: 8810: 8728: 7974: 7958: 7749: 7120: 7051: 6934: 6848: 6729:(1996). Baron, Samuel MD. The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 6579: 6019:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

5621: 5306:"Helminth Infections: Soil-transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis" 4744: 4464: 4035: 4019: 3939: 3922: 3865: 3801: 3702: 3576: 3493: 3458: 2660: 2631: 2615: 2549: 2400: 2327: 2235: 2001: 1911: 1503: 1373: 1353: 1319:

techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with

1263: 1180: 1059: 870: 815: 753: 697: 684: 556: 432: 401: 214: 202: 132: 8644: 8457: 6507:"Herpesviruses: latency and reactivation – viral strategies and host response" 6414: 6354: 5305: 4836: 4773: 4634: 14002: 13953: 13509: 13494: 13464: 13459: 13314: 13067: 13062: 12971: 12616: 12371: 12184: 11984: 11773: 11768: 11630: 11570: 11473: 11163: 11153: 10792: 10749: 10708: 10601: 10584: 10542: 10255: 9806: 9775: 9396: 9255: 8652: 8465: 8342: 8067: 7970: 7757: 7694: 7635: 7347: 6620: 6587: 6530: 6422: 6362: 6336: 6305: 6248: 6191: 6107: 6048: 5858: 5801: 5380: 5272: 5184: 5009: 4845: 4287: 4079: 4025: 3990: 3949: 3765: 3749: 3717: 3651: 3314: 2748:

Deaths due to infectious and parasitic diseases per million persons in 2012:

2713: 2656: 2627: 2623: 2538: 2465: 2457: 2291: 2009: 1959:) or if they have unusual access to the inside of the body (for example, via 1823: 1818: 1806: 1481: 1452: 1444: 1378: 1344: 1273: 1212: 1200: 1196: 1169: 878: 805: 745: 709: 635: 568: 539: 361: 171: 152: 97: 12871: 9642: 9104: 9100: 7685: 7668: 7226: 7201: 6039: 5793: 4278: 3976:. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include 967:, or by indirect contact such as by sharing a drinking glass or a cigarette. 621: 13935: 13930: 13902: 13730: 13707: 13586: 13229: 13124: 13057: 12998: 12678: 12569: 12549: 12473: 12303: 12279: 12269: 12174: 12162: 12155: 11989: 11974: 11800: 11525: 11375: 11360: 11306: 11003: 10941: 10703: 10683: 10631: 10579: 10530: 10330: 10280: 9891: 9462: 9301: 9279: 9238: 9221: 9058: 9028: 9008: 8925: 8818: 8746: 8697: 8670: 8372: 8319: 8047: 7962: 7775: 7702: 7653: 7612:"Prevalence of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection : A Narrative Review" 7588: 7524: 7475: 7434:"Genetic variation in IL28B and spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus" 7409: 7365: 7235: 7001: 6942: 6907: 6866: 6817: 6752: 6642: 6605: 6548: 6522: 6480:

Kayser, Fritz H, Kurt A Bienz, Johannes Eckert, Rolf M Zinkernagel (2005).

6440: 6380: 6323: 6266: 6209: 6125: 6080:

Elliot SL, Rodrigues Jd, Lorenzo MG, Martins-Filho OA, Guarneri AA (2015).

6066: 5966: 5927: 5876: 5819: 5680: 5629: 5526: 5479: 5327: 5290: 5202: 5076: 5062: 5027: 4912: 4863: 4793: 4500: 4476: 4392: 4295: 3887: 3837: 3833: 3773: 3760:

provided the study of infectious diseases with a scientific basis known as

3744: 3655: 3546: 3539: 3443: 3415: 3302: 3084: 2545: 2515: 2506:

or by T lymphocytes, which will kill a cell parasitized by a microorganism.

2497: 2481: 2429:, into a community. Public health authorities may implement other forms of 2411: 2357: 2347: 2317: 2267: 2223: 2171: 2133: 2129: 2092: 2024: 1960: 1655: 1488: 1471: 1405: 1242:

may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.

626: 506: 428: 366: 350: 304: 183: 8514: 8483: 8212: 8140: 8038: 8021: 5908: 2186:, with a fast arising, and unusually high number of cases in a region; or 1487:

Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as

13789: 13784: 13373: 13363: 13224: 13030: 12918: 12886: 12812: 12674: 12565: 12557: 12461: 12327: 12208: 12203: 12179: 11848: 11793: 11690: 11545: 11520: 11338: 11207: 11201: 11158: 10896: 10698: 10621: 10596: 10345: 10325: 10230: 10190: 10114: 9485: 9480: 9401: 9384: 8831:

Molnar, R. E., 2001, "Theropod paleopathology: a literature survey": In:

8552:. Gerstein – University of Toronto. Oxford : At the Clarendon Press. 6798: 5850: 5054: 5001: 4357:

GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (17 December 2014).

4106: 4055: 4043: 3757: 3721: 3699: 3532: 3450: 3422: 3378: 3239: 2639: 2566: 2530: 2469: 2453: 2418: 2334: 2279: 2120: 2040: 1905: 1753: 1663: 1507:

Nucleic acid testing conducted using an Abbott Laboratories ID Now device

1476: 1466: 1324: 1313: 1285: 651: 458: 344: 7457: 7401: 5454:"Digest: Little evidence exists for a virulence-transmission trade-off*" 3351:

in 1720 killed 100,000 people in the city and the surrounding provinces.

3343: 2115:

One manner of proving that a given disease is infectious, is to satisfy

1671:

for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by

1220: 1121:

that indicate presence of a specific pathogen that the doctor suspects.

559:

or "pink eye" and herpes. Only a few viral infections are painful, like

13649: 13499: 13474: 13164: 13114: 12493: 12336: 12332: 12308: 12237: 12218: 11936: 11821: 11788: 11560: 11510: 11495: 11490: 11483: 11468: 11458: 11168: 10834: 10809: 10777: 10554: 10535: 10525: 10513: 10360: 9972: 9944: 9770: 9730: 8112: 7966: 7506: 7304: 6297: 5503:"Virulence-driven trade-offs in disease transmission: A meta-analysis*" 5501:

Acevedo MA, Dillemuth FP, Flick AJ, Faldyn MJ, Elderd BD (April 2019).

5244: 4742: 4075: 3984: 3905: 3875:

The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup

3861: 3797: 3793: 3769: 3733: 3706: 3601:, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others. In his 3580: 3318: 3195: 2701: 2652: 2646:

antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is

2607: 2353: 2275: 2207: 2150: 1967:

may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as

1839: 1835: 1780: 1765: 1748: 1736: 1540: 1528: 1361: 1323:

based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially

1301: 1236: 1023: 1012: 765: 715: 688: 563:. The pain of viral infections is often described as itchy or burning. 524: 499: 435:

are sometimes termed infestations, but are sometimes called infections.

424: 382: 329: 310: 298: 292: 270: 198: 70: 9083: 8426:

History of the Peloponnesian War, done into English by Richard Crawley

6182: 5943: 5518: 5470: 5453: 5224: 4550: 2831:

for infectious and parasitic diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:

2055:

of an individual's current health problem, a secondary infection is a

1892:

infection is an initial site of infection from which organisms travel

13548: 13119: 12992: 12348: 12291: 12213: 12121: 12009: 11751: 11746: 11610: 11588: 11463: 11427: 11178: 10906: 10385: 9418: 9413: 9289: 7931:

Diarrheal diseases are caused by many different organisms, including

7915: 7911: 7794:"Age-standardized DALYs per 100,000 by cause, and Member State, 2004" 7627: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3647: 3553: 3466: 3426: 3401: 3374:, from 541 to 542, killed between 50% and 60% of Europe's population. 3310: 3151: 2664: 2578: 2503:

neutralization of viruses so that these organisms cannot enter cells,

2367: 2271: 2203: 1938: 1847: 1757: 1401: 1397: 1369: 1365: 1239: 1129: 1089: 1086: 1008: 940: 924: 756:

species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally

735: 669: 597: 438: 412: 409: 8103: 5176: 5161:"Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome?" 4894: 3832:

and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of

2682:

infections the treatment may cause more side-effects than benefits.

1556: 28:"Infectious disease" redirects here. For the medical specialty, see 13390: 13383: 13378: 13348: 13104: 13040: 13035: 12503: 12298: 12259: 12244: 12167: 12145: 11515: 11292: 10889: 10804: 10380: 10355: 10308: 9853: 9423: 9366: 9284: 9250: 9230: 8884: 8570: 7936: 7837: 6923:

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases

6079: 4071: 4063: 4039: 3926: 3857: 3821: 3777: 3633: 3621: 3505: 3497: 3489: 3454: 3438:

In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via

3407: 3385: 3364: 3360: 3217: 2819: 2815: 2696: 2477: 2434: 2389: 2187: 2183: 2175: 2154: 2140: 1993: 1915: 1536: 1425: 1384: 1320: 1316: 1216: 1176: 1133: 1118: 1055: 1047: 978: 728: 692: 420: 405: 234: 218: 159: 128: 8880:"Spaceflight Promotes Biofilm Formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa" 8847:"Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease" 8279:

Zoonoses: Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans

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Bloomfield SF, Aiello AE, Cookson B, O'Boyle C, Larson EL (2007).

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International Journal of Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases

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Tong SY, Davis JS, Eichenberger E, Holland TL, Fowler VG (2015).

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In cases where infection is merely suspected, individuals may be

2313: 2305: 2219: 2056: 2036: 2032: 1985: 1696: 1532: 1527:

benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the

1520: 1440: 1413: 1328: 1300:

Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is

1141: 1114: 1051: 973:, Some diseases that are transmissible by direct contact include 919: 801: 784: 483: 393: 105: 67: 9155: 5988:

Murray PR (2021). "Laboratory Diagnosis of Bacterial Diseases".

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Flint HJ, Scott KP, Duncan SH, Louis P, Forano E (2012-07-01).

6163: 5428: 4083: 3958: 3753: 3394: 3389: 2705: 2484:. Immunity mediated by these two factors may be manifested by: 2321: 2300: 2165: 2072: 2021: 2017: 1432:

are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in

1349: 1259: 1172:

signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.

1156: 1000: 819: 677: 281: 175: 7726:"Evolution of immune genes is associated with the Black Death" 4714: 3496:. Parasites jumping from nonhuman to human hosts are known as 2182:, with a steady level of regular cases occurring in a region; 1104:

Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by

601:

Chain of infection; the chain of events that lead to infection

13407: 13292: 12898: 12832: 10130: 9260: 9166: 7838:"Could Ebola rank among the deadliest communicable diseases?" 6880:

Barberis I, Bragazzi NL, Galluzzo L, Martini M (March 2017).

4662: 3781: 3613: 2952:

International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories

2720: 2511: 2376: 2371: 2249: 1851: 1687:

using large databases of thousands of pathogen and commensal

1429: 1421: 1409: 1232: 1149: 1125: 1004: 991:, transmission by an inanimate reservoir (food, water, soil). 827: 823: 780: 761: 657: 495: 487: 466: 167: 136: 109: 13987: 12090: 9344: 6164:

Parveen N, Borrenberghs D, Rocha S, Hendrix J (2018-05-10).

4983: 4745:"Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases" 3724:, particularly through the writing of the Italian physician 2488:

a direct effect upon a pathogen, such as antibody-initiated

672:

relationship with the host. An example of the former is the

12707: 11261: 9583: 8971: 6282:"Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut" 5500: 4051: 3883: 3673: 3298: 3040: 2350:, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects. 2342: 2064: 2051:

While a primary infection can practically be viewed as the

1761: 1740: 1082: 982: 964: 859: 838:

invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.

788: 491: 454: 450: 446: 442: 7491:"Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance in the 21st Century" 7171: 5778:"Magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infections" 5642: 4409:. Association of American Medical Colleges. Archived from 683:, and an example of the latter are the various species of 54: 8631: 7788: 7723: 4817: 3294: 3036: 2951: 2385: 1744: 1340: 1137: 286: 8527: 7199: 6619:

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6013:

Joyce BR, Queener SF, Wek RC, Sullivan WJ (2010-10-05).

3285:

noncommunicable conditions (58.8%), and injuries (9.1%).

1817:. Some viral infections can also be latent, examples of 9216: 9160: 6012: 5889: 5303: 3597:) was the first person to write, in his account of the 2727:, the disease caused by an infection with the bacteria 2063:

of that root cause. For example, an infection due to a

1809:. An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a 1420:

products is commonly used in bacterial identification.

8276: 6780:

Patil NK, Guo Y, Luan L, Sherwood ER (November 2017).

4529:

Brown PJ (1987). "Microparasites and Macroparasites".

3788:

and near-eradication of these diseases, respectively.

3709:

in the 14th century, the Arab physicians Ibn Khatima (

3504:

Several human activities have led to the emergence of

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Murray PR (2021). "Microscopy and In Vitro Culture".

4743:

National Institutes of Health (US), Study BS (2007),

3465:

to the parasites or the parasites may evolve greater

2456:(a.k.a. Typhoid Mary) was an asymptomatic carrier of 1747:

in specific communities permitted the advancement of

719:

This image depicts the steps of pathogenic infection.

73:

migrating through the mosquito midgut epithelial cell

9073: 7329: 6779: 5775: 2330:

used to prevent transmission of infections include:

1781:

Subclinical versus clinical (latent versus apparent)

1662:) and state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. 7172:Programs NR, Normand J, Vlahov D, Moses LE (1995). 6737:. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 5558: 4818:Negut I, Grumezescu V, Grumezescu AM (2018-09-18). 4778:. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 4259: 4078:and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. 3836:. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by 3429:

kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.

2678:Not all infections require treatment, and for many 1581:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1179:, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a 16:

Invasion of an organism's body by pathogenic agents

11061: 9156:European Center for Disease Prevention and Control 8084:"Infectious Diseases and Human Population History" 7430: 7200:Ferguson NM, Donnelly CA, Anderson RM (May 2001). 7119: 5310:Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries 4635:"NIPA - Bacteria - Bacterial vs. Viral infections" 2577:(brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with 1109:directly identifying an organism by its genotype. 13565:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services 8825: 8422: 8257:"Influenza of 1918 (Spanish Flu) and the US Navy" 7666: 6782:"Targeting Immune Cell Checkpoints during Sepsis" 4927:"Bacterial Pathogenesis at Washington University" 3628:A basic form of contagion theory was proposed by 2270:where infection is the most common cause include 2164:– however the organism can be cultured in rabbit 1054:itself but that transmits infection by conveying 14000: 8022:"The perpetual challenge of infectious diseases" 7566: 7146: 6222: 5693: 5451: 3871:An infectious disease team may be alerted when: 1854:discussion; to get around this it is common for 1813:. An example of a latent bacterial infection is 9161:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 8710: 6775: 6773: 6484:. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. p. 398. 5745: 5559:Ericson L, Burdon JJ, Müller WJ (August 1999). 3293:The top three single agent/disease killers are 2476:against infectious diseases may be mediated by 2178:is sporadic, or just an occasional occurrence; 1899: 317:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 8871: 8496: 8205:10.7326/0003-4819-127-8_Part_1-199710150-00010 8173:National Center for Biotechnology Information. 7307:. Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford. 5748:"Diagnosis of Infectious Disease - Infections" 5607: 4565:"Runny Nose: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment" 2959:Worldwide mortality due to infectious diseases 2716:is important for natural resistance to Covid. 2690: 768:, multiply without resistance and cause harm. 13665: 12530: 12106: 11277: 11223: 11047: 9696: 9330: 9202: 8932: 8838: 8790: 8535:. Gerstein – University of Toronto. Calcutta. 8281:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. 7910:Lower respiratory infections include various 7256: 7117: 5312:(2nd ed.), Washington (DC): World Bank, 5158: 4876: 4462: 4260:Sehgal M, Ladd HJ, Totapally B (2020-12-01). 3844:specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" 2361:mutations that aide in antibiotic resistance. 1495:process for diagnosis of infectious disease. 814:releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and 741:the quantity or load of the initial inoculant 505:In certain cases, infectious diseases may be 221:that focuses on infections is referred to as 8081: 8061:"Infectious and Epidemic Disease in History" 7336:Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 7263:Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease 7259:"Modeling the control of infectious disease" 6957: 6914: 6873: 6824: 6770: 6396: 5832: 5401:"Clinical Infectious Disease – Introduction" 4167:Mathematical modelling of infectious disease 3904:The disease has not responded to first line 2406:A general method to prevent transmission of 897:, and the resultant infection can be termed 731:and the access to host regions that it gains 531:Comparison of viral and bacterial infection 233:Infections are caused by infectious agents ( 158:Infections can be caused by a wide range of 131:, their multiplication, and the reaction of 8844: 8238:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8019: 7122:Six degrees: the science of a connected age 7027: 6786:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 5939: 5937: 5700:International Encyclopedia of Public Health 5040: 2083:Other types of infection consist of mixed, 2078: 789:Journal of the American Medical Association 13672: 13658: 12537: 12523: 12113: 12099: 11566:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility 11284: 11270: 11054: 11040: 9337: 9323: 9209: 9195: 8272: 8270: 7330:Barreto ML, Teixeira MG, Carmo EH (2006). 6886:Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene 5835:"Cost-Effective Respiratory Virus Testing" 5356:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4820:"Treatment Strategies for Infected Wounds" 4599: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4505:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4439:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2525:) may be acquired following a disease, by 1944: 1162: 53: 11907:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery 8915: 8905: 8781: 8736: 8683: 8660: 8473: 8327: 8102: 8077: 8075: 8037: 8013: 7864:"The World Health Report (Annex Table 2)" 7765: 7684: 7643: 7609: 7514: 7465: 7355: 7225: 7059: 7009: 6991: 6981: 6897: 6856: 6807: 6797: 6595: 6538: 6430: 6370: 6313: 6256: 6199: 6181: 6115: 6097: 6056: 6038: 5917: 5907: 5866: 5809: 5725: 5694:Seventer JM, Hochberg NS (October 2016). 5670: 5660: 5584: 5469: 5390:fungusfocus.com – Retrieved on 2010-01-21 5280: 5262: 5192: 5143: 5017: 4902: 4853: 4835: 4382: 4277: 3800:, which Florey and Chain then developed. 3560: 2950:collects information on global deaths by 2500:and killing, as occurs for some bacteria, 2198:Infectious diseases are sometimes called 1988:) or from the environment as a result of 1641:Learn how and when to remove this message 1546: 170:. Hosts can fight infections using their 13679: 9022: 8796: 8549:Studies in the medicine of ancient India 8301: 7113: 7111: 6830: 6692: 6690: 6143:(9th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. 5992:(9th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. 5934: 4771: 4715:"Infection Cycle Symptoms and Treatment" 4663:Robert N. 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Two methods, the 13653: 12518: 12094: 11265: 11035: 9318: 9190: 9167:Infectious Disease Society of America 8974:"ERA-experiment "space biochemistry"" 8965: 8878:Kim W, et al. (April 29, 2013). 8759: 8562: 8387:"Annals of medical history. v.1 1917" 7108: 7040:American Journal of Infection Control 6963: 6730: 6687: 6664: 6662: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5111: 4528: 3476:Human activity is involved with many 3397:to fall from 20 million to 3 million. 3332: 1756:diagnostic identification, and later 1207:Many diagnostic approaches depend on 517: 473: 469:(although they do not secrete toxins) 12045: 11806:Physical medicine and rehabilitation 10241:Compartmental models in epidemiology 9710: 8593: 6837:The Nursing Clinics of North America 6561: 6387: 4877:Duerkop BA, Hooper LV (2013-07-01). 4667:. 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On April 29, 2013, scientists in 2472:of the pathogen. Specific acquired 760:space, such as in the capsule of a 117: 13: 13592:Eradication of infectious diseases 13349:Androvax (androstenedione albumin) 12424:Fluorescence in situ hybridization 11942:Medical Scientist Training Program 8259:. 20 February 2006. Archived from 8234:Multidrug-Resistant "Tuberculosis" 7996:"WHO | The top 10 causes of death" 7332:"Infectious diseases epidemiology" 7311:from the original on 2 August 2019 7271:10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00015-3 6759:from the original on June 29, 2009 6659: 6399:"Reference genes in real-time PCR" 5734: 5708:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6 5381:Intestinal Parasites and Infection 4157:List of diseases caused by insects 4137:Eradication of infectious diseases 4082:have been observed to survive the 3784:, which would later result in the 3484:enabling a parasite to occupy new 2537:. There is also the phenomenon of 1199:plates growing colonies of common 748:status of the host being colonized 592: 527:whereas bacterial infections can. 378:, which are usually divided into: 178:hosts react to infections with an 14: 14025: 13182:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) 9069: 8711:Moorhead Robert (November 2002). 7178:. National Academies Press (US). 6460:American Society for Microbiology 5610:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 4749:NIH Curriculum Supplement Series 3848:will generally be treated by the 3776:developed effective vaccines for 3636:(known as Avicenna in Europe) in 2599:When infection attacks the body, 2193: 2123:), which require that first, the 1860: 1775: 1069:virulence versus transmissibility 1019:or one acquired during pregnancy. 999:, directly from the mother to an 486:, loss of appetite, weight loss, 197:used to treat infections include 13986: 13974: 13571:Alternative vaccination schedule 12546:Artificial induction of immunity 12392:Oral and maxillofacial pathology 12074: 12064: 12054: 12044: 12035: 12034: 10990:Economics of Infectious Diseases 9018:from the original on 2022-10-09. 8753: 8713:"William Budd and typhoid fever" 8704: 8677: 8618: 8587: 8556: 8539: 8521: 8490: 8433: 8416: 8379: 8336: 8295: 8249: 7900:from the original on 2022-10-09. 7876:from the original on 2022-10-09. 7610:Oran DP, Topol EJ (2020-09-01). 6707:materials included in the text: 6673:. 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Most of these pathogens cause 638:are particularly susceptible to 12075: 8939:Dvorsky G (13 September 2017). 8597:Law and Piety in Medieval Islam 8566:Encyclopedia of the Black Death 8405:from the original on 2023-11-17 8227: 8184: 8162: 8151:from the original on 2023-03-28 8133: 8122:from the original on 2016-03-03 8054: 8026:New England Journal of Medicine 8002:from the original on 2017-05-30 7988: 7951: 7925: 7904: 7880: 7856: 7830: 7811: 7800:from the original on 2021-08-28 7782: 7717: 7660: 7603: 7560: 7549:from the original on 2021-03-10 7531: 7482: 7424: 7372: 7323: 7287:from the original on 2023-03-05 7250: 7193: 7182:from the original on 2021-03-10 7165: 7140: 7079: 7068:from the original on 2020-06-19 7024:Higurea & Pietrangelo 2016 7018: 6649:from the original on 2020-04-14 6612: 6555: 6498: 6473: 6453: 6447: 6330: 6273: 6216: 6157: 6132: 6073: 6006: 5981: 5826: 5769: 5687: 5636: 5601: 5552: 5541:from the original on 2022-12-04 5494: 5445: 5422: 5411:from the original on 2017-04-20 5393: 5374: 5344: 5334:from the original on 2016-10-10 5297: 5238: 5217:"Chronic Infection Information" 5209: 5152: 5105: 5093:from the original on 2022-10-09 5069: 5034: 4977: 4948: 4937:from the original on 2016-12-03 4919: 4870: 4811: 4800:from the original on 2016-04-25 4765: 4755:from the original on 2023-06-26 4736: 4725:from the original on 2023-11-10 4707: 4681: 4656: 4645:from the original on 2023-11-10 4575:from the original on 2022-05-10 4557: 4511:from the original on 2019-12-25 4483:from the original on 2020-06-19 4465:"Cryptococcus (Cryptococcosis)" 4445:from the original on 2020-04-01 4339:from the original on 2022-01-22 4310:from the original on 2021-04-13 4243:from the original on 2018-07-19 4152:List of causes of death by rate 3968:Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis 3897:is of an uncommon nature (e.g. 3620:, the ancient Indian physician 3603:On the Different Types of Fever 2739: 2304:Washing one's hands, a form of 1566:needs additional citations for 1463:and has no metabolic function. 953:, with the result being called 848: 646:, generally occurs through the 616: 13403:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin) 11932:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine 11366:Oral and maxillofacial surgery 10999:Infectious disease informatics 10830:Transmission-based precautions 8766:Bacterial Infections of Humans 8423:Thucydides, Crawley R (1914). 7947:Intestinal infectious diseases 7265:, Elsevier, pp. 173–215, 6833:"Emerging Infectious Diseases" 5752:Merck Manuals Consumer Version 5077:"Polio: Questions and Answers" 4604:Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. 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McGraw Hill. 4543:10.1525/can.1987.2.1.02a00120 4375:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2 4218: 4034:, a bacterium that can cause 3961:is a subject of interest for 3792:discovered the world's first 3710: 3681: 3612:), the Greco-Roman physician 3606: 3591: 3584: 2829:Disability-adjusted life year 2594: 2575:Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b 2571:Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a 2285: 2006:chronic granulomatous disease 1896:to another area of the body. 1295: 1219:are easily grown on nutrient 676:species, which colonizes the 342:); filamentous fungi such as 155:resulting from an infection. 13885:Obstetric labor complication 11912:Bachelor of Medical Sciences 11679:Neurosurgical anesthesiology 11291: 9978:Aerosol-generating procedure 9756:Silent/Subclinical infection 9456:Multidrug-resistant bacteria 9051:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N 9001:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R 8907:10.1371/journal.pone.0062437 8627:"How Islam changed medicine" 8365:10.1126/science.287.5452.443 8020:Fauci AS, Morens DM (2012). 7581:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283631046 6564:"Colonization and infection" 6511:Journal of Oral Microbiology 6099:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003646 5662:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005568 5264:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001920 4606:Sherris Medical Microbiology 4207:Vaccine-preventable diseases 3478:emerging infectious diseases 3015:Lower respiratory infections 2719:Similarly, mutations in the 2382:human immunodeficiency virus 1910:Among the many varieties of 1900:Primary versus opportunistic 1511:Technologies based upon the 1175:In children the presence of 1076: 381:Unicellular organisms (e.g. 7: 10642:Vaccine-preventable disease 10590:Monoclonal antibody therapy 8774:10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_1 8193:Annals of Internal Medicine 7616:Annals of Internal Medicine 6403:Journal of Applied Genetics 6397:Kozera B, Rapacz M (2013). 5782:Polish Journal of Radiology 4177:Neglected tropical diseases 4162:List of infectious diseases 4132:Hospital-acquired infection 4089: 4060:International Space Station 3994:and a tyrannosaur from the 3808:, the first broad spectrum 3672:("impure substances"). The 3461:can lead to hosts becoming 2691:Susceptibility to infection 2638:. Severe infections of the 2444: 2433:, such as school closings, 2241:Respiratory tract infection 1785:Symptomatic infections are 1735:prior to the appearance of 1677:third-generation sequencing 863:A southern house mosquito ( 332:, including yeasts such as 280:and related agents such as 10: 14030: 13880:Complications of pregnancy 10783:Respiratory source control 8981:Advances in Space Research 8811:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013 8762:"Epidemiological Concepts" 8729:10.1177/014107680209501115 8602:Cambridge University Press 8499:"Leprosy in ancient India" 7957:Tropical diseases include 7750:10.1038/s41586-022-05349-x 7052:10.1016/j.ajic.2007.07.001 6935:10.1007/s10096-019-03681-1 6849:10.1016/j.cnur.2019.02.006 6696:This section incorporates 6580:10.5173/ceju.2014.01.art19 5622:10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.009 4435:"Types of Fungal Diseases" 4122:Epidemiological transition 4009: 3937: 3650:, outlining the classical 3564: 3471:immunopathological disease 3336: 2813: 2548:antibodies to the surface 2492:-dependent bacteriolysis, 2468:to kill or inactivate the 2441:) to control an epidemic. 2289: 2266:In addition, locations of 1948: 1903: 1821:are any of those from the 1695:genes within pathogen and 1673:next-generation sequencing 1124:Other techniques (such as 852: 796: 738:of the particular organism 727:the route of entry of the 642:. Entrance to the host at 247:Mycobacterium tuberculosis 182:response, often involving 27: 23:Infection (disambiguation) 20: 13944: 13926:Connective tissue disease 13911: 13898: 13875: 13847: 13829: 13816: 13798: 13775: 13762: 13749: 13721: 13703: 13685: 13610: 13579: 13518: 13450: 13341: 13313: 13280: 12954: 12785: 12778: 12697: 12625: 12577: 12432: 12357: 12128: 12030: 11952: 11890: 11651: 11579: 11534: 11443: 11314: 11299: 11251:Social history of viruses 11233: 11192: 11136: 11070: 10973: 10927:Global Health Initiatives 10917:Evolutionary epidemiology 10865: 10657: 10612:Post-exposure prophylaxis 10548:Antimicrobial stewardship 10506: 10493: 10398: 10289: 10271:Multiplicity of infection 10236:Basic reproduction number 10211: 10183: 10169: 10155: 10139: 10107: 10069: 10012:Percutaneous inoculation 9998: 9960: 9953: 9935: 9867: 9834: 9827: 9791: 9784: 9687: 9574: 9496:Host–pathogen interaction 9471: 9365: 9358: 9228: 9077: 8645:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486 8458:10.1017/s0025727300042241 8440:Nutton V (January 1983). 7945:to name a few. See also: 7824:17 September 2021 at the 7790:World Health Organization 7147:Preston, Richard (1995). 7091:science.education.nih.gov 6831:McArthur DB (June 2019). 6415:10.1007/s13353-013-0173-x 6355:10.3343/alm.2012.32.4.276 5165:Nature Reviews Immunology 4837:10.3390/molecules23092392 4691:. Rencare. Archived from 4471:, StatPearls Publishing, 4172:Multiplicity of infection 3957:Evidence of infection in 3687:–1336), while discussing 3524:Encroachment on wildlife 3514:globalization and disease 3349:Great Plague of Marseille 3280: 2948:World Health Organization 2684:Antimicrobial stewardship 2642:are usually treated with 2521:Resistance to infection ( 1705:antimicrobial stewardship 1513:polymerase chain reaction 1331:present on a pathogen. A 1146:spongiform encephalopathy 1066:The relationship between 1040:Vector-borne transmission 836:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease 771:An interesting fact that 89: 77: 61: 52: 47: 13916:Musculoskeletal disorder 13839:Gastrointestinal disease 12934:Clostridioides difficile 11866:Transplantation medicine 11757:Clinical neurophysiology 11674:Obstetric anesthesiology 11594:Interventional radiology 11354:Digestive system surgery 10745:Protective sequestration 10607:Pre-exposure prophylaxis 9898:Generational difference 9451:Horizontal gene transfer 9441:Antimicrobial resistance 9180:Microbes & Infection 8852:Arizona State University 8833:Mesozoic Vertebrate Life 7348:10.1136/jech.2003.011593 7257:von Csefalvay C (2023), 4639:www.antibiotics-info.org 4054:, reported that, during 3739:In the mid-19th century 3666:who referred to them as 2427:protective sequestration 2328:Antimicrobial substances 2261:Intra-amniotic infection 2079:Other types of infection 1693:antimicrobial resistance 1685:taxonomic classification 1358:taxonomic classification 1276:involves the use of the 640:opportunistic infections 423:(cestodes), and flukes ( 228: 13192:Tick-borne encephalitis 12499:Microbiological culture 12129:Principles of pathology 11737:Intensive care medicine 11711:Mass gathering medicine 11556:Maternal–fetal medicine 10932:Microbial phylogenetics 10850:Wastewater surveillance 10371:Geographic distribution 10246:Critical community size 10044:Surgical site infection 9892:Iatrogenic/Medical care 9811:Microbial translocation 9807:Endogenous reactivation 9802:Normal flora overgrowth 9751:Opportunistic infection 9523:Opportunistic infection 9173:Vaccine Research Center 8760:Evans AS (2009-05-29). 8399:2027/mdp.39015016778261 7686:10.1126/science.abe7591 7489:Fair RJ, Tor Y (2014). 7227:10.1126/science.1061020 6505:Grinde B (2013-10-25). 6040:10.1073/pnas.1007610107 5794:10.5114/pjr.2022.113825 5352:"How Infections Spread" 5221:persistentinfection.net 4279:10.1542/hpeds.2020-0174 4202:Transmission (medicine) 4147:Isolation (health care) 3868:and other specialists. 3488:. When that happens, a 2994:All infectious diseases 2700:instance, up to 40% of 2535:opportunistic pathogens 2231:Urinary tract infection 1977:upper respiratory tract 1965:Opportunistic infection 1951:Opportunistic infection 1945:Opportunistic pathogens 1926:opportunistic pathogens 1819:latent viral infections 1660:microbiological culture 1519:, are derived from the 1436:liquid or solid media. 1333:fluorescence microscope 1209:microbiological culture 1163:Symptomatic diagnostics 905:Fecal-oral transmission 855:Transmission (medicine) 752:As an example, several 662:multicellular organisms 644:host–pathogen interface 431:). Diseases caused by 32:. For the journal, see 13857:Female genital disease 13834:Maxillofacial disorder 13803:Cardiovascular disease 13602:List of vaccine topics 12602:Mathematical modelling 11329:Cardiothoracic surgery 11004:Microbial bioterrorism 10627:efficacy/effectiveness 10035:Surgical intervention 9927:Breakthrough infection 9549:Genetic predisposition 9533:Susceptible individual 9380:Germ theory of disease 8320:10.3201/eid1907.AC1907 8302:Potter P (July 2013). 8243:March 9, 2010, at the 7118:Watts, Duncan (2003). 6964:Riley LW (July 2019). 6523:10.3402/jom.v5i0.22766 4775:Bacterial Pathogenesis 4197:Threshold host density 4031:Salmonella typhimurium 4028:experiment found that 3954: 3625:the sixth century BC. 3567:Germ theory of disease 3561:Germ theory of disease 3352: 2940: 2811: 2461: 2309: 1727: 1547:Metagenomic sequencing 1508: 1204: 1017:pre-existing infection 882: 866:Culex quinquefasciatus 720: 630: 602: 13780:Neurological disorder 13597:Vaccinate Your Family 13048:Japanese encephalitis 12462:Diagnostic immunology 12287:Programmed cell death 12255:Liquefactive necrosis 11980:Personalized medicine 11839:Reproductive medicine 11764:Occupational medicine 11718:Evolutionary medicine 10840:Universal precautions 9798:Endogenous overgrowth 9650:Poultry and livestock 8178:June 1, 2009, at the 8169:Smallpox and Vaccinia 8039:10.1056/NEJMra1108296 6970:Microbiology Spectrum 5429:Pathogens and vectors 5114:"Infectious Diseases" 4960:www.lifeextension.com 4531:Cultural Anthropology 4329:"Antiprotozoal Drugs" 4187:Sentinel surveillance 4066:seem to adapt to the 3947: 3858:laboratory scientists 3812:antibacterial drugs. 3730:Anton van Leeuwenhoek 3646:, Ibn Sina discussed 3639:The Canon of Medicine 3414:In the 19th century, 3346: 2827: 2747: 2554:passively transmitted 2527:asymptomatic carriage 2452: 2303: 2246:Odontogenic infection 2226:infected, including: 2095:, which is caused by 1982:Clostridium difficile 1770:anti-retroviral drugs 1739:for the treatment of 1725: 1681:alignment comparisons 1506: 1499:PCR-based diagnostics 1449:reverse transcriptase 1194: 1036:of infected material. 996:Vertical transmission 930:Entamoeba histolytica 862: 718: 705:Viridans streptococci 650:in orifices like the 624: 600: 265:Clostridium botulinum 253:Staphylococcus aureus 145:transmissible disease 13921:Soft tissue disorder 13867:Male genital disease 13680:Major Disease groups 13480:John Franklin Enders 12457:Medical microbiology 12452:Transfusion medicine 12409:Immunohistochemistry 12359:Anatomical pathology 12250:Coagulative necrosis 12000:Traditional medicine 11960:Alternative medicine 11827:Addiction psychiatry 11641:Transfusion medicine 11636:Medical microbiology 11551:Gynecologic oncology 11403:Reproductive surgery 11246:Smallpox eradication 11184:Israel Jacob Kligler 10942:Genomic reassortment 10922:Genetic epidemiology 10761:Health communication 10689:Flattening the curve 10679:Disease surveillance 10462:Systemic/Generalized 10226:Animal disease model 9706:Asymptomatic carrier 8859:on 14 September 2017 8263:on 20 February 2006. 8199:(8_Part_1): 635–42. 7967:lymphatic filariasis 7819:'20th Century Death' 6799:10.3390/ijms18112413 6734:Medical Microbiology 6709:Medical Microbiology 6625:Medical Microbiology 6482:Medical microbiology 6141:Medical Microbiology 5990:Medical Microbiology 5896:Journal of Pathogens 5851:10.1128/JCM.00373-19 5405:microbiologybook.org 5055:10.1001/jama.2012.98 5002:10.1128/CMR.00134-14 4772:Peterson JW (1996). 4112:Copenhagen Consensus 3678:Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari 3482:environmental change 3384:The introduction of 2560:Host genetic factors 2410:-borne pathogens is 2397:small-world networks 2214:By anatomic location 2098:Bacteroides fragilis 1996:wound infections or 1992:introduction (as in 1856:health professionals 1730:There is usually an 1575:improve this article 1280:of the Chagas agent 1248:Mycobacterium leprae 1050:that does not cause 989:Vehicle transmission 893:, also known as the 512:asymptomatic carrier 149:communicable disease 21:For other uses, see 14009:Infectious diseases 13949:Congenital disorder 13890:Postpartum disorder 13821:Respiratory disease 13754:Hematologic disease 12666:Virus-like particle 12590:Vaccine ingredients 12414:Electron microscopy 12382:Molecular pathology 12260:Gangrenous necrosis 12192:Cellular adaptation 12022:History of medicine 12005:Veterinary medicine 11812:Preventive medicine 11664:Adolescent medicine 11506:Infectious diseases 11071:Individual diseases 11064:infectious diseases 11009:Pandemic prevention 10965:Viral phylodynamics 10946:Re-emerging disease 10835:Travel restrictions 10039:Postoperative wound 10008:Blood-borne disease 9990:Respiratory droplet 9902:Vertical/Congenital 9887:Nosocomial/Hospital 9844:Spillover infection 9043:1995AdSpR..16h.105H 8993:1995AdSpR..16h.119D 8898:2013PLoSO...862437K 8686:Medicina Nei Secoli 8546:Hoernle AF (1907). 8357:2000Sci...287..443D 8141:"NCpedia | NCpedia" 7742:2022Natur.611..312K 7458:10.1038/nature08463 7450:2009Natur.461..798T 7402:10.1038/nature08309 7394:2009Natur.461..399G 7218:2001Sci...292.1155F 6031:2010PNAS..10717200J 6025:(40): 17200–17205. 5909:10.1155/2014/183167 5577:1999JEcol..87..649E 4333:The Free Dictionary 4266:Hospital Pediatrics 4237:The Free Dictionary 4212:Waterborne diseases 4192:Spillover infection 4102:Blood-borne disease 4042:when cultivated in 3916:Society and culture 3816:Medical specialists 3726:Girolamo Fracastoro 3538:The destruction of 3512:diseases, see also 3400:The first European 3372:Plague of Justinian 2961: 2927: 25,000–50,000 2919: 12,500–25,000 2200:contagious diseases 2119:(first proposed by 2047:Secondary infection 1969:pathogenic bacteria 1894:via the bloodstream 1872:Course of infection 1844:clinically apparent 1815:latent tuberculosis 1718:Indication of tests 1416:, the detection of 1310:electron microscope 1042:, transmitted by a 951:Sexual transmission 585:Pathogenic bacteria 545:Bacterial infection 532: 223:infectious diseases 162:, most prominently 123:is the invasion of 84:Infectious diseases 64:electron micrograph 13736:Metabolic disorder 13637:Never to phase III 13436:Hexavalent vaccine 13250:Epstein–Barr virus 13145:Oxford–AstraZeneca 12838:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 12442:Clinical chemistry 12434:Clinical pathology 12419:Immunofluorescence 12387:Forensic pathology 12367:Surgical pathology 12275:Fibrinoid necrosis 11970:Molecular oncology 11927:Doctor of Medicine 11917:Master of Medicine 11834:Radiation oncology 11706:Emergency medicine 11659:Addiction medicine 11626:Clinical chemistry 11621:Clinical pathology 11413:Transplant surgery 11371:Orthopedic surgery 11349:Colorectal surgery 10955:Selection pressure 10251:Force of infection 9879:Contagious disease 9814:Endogenous seeding 9711:Chain of infection 9635:Injection drug use 9546:Vaccination status 9429:Case fatality rate 9347:infectious disease 9218:Infectious disease 8066:July 12, 2012, at 7817:David McCandless, 7507:10.4137/PMC.S14459 6725:2009-02-19 at the 6714:2009-07-01 at the 6703:2009-06-29 at the 6298:10.4161/gmic.19897 5565:Journal of Ecology 5434:2017-10-05 at the 5386:2010-10-28 at the 5358:. 1 January 2016. 5118:Molecular Medicine 3996:Kirtland Formation 3955: 3830:Infectious Disease 3353: 3333:Historic pandemics 3063:Diarrheal diseases 2957: 2941: 2812: 2695:Pandemics such as 2462: 2310: 2256:Vaginal infections 2146:Treponema pallidum 2069:penetrating trauma 2029:ionizing radiation 1998:compound fractures 1728: 1691:. Simultaneously, 1509: 1254:Treponema pallidum 1205: 1098:diarrheal diseases 1094:respiratory system 883: 811:Clostridium tetani 721: 674:anaerobic bacteria 631: 611:transmission chain 607:chain of infection 603: 580:Pathogenic viruses 530: 518:Bacterial or viral 480:signs and symptoms 474:Signs and symptoms 402:worms or helminths 143:, also known as a 141:infectious disease 35:Infectious Disease 13962: 13961: 13808:Lymphatic disease 13726:Endocrine disease 13695:Parasitic disease 13647: 13646: 13559:Vaccines and SIDS 13446: 13445: 13220:Hepatitis A and B 13196:Varicella zoster 12658:Subunit/component 12512: 12511: 12479:Mass spectrometry 12088: 12087: 11922:Master of Surgery 11886: 11885: 11871:Tropical medicine 11817:Prison healthcare 11732:Hospital medicine 11696:Disaster medicine 11686:Aviation medicine 11501:Hospital medicine 11408:Surgical oncology 11393:Pediatric surgery 11387: 11334:Endocrine surgery 11259: 11258: 11220:COVID-19 pandemic 11214:HIV/AIDS pandemic 11144:Alexander Fleming 11029: 11028: 11019:Tropical medicine 10960:Synthetic biology 10861: 10860: 10820:Social distancing 10773:Outbreak response 10394: 10393: 10221:Agent-based model 10207: 10206: 10203: 10202: 10199: 10198: 9746:Natural reservoir 9736:Infectious period 9726:Incubation period 9683: 9682: 9639:Natural disaster 9608:Tropical diseases 9591:Biodiversity loss 9528:Risk of infection 9518:Microbiome health 9511:Immunosuppression 9312: 9311: 9151: 9150: 8799:Trends Ecol. Evol 8639:(7531): 1486–87. 8563:Byrne JP (2012). 8288:978-1-55581-236-2 7792:(February 2009). 7736:(7935): 312–319. 7679:(6515): 404–405. 7444:(7265): 798–801. 7388:(7262): 399–401. 7280:978-0-323-95389-4 7212:(5519): 1155–60. 7158:978-0-385-49522-6 7133:978-0-393-04142-2 6680:978-0-393-60257-9 6669:Foster J (2018). 6634:978-0-9631172-1-2 6491:978-3-13-131991-3 6235:(10): 4497–4501. 6183:10.3390/v10050250 6150:978-0-323-67450-8 5999:978-0-323-67450-8 5519:10.1111/evo.13692 5471:10.1111/evo.13724 5319:978-0-8213-6179-5 5112:Trent RJ (2005). 4883:Nature Immunology 4615:978-0-8385-8529-0 4501:"About Parasites" 4272:(12): 1021–1030. 4142:Infection control 4127:Foodborne illness 4097:Biological hazard 4068:space environment 3963:paleopathologists 3899:tropical diseases 3882:(for example, in 3880:immunocompromised 3842:internal medicine 3822:medical treatment 3790:Alexander Fleming 3762:Koch's postulates 3664:Ayyubid Sultanate 3434:Emerging diseases 3339:List of epidemics 3291: 3290: 3262:Tropical diseases 2911: 6250–12,500 2808: 3,955–6,812 2802: 2,477–3,954 2796: 1,194–2,476 2466:immune mechanisms 2431:social distancing 2314:Aseptic technique 2296:Infection control 2117:Koch's postulates 2111:Infectious or not 2014:immunosuppressive 1933:Primary pathogens 1921:primary pathogens 1712:immunocompromised 1689:reference genomes 1651: 1650: 1643: 1625: 1439:The isolation of 1392:Biochemical tests 1269:Trypanosoma cruzi 1187:Microbial culture 961:Oral transmission 895:respiratory route 777:16S ribosomal RNA 590: 589: 551:Typical symptoms 338:(the most common 186:, followed by an 139:they produce. An 115: 114: 42:Medical condition 14021: 13991: 13990: 13979: 13978: 13977: 13970: 13852:Urologic disease 13674: 13667: 13660: 13651: 13650: 13538:MMR autism fraud 13485:Maurice Hilleman 13470:Hilary Koprowski 12783: 12782: 12539: 12532: 12525: 12516: 12515: 12399:Gross processing 12265:Caseous necrosis 12115: 12108: 12101: 12092: 12091: 12078: 12077: 12068: 12058: 12057: 12048: 12047: 12038: 12037: 11742:Medical genetics 11727:General practice 11604:Nuclear medicine 11479:Gastroenterology 11435:Vascular surgery 11385: 11312: 11311: 11286: 11279: 11272: 11263: 11262: 11225: 11174:Ignaz Semmelweis 11149:Maurice Hilleman 11056: 11049: 11042: 11033: 11032: 11014:Tropical disease 10950:Reverse zoonosis 10937:One Health Model 10766:Health education 10755:Community health 10674:Cordon sanitaire 10647:Ring vaccination 10617:Repurposed drugs 10504: 10503: 10423:Gastrointestinal 10266:Machine learning 10070:Gastrointestinal 10021:Intravenous line 9958: 9957: 9872:/Cross-infection 9859:Reverse zoonosis 9832: 9831: 9789: 9788: 9694: 9693: 9675:War and conflict 9543:Nutrition status 9506:Immunodeficiency 9363: 9362: 9339: 9332: 9325: 9316: 9315: 9229:Disciplines and 9211: 9204: 9197: 9188: 9187: 9075: 9074: 9063: 9062: 9026: 9020: 9019: 9017: 8978: 8969: 8963: 8962: 8960: 8958: 8936: 8930: 8929: 8919: 8909: 8875: 8869: 8868: 8866: 8864: 8855:. Archived from 8842: 8836: 8829: 8823: 8822: 8794: 8788: 8787: 8785: 8757: 8751: 8750: 8740: 8708: 8702: 8701: 8681: 8675: 8674: 8664: 8622: 8616: 8615: 8594:Reid MH (2013). 8591: 8585: 8584: 8560: 8554: 8553: 8543: 8537: 8536: 8525: 8519: 8518: 8494: 8488: 8487: 8477: 8437: 8431: 8430: 8420: 8414: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8383: 8377: 8376: 8351:(5452): 443–49. 8340: 8334: 8333: 8331: 8308:Emerg Infect Dis 8299: 8293: 8292: 8274: 8265: 8264: 8253: 8247: 8231: 8225: 8224: 8188: 8182: 8166: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8156: 8137: 8131: 8130: 8128: 8127: 8121: 8106: 8088: 8079: 8070: 8058: 8052: 8051: 8041: 8017: 8011: 8010: 8008: 8007: 7992: 7986: 7955: 7949: 7929: 7923: 7920:acute bronchitis 7908: 7902: 7901: 7899: 7892: 7884: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7868: 7860: 7854: 7853: 7851: 7849: 7834: 7828: 7815: 7809: 7808: 7806: 7805: 7786: 7780: 7779: 7769: 7721: 7715: 7714: 7688: 7664: 7658: 7657: 7647: 7628:10.7326/M20-3012 7607: 7601: 7600: 7564: 7558: 7557: 7555: 7554: 7535: 7529: 7528: 7518: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7469: 7428: 7422: 7421: 7376: 7370: 7369: 7359: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7316: 7301: 7295: 7294: 7293: 7292: 7254: 7248: 7247: 7229: 7197: 7191: 7190: 7188: 7187: 7169: 7163: 7162: 7144: 7138: 7137: 7125: 7115: 7106: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7093:. Archived from 7083: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7073: 7063: 7031: 7025: 7022: 7016: 7015: 7013: 6995: 6985: 6961: 6955: 6954: 6918: 6912: 6911: 6901: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6860: 6828: 6822: 6821: 6811: 6801: 6777: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6764: 6731:Baron S (1996). 6718:Fourth Edition: 6694: 6685: 6684: 6666: 6657: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6616: 6610: 6609: 6599: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6542: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6477: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6466: 6451: 6445: 6444: 6434: 6394: 6385: 6384: 6374: 6334: 6328: 6327: 6317: 6277: 6271: 6270: 6260: 6220: 6214: 6213: 6203: 6185: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6136: 6130: 6129: 6119: 6101: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6060: 6042: 6010: 6004: 6003: 5985: 5979: 5978: 5953:(9717): 834–45. 5941: 5932: 5931: 5921: 5911: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5870: 5845:(9): e00373–19. 5830: 5824: 5823: 5813: 5773: 5767: 5766: 5764: 5763: 5754:. Archived from 5743: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5691: 5685: 5684: 5674: 5664: 5640: 5634: 5633: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5588: 5556: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5546: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5473: 5449: 5443: 5440:MetaPathogen.com 5426: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5416: 5397: 5391: 5378: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5284: 5266: 5257:(12): e1001920. 5242: 5236: 5235: 5233: 5232: 5227:on July 22, 2015 5223:. Archived from 5213: 5207: 5206: 5196: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5109: 5103: 5102: 5100: 5098: 5092: 5081: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5021: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4971: 4962:. Archived from 4956:"Print Friendly" 4952: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4942: 4923: 4917: 4916: 4906: 4874: 4868: 4867: 4857: 4839: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4805: 4769: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4760: 4740: 4734: 4733: 4731: 4730: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4695:on March 5, 2012 4685: 4679: 4678: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4650: 4631: 4620: 4619: 4601: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4569:Cleveland Clinic 4561: 4555: 4554: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4489: 4488: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4418: 4403: 4397: 4396: 4386: 4369:(9963): 117–71. 4354: 4348: 4347: 4345: 4344: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4281: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4248: 4229: 4117:Cordon sanitaire 4086:of outer space. 3979:Acrocanthosaurus 3895:infectious agent 3715: 3712: 3686: 3683: 3660:Islamic scholars 3618:Sushruta Samhita 3611: 3608: 3599:plague of Athens 3596: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3518:wildlife disease 3287: 2962: 2956: 2934: 2926: 2918: 2910: 2902: 2894: 2886: 2878: 2870: 2862: 2854: 2846: 2838: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2706:genome sequences 2439:circuit breakers 2423:cordon sanitaire 2149:, the causative 2125:infectious agent 2104:Escherichia coli 1973:gastrointestinal 1971:or fungi in the 1957:immunodeficiency 1850:or prompts some 1811:latent infection 1703:– to facilitate 1646: 1639: 1635: 1632: 1626: 1624: 1583: 1559: 1551: 1306:light microscope 1292:within its gut. 1284:, an uninfected 936:Escherichia coli 899:airborne disease 625:Infection of an 533: 529: 400:Macroparasites ( 340:fungal infection 259:Escherichia coli 119: 57: 45: 44: 14029: 14028: 14024: 14023: 14022: 14020: 14019: 14018: 13999: 13998: 13997: 13985: 13975: 13973: 13965: 13963: 13958: 13940: 13907: 13894: 13871: 13843: 13825: 13812: 13794: 13771: 13767:Mental disorder 13758: 13745: 13741:Immune disorder 13717: 13699: 13681: 13678: 13648: 13643: 13642: 13627:Clinical trials 13606: 13575: 13514: 13490:Stanley Plotkin 13452: 13442: 13354:Cancer vaccines 13337: 13331:Schistosomiasis 13309: 13303:Trypanosomiasis 13276: 13240:Cytomegalovirus 13150:Pfizer–BioNTech 12950: 12774: 12723:Vaccine wastage 12693: 12621: 12573: 12543: 12513: 12508: 12467:Immunopathology 12447:Hematopathology 12428: 12353: 12124: 12119: 12089: 12084: 12026: 12015:Chief physician 11948: 11893: 11882: 11876:Travel medicine 11861:Sports medicine 11844:Sexual medicine 11784:Palliative care 11779:Pain management 11723:Family medicine 11701:Diving medicine 11647: 11575: 11537: 11530: 11446: 11439: 11398:Plastic surgery 11344:General surgery 11324:Cardiac surgery 11305: 11303: 11295: 11290: 11260: 11255: 11229: 11194:Major epidemics 11188: 11132: 11066: 11060: 11030: 11025: 10969: 10882:Antigenic shift 10877:Antigenic drift 10868: 10857: 10721:Barrier nursing 10669:Contact tracing 10660: 10653: 10498: 10496: 10489: 10400: 10390: 10291: 10285: 10276:Serial interval 10195: 10179: 10170:Cervico-vaginal 10165: 10156:Trans-placental 10151: 10135: 10103: 10065: 10001:Vascular system 10000: 9994: 9949: 9937: 9931: 9871: 9863: 9823: 9780: 9698: 9679: 9570: 9501:Immune response 9467: 9446:Drug resistance 9390:Infectious dose 9354: 9343: 9313: 9308: 9224: 9215: 9152: 9147: 9146: 9086: 9072: 9067: 9066: 9027: 9023: 9015: 8976: 8970: 8966: 8956: 8954: 8937: 8933: 8876: 8872: 8862: 8860: 8843: 8839: 8830: 8826: 8795: 8791: 8758: 8754: 8709: 8705: 8682: 8678: 8623: 8619: 8612: 8592: 8588: 8581: 8561: 8557: 8544: 8540: 8526: 8522: 8495: 8491: 8446:Medical History 8438: 8434: 8421: 8417: 8408: 8406: 8385: 8384: 8380: 8341: 8337: 8300: 8296: 8289: 8275: 8268: 8255: 8254: 8250: 8245:Wayback Machine 8232: 8228: 8189: 8185: 8180:Wayback Machine 8167: 8163: 8154: 8152: 8145:www.ncpedia.org 8139: 8138: 8134: 8125: 8123: 8119: 8104:10.2307/1312814 8086: 8080: 8073: 8059: 8055: 8018: 8014: 8005: 8003: 7994: 7993: 7989: 7983:trypanosomiasis 7979:schistosomiasis 7956: 7952: 7930: 7926: 7909: 7905: 7897: 7890: 7886: 7885: 7881: 7873: 7866: 7862: 7861: 7857: 7847: 7845: 7836: 7835: 7831: 7826:Wayback Machine 7816: 7812: 7803: 7801: 7787: 7783: 7722: 7718: 7665: 7661: 7608: 7604: 7565: 7561: 7552: 7550: 7537: 7536: 7532: 7487: 7483: 7429: 7425: 7377: 7373: 7328: 7324: 7314: 7312: 7305:"Herd Immunity" 7303: 7302: 7298: 7290: 7288: 7281: 7255: 7251: 7198: 7194: 7185: 7183: 7170: 7166: 7159: 7145: 7141: 7134: 7116: 7109: 7100: 7098: 7085: 7084: 7080: 7071: 7069: 7046:(10): S27–S64. 7032: 7028: 7023: 7019: 6962: 6958: 6919: 6915: 6878: 6874: 6829: 6825: 6778: 6771: 6762: 6760: 6745: 6727:Wayback Machine 6716:Wayback Machine 6705:Wayback Machine 6695: 6688: 6681: 6667: 6660: 6652: 6650: 6635: 6617: 6613: 6562:Dani A (2014). 6560: 6556: 6503: 6499: 6492: 6478: 6474: 6464: 6462: 6452: 6448: 6395: 6388: 6335: 6331: 6278: 6274: 6221: 6217: 6162: 6158: 6151: 6137: 6133: 6092:(3): e0003646. 6078: 6074: 6011: 6007: 6000: 5986: 5982: 5942: 5935: 5888: 5884: 5831: 5827: 5774: 5770: 5761: 5759: 5744: 5735: 5718: 5692: 5688: 5655:(4): e0005568. 5641: 5637: 5606: 5602: 5557: 5553: 5544: 5542: 5499: 5495: 5450: 5446: 5436:Wayback Machine 5427: 5423: 5414: 5412: 5399: 5398: 5394: 5388:Wayback Machine 5379: 5375: 5365: 5363: 5350: 5349: 5345: 5337: 5335: 5320: 5302: 5298: 5243: 5239: 5230: 5228: 5215: 5214: 5210: 5177:10.1038/nri2802 5157: 5153: 5136: 5110: 5106: 5096: 5094: 5090: 5079: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5039: 5035: 4982: 4978: 4969: 4967: 4954: 4953: 4949: 4940: 4938: 4925: 4924: 4920: 4895:10.1038/ni.2614 4875: 4871: 4816: 4812: 4803: 4801: 4786: 4770: 4766: 4758: 4756: 4741: 4737: 4728: 4726: 4719:Infection Cycle 4713: 4712: 4708: 4698: 4696: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4675: 4661: 4657: 4648: 4646: 4633: 4632: 4623: 4616: 4602: 4587: 4578: 4576: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4527: 4523: 4514: 4512: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4486: 4484: 4461: 4457: 4448: 4446: 4433: 4432: 4428: 4416: 4414: 4405: 4404: 4400: 4355: 4351: 4342: 4340: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4313: 4311: 4258: 4254: 4246: 4244: 4231: 4230: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4092: 4022: 4010:Main articles: 4008: 3942: 3936: 3923:fertility rates 3918: 3878:The patient is 3866:bacteriologists 3818: 3713: 3684: 3609: 3594: 3587: 3569: 3563: 3436: 3388:, measles, and 3341: 3335: 3284: 3281: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2939: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2903: 5000–6250 2900: 2896: 2895: 4000–5000 2892: 2888: 2887: 3000–4000 2884: 2880: 2879: 2000–3000 2876: 2872: 2871: 1000–2000 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2822: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2803: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2791: 2790: 517–1,193 2787: 2785: 2781: 2779: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2755: 2751: 2742: 2730:Yersinia pestis 2693: 2661:aminoglycosides 2597: 2562: 2550:polysaccharides 2447: 2403:virus in 2001. 2298: 2290:Main articles: 2288: 2216: 2196: 2113: 2081: 2049: 2027:), exposure to 2008:), exposure to 2002:genetic defects 1953: 1947: 1935: 1908: 1902: 1874: 1783: 1778: 1720: 1647: 1636: 1630: 1627: 1584: 1582: 1572: 1560: 1549: 1501: 1457:red blood cells 1394: 1298: 1189: 1165: 1106:medical history 1096:infections and 1079: 1034:transplantation 1007:or baby during 945:gastroenteritis 914:Vibrio cholerae 891:Droplet contact 875:West Nile fever 857: 851: 832:mad cow disease 799: 627:ingrown toenail 619: 595: 593:Pathophysiology 540:Viral infection 536:Characteristic 520: 476: 231: 215:antihelminthics 43: 40: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 14027: 14017: 14016: 14011: 13996: 13995: 13983: 13960: 13959: 13957: 13956: 13951: 13945: 13942: 13941: 13939: 13938: 13933: 13928: 13923: 13918: 13912: 13909: 13908: 13906: 13905: 13899: 13896: 13895: 13893: 13892: 13887: 13882: 13876: 13873: 13872: 13870: 13869: 13864: 13862:Breast disease 13859: 13854: 13848: 13845: 13844: 13842: 13841: 13836: 13830: 13827: 13826: 13824: 13823: 13817: 13814: 13813: 13811: 13810: 13805: 13799: 13796: 13795: 13793: 13792: 13787: 13782: 13776: 13773: 13772: 13770: 13769: 13763: 13760: 13759: 13757: 13756: 13750: 13747: 13746: 13744: 13743: 13738: 13733: 13728: 13722: 13719: 13718: 13716: 13715: 13710: 13704: 13701: 13700: 13698: 13697: 13692: 13686: 13683: 13682: 13677: 13676: 13669: 13662: 13654: 13645: 13644: 13641: 13640: 13639: 13638: 13635: 13624: 13618: 13612: 13611: 13608: 13607: 13605: 13604: 13599: 13594: 13589: 13583: 13581: 13577: 13576: 13574: 13573: 13568: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13546: 13541: 13528: 13522: 13520: 13516: 13515: 13513: 13512: 13507: 13505:Katalin Karikó 13502: 13497: 13492: 13487: 13482: 13477: 13472: 13467: 13462: 13456: 13454: 13448: 13447: 13444: 13443: 13441: 13440: 13439: 13438: 13433: 13428: 13423: 13415: 13410: 13405: 13400: 13395: 13394: 13393: 13388: 13387: 13386: 13381: 13371: 13366: 13361: 13351: 13345: 13343: 13339: 13338: 13336: 13335: 13334: 13333: 13328: 13319: 13317: 13311: 13310: 13308: 13307: 13306: 13305: 13297: 13296: 13295: 13284: 13282: 13278: 13277: 13275: 13274: 13273: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13260:Herpes simplex 13257: 13252: 13247: 13242: 13234: 13233: 13232: 13227: 13222: 13214: 13209: 13208: 13207: 13202: 13194: 13189: 13184: 13179: 13178: 13177: 13172: 13167: 13162: 13160:Sinopharm BIBP 13157: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13122: 13117: 13112: 13110:Bharat Biotech 13107: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13081: 13080: 13075: 13065: 13060: 13055: 13050: 13045: 13044: 13043: 13038: 13028: 13023: 13018: 13013: 13008: 13007: 13006: 13001: 12996: 12981: 12980: 12979: 12969: 12964: 12958: 12956: 12952: 12951: 12949: 12948: 12947: 12946: 12941: 12936: 12928: 12927: 12926: 12921: 12913: 12908: 12907: 12906: 12901: 12891: 12890: 12889: 12879: 12874: 12869: 12868: 12867: 12862: 12852: 12847: 12842: 12841: 12840: 12835: 12825: 12820: 12815: 12810: 12805: 12800: 12795: 12789: 12787: 12780: 12776: 12775: 12773: 12772: 12771: 12770: 12765: 12760: 12755: 12750: 12742: 12741: 12740: 12738:Vaccine injury 12735: 12730: 12725: 12720: 12715: 12710: 12701: 12699: 12698:Administration 12695: 12694: 12692: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12672: 12655: 12654: 12653: 12648: 12640: 12635: 12629: 12627: 12623: 12622: 12620: 12619: 12614: 12609: 12604: 12599: 12598: 12597: 12587: 12581: 12579: 12575: 12574: 12542: 12541: 12534: 12527: 12519: 12510: 12509: 12507: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12489:Flow cytometry 12486: 12484:Chromatography 12481: 12476: 12470: 12469: 12464: 12459: 12454: 12449: 12444: 12438: 12436: 12430: 12429: 12427: 12426: 12421: 12416: 12411: 12406: 12404:Histopathology 12401: 12395: 12394: 12389: 12384: 12379: 12374: 12369: 12363: 12361: 12355: 12354: 12352: 12351: 12346: 12345: 12344: 12339: 12330: 12318: 12312: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12295: 12294: 12284: 12283: 12282: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12262: 12257: 12252: 12242: 12240: 12234: 12233: 12232: 12231: 12226: 12216: 12211: 12206: 12201: 12196: 12194: 12188: 12187: 12182: 12177: 12172: 12171: 12170: 12160: 12159: 12158: 12153: 12148: 12143: 12132: 12130: 12126: 12125: 12118: 12117: 12110: 12103: 12095: 12086: 12085: 12083: 12082: 12072: 12062: 12052: 12042: 12031: 12028: 12027: 12025: 12024: 12019: 12018: 12017: 12007: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11967: 11962: 11956: 11954: 11953:Related topics 11950: 11949: 11947: 11946: 11945: 11944: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11902:Medical school 11898: 11896: 11888: 11887: 11884: 11883: 11881: 11880: 11879: 11878: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11856:Sleep medicine 11853: 11852: 11851: 11841: 11836: 11831: 11830: 11829: 11819: 11814: 11809: 11803: 11798: 11797: 11796: 11786: 11781: 11776: 11771: 11766: 11761: 11760: 11759: 11749: 11744: 11739: 11734: 11729: 11720: 11715: 11714: 11713: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11682: 11681: 11676: 11669:Anesthesiology 11666: 11661: 11655: 11653: 11649: 11648: 11646: 11645: 11644: 11643: 11638: 11633: 11628: 11623: 11618: 11608: 11607: 11606: 11601: 11599:Neuroradiology 11596: 11585: 11583: 11577: 11576: 11574: 11573: 11568: 11563: 11558: 11553: 11548: 11542: 11540: 11536:Obstetrics and 11532: 11531: 11529: 11528: 11523: 11518: 11513: 11508: 11503: 11498: 11493: 11488: 11487: 11486: 11476: 11471: 11466: 11461: 11451: 11449: 11441: 11440: 11438: 11437: 11432: 11431: 11430: 11420: 11418:Trauma surgery 11415: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11390: 11389: 11388: 11381:Otolaryngology 11378: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11357: 11356: 11351: 11341: 11336: 11331: 11326: 11320: 11318: 11309: 11307:subspecialties 11297: 11296: 11289: 11288: 11281: 11274: 11266: 11257: 11256: 11254: 11253: 11248: 11243: 11237: 11235: 11231: 11230: 11228: 11227: 11217: 11216:(1981–present) 11211: 11205: 11198: 11196: 11190: 11189: 11187: 11186: 11181: 11176: 11171: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11151: 11146: 11140: 11138: 11134: 11133: 11131: 11130: 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11074: 11072: 11068: 11067: 11059: 11058: 11051: 11044: 11036: 11027: 11026: 11024: 11023: 11022: 11021: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10996: 10991: 10988: 10983: 10977: 10975: 10971: 10970: 10968: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10952: 10947: 10944: 10939: 10934: 10929: 10924: 10919: 10914: 10912:Emergent virus 10909: 10904: 10899: 10894: 10893: 10892: 10884: 10879: 10873: 10871: 10863: 10862: 10859: 10858: 10856: 10855: 10852: 10847: 10845:Vector control 10842: 10837: 10832: 10827: 10822: 10817: 10812: 10807: 10802: 10801: 10800: 10795: 10790: 10788:N95 respirator 10780: 10775: 10770: 10769: 10768: 10763: 10758: 10747: 10742: 10741: 10740: 10730: 10725: 10724: 10723: 10713: 10712: 10711: 10706: 10701: 10691: 10686: 10681: 10676: 10671: 10665: 10663: 10661:pharmaceutical 10655: 10654: 10652: 10651: 10650: 10649: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10629: 10619: 10614: 10609: 10604: 10599: 10594: 10593: 10592: 10582: 10577: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10551: 10550: 10540: 10539: 10538: 10528: 10523: 10522: 10521: 10510: 10508: 10507:Pharmaceutical 10501: 10491: 10490: 10488: 10487: 10484: 10479: 10474: 10469: 10464: 10459: 10458:Cardiovascular 10456: 10451: 10446: 10443: 10438: 10437:Nervous system 10435: 10432: 10431: 10430: 10420: 10419: 10418: 10413: 10404: 10402: 10396: 10395: 10392: 10391: 10389: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10343: 10338: 10333: 10328: 10323: 10322: 10321: 10316: 10306: 10301: 10295: 10293: 10287: 10286: 10284: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10263: 10261:Infection rate 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10217: 10215: 10209: 10208: 10205: 10204: 10201: 10200: 10197: 10196: 10194: 10193: 10187: 10185: 10181: 10180: 10178: 10177: 10173: 10171: 10167: 10166: 10164: 10163: 10159: 10157: 10153: 10152: 10150: 10149: 10143: 10141: 10137: 10136: 10134: 10133: 10127: 10122: 10117: 10111: 10109: 10105: 10104: 10102: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10086: 10085: 10084: 10073: 10071: 10067: 10066: 10064: 10063: 10062: 10061: 10056: 10048: 10047: 10046: 10041: 10033: 10032: 10031: 10026: 10023: 10018: 10016:Injection site 10010: 10004: 10002: 9996: 9995: 9993: 9992: 9987: 9985:Dental aerosol 9982: 9981: 9980: 9970: 9964: 9962: 9955: 9951: 9950: 9948: 9947: 9941: 9939: 9933: 9932: 9930: 9929: 9924: 9923: 9922: 9917: 9916: 9915: 9910: 9907: 9896: 9895: 9894: 9889: 9881: 9875: 9873: 9869:Human-to-human 9865: 9864: 9862: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9840: 9838: 9829: 9825: 9824: 9822: 9821: 9815: 9812: 9809: 9804: 9799: 9795: 9793: 9786: 9782: 9781: 9779: 9778: 9773: 9768: 9766:Super-spreader 9763: 9761:Superinfection 9758: 9753: 9748: 9743: 9738: 9733: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9702: 9700: 9691: 9685: 9684: 9681: 9680: 9678: 9677: 9672: 9670:Vector control 9667: 9662: 9657: 9652: 9647: 9646: 9645: 9637: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9611: 9610: 9605: 9599:Climate zones 9597: 9595:Climate change 9592: 9589: 9586: 9580: 9578: 9572: 9571: 9569: 9568: 9567: 9566: 9563: 9560: 9559: 9558: 9550: 9547: 9544: 9541: 9538: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9514: 9513: 9508: 9498: 9493: 9488: 9483: 9477: 9475: 9469: 9468: 9466: 9465: 9460: 9459: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9438: 9437: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9421: 9411: 9409:Quorum sensing 9406: 9405: 9404: 9394: 9393: 9392: 9382: 9377: 9371: 9369: 9360: 9356: 9355: 9342: 9341: 9334: 9327: 9319: 9310: 9309: 9307: 9306: 9305: 9304: 9294: 9293: 9292: 9287: 9277: 9276: 9275: 9265: 9264: 9263: 9258: 9248: 9247: 9246: 9235: 9233: 9226: 9225: 9214: 9213: 9206: 9199: 9191: 9185: 9184: 9176: 9170: 9164: 9158: 9149: 9148: 9145: 9144: 9133: 9122: 9107: 9087: 9082: 9081: 9079: 9078:Classification 9071: 9070:External links 9068: 9065: 9064: 9031:Adv. Space Res 9021: 8964: 8931: 8870: 8837: 8824: 8805:(11): 618–24. 8789: 8752: 8723:(11): 561–64. 8703: 8676: 8617: 8611:978-1107067110 8610: 8586: 8580:978-1598842531 8579: 8573:. p. 29. 8555: 8538: 8520: 8489: 8432: 8415: 8393:. p. 14. 8378: 8335: 8294: 8287: 8266: 8248: 8226: 8183: 8161: 8132: 8071: 8053: 8012: 7987: 7975:onchocerciasis 7959:Chagas disease 7950: 7924: 7903: 7879: 7855: 7829: 7810: 7781: 7716: 7659: 7622:(5): 362–367. 7602: 7559: 7530: 7481: 7423: 7371: 7322: 7296: 7279: 7249: 7192: 7164: 7157: 7139: 7132: 7107: 7078: 7026: 7017: 6956: 6929:(2): 215–218. 6913: 6872: 6843:(2): 297–311. 6823: 6769: 6743: 6686: 6679: 6658: 6633: 6611: 6554: 6497: 6490: 6472: 6446: 6409:(4): 391–406. 6386: 6349:(4): 276–282. 6329: 6292:(4): 289–306. 6272: 6215: 6156: 6149: 6131: 6072: 6005: 5998: 5980: 5933: 5882: 5825: 5768: 5733: 5716: 5686: 5635: 5616:(9): 511–517. 5600: 5571:(4): 649–658. 5551: 5513:(4): 636–647. 5493: 5464:(4): 858–859. 5444: 5421: 5392: 5373: 5343: 5318: 5296: 5237: 5208: 5171:(7): 514–526. 5151: 5134: 5104: 5068: 5033: 4996:(3): 603–661. 4976: 4947: 4918: 4869: 4810: 4784: 4764: 4735: 4706: 4680: 4674:978-1438126371 4673: 4655: 4621: 4614: 4585: 4556: 4521: 4507:. 2019-02-25. 4492: 4455: 4441:. 2019-06-27. 4426: 4398: 4349: 4320: 4252: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4080:Microorganisms 4038:, became more 4036:food poisoning 4020:Space medicine 4007: 4004: 3959:fossil remains 3940:Paleopathology 3938:Main article: 3935: 3932: 3917: 3914: 3913: 3912: 3909: 3902: 3891: 3876: 3840:physicians or 3817: 3814: 3802:Gerhard Domagk 3703:bubonic plague 3595: 400 BCE 3565:Main article: 3562: 3559: 3558: 3557: 3550: 3543: 3536: 3529: 3502: 3501: 3474: 3435: 3432: 3431: 3430: 3419: 3412: 3405: 3398: 3382: 3375: 3334: 3331: 3289: 3288: 3278: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3259: 3255: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3237: 3233: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3223: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3210: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3157: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3078: 3077: 3074: 3071: 3068: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3055: 3052: 3049: 3046: 3043: 3034: 3030: 3029: 3026: 3023: 3020: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3007: 3004: 3001: 2998: 2995: 2992: 2988: 2987: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2968:Cause of death 2966: 2938: 2937: 2931: 2929: 2923: 2921: 2915: 2913: 2907: 2905: 2899: 2897: 2891: 2889: 2883: 2881: 2875: 2873: 2867: 2865: 2863: 500–1000 2859: 2857: 2851: 2849: 2843: 2841: 2835: 2832: 2804: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2774: 2768: 2762: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2741: 2738: 2692: 2689: 2657:cephalosporins 2632:antihelminthic 2612:antitubercular 2602:anti-infective 2596: 2593: 2561: 2558: 2508: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2446: 2443: 2401:foot-and-mouth 2363: 2362: 2351: 2345: 2287: 2284: 2264: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2243: 2238: 2236:Skin infection 2233: 2215: 2212: 2195: 2194:Contagiousness 2192: 2132:species cause 2112: 2109: 2080: 2077: 2048: 2045: 1949:Main article: 1946: 1943: 1934: 1931: 1912:microorganisms 1901: 1898: 1873: 1870: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1776:Classification 1774: 1719: 1716: 1649: 1648: 1631:September 2024 1563: 1561: 1554: 1548: 1545: 1500: 1497: 1445:RNA replicases 1393: 1390: 1374:Actinomycetota 1354:crystal violet 1297: 1294: 1264:Chagas disease 1188: 1185: 1181:petechial rash 1164: 1161: 1148:produced by a 1078: 1075: 1064: 1063: 1046:, which is an 1037: 1020: 992: 986: 975:athlete's foot 968: 958: 948: 902: 853:Main article: 850: 847: 816:staphylococcus 806:Microorganisms 798: 795: 754:staphylococcal 750: 749: 742: 739: 734:the intrinsic 732: 698:Corynebacteria 687:that exist on 685:staphylococcus 618: 615: 594: 591: 588: 587: 582: 577: 573: 572: 564: 557:conjunctivitis 552: 548: 547: 542: 537: 519: 516: 475: 472: 471: 470: 464: 463: 462: 436: 398: 373: 372: 371: 359: 321: 275: 230: 227: 211:antiprotozoals 172:immune systems 113: 112: 91: 87: 86: 81: 75: 74: 62:False-colored 59: 58: 50: 49: 41: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14026: 14015: 14012: 14010: 14007: 14006: 14004: 13994: 13989: 13984: 13982: 13972: 13971: 13968: 13955: 13954:Fetal disease 13952: 13950: 13947: 13946: 13943: 13937: 13934: 13932: 13929: 13927: 13924: 13922: 13919: 13917: 13914: 13913: 13910: 13904: 13901: 13900: 13897: 13891: 13888: 13886: 13883: 13881: 13878: 13877: 13874: 13868: 13865: 13863: 13860: 13858: 13855: 13853: 13850: 13849: 13846: 13840: 13837: 13835: 13832: 13831: 13828: 13822: 13819: 13818: 13815: 13809: 13806: 13804: 13801: 13800: 13797: 13791: 13788: 13786: 13783: 13781: 13778: 13777: 13774: 13768: 13765: 13764: 13761: 13755: 13752: 13751: 13748: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13732: 13729: 13727: 13724: 13723: 13720: 13714: 13711: 13709: 13706: 13705: 13702: 13696: 13693: 13691: 13688: 13687: 13684: 13675: 13670: 13668: 13663: 13661: 13656: 13655: 13652: 13636: 13634: 13631: 13630: 13628: 13625: 13622: 13619: 13617: 13614: 13613: 13609: 13603: 13600: 13598: 13595: 13593: 13590: 13588: 13585: 13584: 13582: 13578: 13572: 13569: 13567: 13566: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13550: 13547: 13545: 13542: 13539: 13537: 13532: 13529: 13527: 13524: 13523: 13521: 13517: 13511: 13510:Drew Weissman 13508: 13506: 13503: 13501: 13498: 13496: 13495:H. Fred Clark 13493: 13491: 13488: 13486: 13483: 13481: 13478: 13476: 13473: 13471: 13468: 13466: 13465:Louis Pasteur 13463: 13461: 13460:Edward Jenner 13458: 13457: 13455: 13449: 13437: 13434: 13432: 13431:DTwP-HepB-Hib 13429: 13427: 13426:DTaP-IPV-HepB 13424: 13422: 13419: 13418: 13417:combination: 13416: 13414: 13411: 13409: 13406: 13404: 13401: 13399: 13396: 13392: 13389: 13385: 13382: 13380: 13377: 13376: 13375: 13372: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13362: 13360: 13357: 13356: 13355: 13352: 13350: 13347: 13346: 13344: 13340: 13332: 13329: 13327: 13324: 13323: 13321: 13320: 13318: 13316: 13315:Helminthiasis 13312: 13304: 13301: 13300: 13298: 13294: 13291: 13290: 13289: 13286: 13285: 13283: 13279: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13237: 13235: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13217: 13216:combination: 13215: 13213: 13210: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13197: 13195: 13193: 13190: 13188: 13185: 13183: 13180: 13176: 13173: 13171: 13168: 13166: 13163: 13161: 13158: 13156: 13153: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13102: 13101: 13098: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13070: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13061: 13059: 13056: 13054: 13051: 13049: 13046: 13042: 13039: 13037: 13034: 13033: 13032: 13029: 13027: 13024: 13022: 13019: 13017: 13014: 13012: 13009: 13005: 13002: 13000: 12997: 12994: 12990: 12987: 12986: 12985: 12982: 12978: 12975: 12974: 12973: 12970: 12968: 12965: 12963: 12960: 12959: 12957: 12953: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12931: 12929: 12925: 12922: 12920: 12919:DPT/DTwP/DTaP 12917: 12916: 12915:combination: 12914: 12912: 12909: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12896: 12895: 12892: 12888: 12885: 12884: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12873: 12870: 12866: 12863: 12861: 12858: 12857: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12846: 12843: 12839: 12836: 12834: 12831: 12830: 12829: 12828:Meningococcus 12826: 12824: 12821: 12819: 12818:Leptospirosis 12816: 12814: 12811: 12809: 12806: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12796: 12794: 12791: 12790: 12788: 12784: 12781: 12777: 12769: 12766: 12764: 12761: 12759: 12756: 12754: 12753:Vaccine court 12751: 12749: 12746: 12745: 12743: 12739: 12736: 12734: 12731: 12729: 12726: 12724: 12721: 12719: 12716: 12714: 12711: 12709: 12708:GAVI Alliance 12706: 12705: 12703: 12702: 12700: 12696: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12667: 12663: 12659: 12656: 12652: 12649: 12647: 12644: 12643: 12641: 12639: 12636: 12634: 12631: 12630: 12628: 12624: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12608: 12605: 12603: 12600: 12596: 12593: 12592: 12591: 12588: 12586: 12583: 12582: 12580: 12576: 12571: 12567: 12563: 12559: 12555: 12551: 12547: 12540: 12535: 12533: 12528: 12526: 12521: 12520: 12517: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12471: 12468: 12465: 12463: 12460: 12458: 12455: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12440: 12439: 12437: 12435: 12431: 12425: 12422: 12420: 12417: 12415: 12412: 12410: 12407: 12405: 12402: 12400: 12397: 12396: 12393: 12390: 12388: 12385: 12383: 12380: 12378: 12375: 12373: 12372:Cytopathology 12370: 12368: 12365: 12364: 12362: 12360: 12356: 12350: 12347: 12343: 12340: 12338: 12334: 12331: 12329: 12326: 12325: 12324: 12323: 12319: 12317: 12316:Accumulations 12314: 12313: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12293: 12290: 12289: 12288: 12285: 12281: 12278: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12247: 12246: 12243: 12241: 12239: 12236: 12235: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12221: 12220: 12217: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12189: 12186: 12185:Wound healing 12183: 12181: 12178: 12176: 12173: 12169: 12166: 12165: 12164: 12161: 12157: 12154: 12152: 12149: 12147: 12144: 12142: 12139: 12138: 12137: 12134: 12133: 12131: 12127: 12123: 12116: 12111: 12109: 12104: 12102: 12097: 12096: 12093: 12081: 12073: 12071: 12067: 12063: 12061: 12053: 12051: 12043: 12041: 12033: 12032: 12029: 12023: 12020: 12016: 12013: 12012: 12011: 12008: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11985:Public health 11983: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11965:Allied health 11963: 11961: 11958: 11957: 11955: 11951: 11943: 11940: 11939: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11899: 11897: 11895: 11889: 11877: 11874: 11873: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11850: 11847: 11846: 11845: 11842: 11840: 11837: 11835: 11832: 11828: 11825: 11824: 11823: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11795: 11792: 11791: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11782: 11780: 11777: 11775: 11774:Oral medicine 11772: 11770: 11769:Ophthalmology 11767: 11765: 11762: 11758: 11755: 11754: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11743: 11740: 11738: 11735: 11733: 11730: 11728: 11724: 11721: 11719: 11716: 11712: 11709: 11708: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11671: 11670: 11667: 11665: 11662: 11660: 11657: 11656: 11654: 11650: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11632: 11631:Cytopathology 11629: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11614: 11613: 11612: 11609: 11605: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11595: 11592: 11591: 11590: 11587: 11586: 11584: 11582: 11578: 11572: 11571:Urogynecology 11569: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11559: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11543: 11541: 11539: 11533: 11527: 11524: 11522: 11519: 11517: 11514: 11512: 11509: 11507: 11504: 11502: 11499: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11485: 11482: 11481: 11480: 11477: 11475: 11474:Endocrinology 11472: 11470: 11467: 11465: 11462: 11460: 11456: 11453: 11452: 11450: 11448: 11442: 11436: 11433: 11429: 11426: 11425: 11424: 11421: 11419: 11416: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11384: 11383: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11347: 11346: 11345: 11342: 11340: 11337: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11327: 11325: 11322: 11321: 11319: 11317: 11313: 11310: 11308: 11302: 11298: 11294: 11287: 11282: 11280: 11275: 11273: 11268: 11267: 11264: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11238: 11236: 11232: 11222:(2019–present 11221: 11218: 11215: 11212: 11209: 11206: 11203: 11200: 11199: 11197: 11195: 11191: 11185: 11182: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11170: 11167: 11165: 11164:Louis Pasteur 11162: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11154:Edward Jenner 11152: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11141: 11139: 11135: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11123:Typhoid fever 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11075: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11057: 11052: 11050: 11045: 11043: 11038: 11037: 11034: 11020: 11017: 11016: 11015: 11012: 11010: 11007: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10992: 10989: 10987: 10984: 10982: 10979: 10978: 10976: 10972: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10951: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10923: 10920: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10910: 10908: 10905: 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10891: 10888: 10887: 10885: 10883: 10880: 10878: 10875: 10874: 10872: 10870: 10864: 10853: 10851: 10848: 10846: 10843: 10841: 10838: 10836: 10833: 10831: 10828: 10826: 10825:Sterilization 10823: 10821: 10818: 10816: 10813: 10811: 10808: 10806: 10803: 10799: 10796: 10794: 10793:Surgical mask 10791: 10789: 10786: 10785: 10784: 10781: 10779: 10776: 10774: 10771: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10756: 10753: 10752: 10751: 10750:Public health 10748: 10746: 10743: 10739: 10736: 10735: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10722: 10719: 10718: 10717: 10714: 10710: 10707: 10705: 10702: 10700: 10697: 10696: 10695: 10692: 10690: 10687: 10685: 10682: 10680: 10677: 10675: 10672: 10670: 10667: 10666: 10664: 10662: 10656: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10624: 10623: 10620: 10618: 10615: 10613: 10610: 10608: 10605: 10603: 10602:Phage therapy 10600: 10598: 10595: 10591: 10588: 10587: 10586: 10585:Immunotherapy 10583: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10573: 10571: 10568: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10549: 10546: 10545: 10544: 10543:Antimicrobial 10541: 10537: 10534: 10533: 10532: 10529: 10527: 10524: 10520: 10517: 10516: 10515: 10512: 10511: 10509: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10492: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10473: 10470: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10457: 10455: 10452: 10450: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10436: 10434:Genitourinary 10433: 10429: 10426: 10425: 10424: 10421: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10408: 10406: 10405: 10403: 10397: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10339: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10324: 10320: 10317: 10315: 10312: 10311: 10310: 10307: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10296: 10294: 10292:in population 10288: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10256:Herd immunity 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10219: 10218: 10216: 10214: 10210: 10192: 10189: 10188: 10186: 10182: 10175: 10174: 10172: 10168: 10161: 10160: 10158: 10154: 10148: 10145: 10144: 10142: 10140:Genitourinary 10138: 10132: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10112: 10110: 10106: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10090: 10087: 10083: 10082:Contamination 10080: 10079: 10078: 10075: 10074: 10072: 10068: 10060: 10057: 10055: 10052: 10051: 10050:Vector-borne 10049: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10036: 10034: 10030: 10027: 10024: 10022: 10019: 10017: 10014: 10013: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10005: 10003: 9997: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9979: 9976: 9975: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9965: 9963: 9959: 9956: 9952: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9940: 9934: 9928: 9925: 9921: 9918: 9914: 9911: 9908: 9905: 9904: 9903: 9900: 9899: 9897: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9884: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9876: 9874: 9870: 9866: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9841: 9839: 9837: 9836:Cross-species 9833: 9830: 9826: 9819: 9816: 9813: 9810: 9808: 9805: 9803: 9800: 9797: 9796: 9794: 9790: 9787: 9783: 9777: 9776:Window period 9774: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9741:Latent period 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9703: 9701: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9686: 9676: 9673: 9671: 9668: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9658: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9648: 9644: 9641: 9640: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9620:Deforestation 9618: 9616: 9613: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9600: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9590: 9587: 9585: 9582: 9581: 9579: 9577: 9573: 9565:Stress levels 9564: 9561: 9557: 9554: 9553: 9551: 9548: 9545: 9542: 9539: 9536: 9535: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9512: 9509: 9507: 9504: 9503: 9502: 9499: 9497: 9494: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9482: 9479: 9478: 9476: 9474: 9470: 9464: 9461: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9443: 9442: 9439: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9416: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9407: 9403: 9400: 9399: 9398: 9397:Pathogenicity 9395: 9391: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9372: 9370: 9368: 9364: 9361: 9357: 9352: 9348: 9340: 9335: 9333: 9328: 9326: 9321: 9320: 9317: 9303: 9302:ectoparasites 9300: 9299: 9298: 9295: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9282: 9281: 9278: 9274: 9271: 9270: 9269: 9266: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9253: 9252: 9249: 9245: 9242: 9241: 9240: 9237: 9236: 9234: 9232: 9227: 9223: 9219: 9212: 9207: 9205: 9200: 9198: 9193: 9192: 9189: 9182: 9181: 9177: 9174: 9171: 9168: 9165: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9153: 9143: 9139: 9138: 9134: 9132: 9128: 9127: 9123: 9121: 9117: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9106: 9102: 9098: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9088: 9085: 9080: 9076: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9040: 9037:(8): 105–18. 9036: 9032: 9025: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8998: 8994: 8990: 8987:(8): 119–29. 8986: 8982: 8975: 8968: 8952: 8948: 8947: 8942: 8935: 8927: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8899: 8895: 8891: 8887: 8886: 8881: 8874: 8858: 8854: 8853: 8848: 8841: 8834: 8828: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8808: 8804: 8800: 8793: 8784: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8756: 8748: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8714: 8707: 8699: 8695: 8692:(2): 129–54. 8691: 8687: 8680: 8672: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8633: 8628: 8621: 8613: 8607: 8603: 8599: 8598: 8590: 8582: 8576: 8572: 8568: 8567: 8559: 8551: 8550: 8542: 8534: 8533: 8524: 8516: 8512: 8509:(4): 541–43. 8508: 8504: 8500: 8493: 8485: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8467: 8463: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8447: 8443: 8436: 8428: 8427: 8419: 8404: 8400: 8396: 8392: 8388: 8382: 8374: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8339: 8330: 8325: 8321: 8317: 8313: 8309: 8305: 8304:"Summer buzz" 8298: 8290: 8284: 8280: 8273: 8271: 8262: 8258: 8252: 8246: 8242: 8239: 8235: 8230: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8187: 8181: 8177: 8174: 8170: 8165: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8136: 8118: 8114: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8097:(2): 115–26. 8096: 8092: 8085: 8078: 8076: 8069: 8068:archive.today 8065: 8062: 8057: 8049: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8032:(5): 454–61. 8031: 8027: 8023: 8016: 8001: 7997: 7991: 7984: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7971:leishmaniasis 7968: 7964: 7960: 7954: 7948: 7944: 7943: 7938: 7934: 7928: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7907: 7896: 7889: 7883: 7872: 7865: 7859: 7843: 7839: 7833: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7814: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7785: 7777: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7759: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7727: 7720: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7663: 7655: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7606: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7575:(4): 352–58. 7574: 7570: 7563: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7534: 7526: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7485: 7477: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7427: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7375: 7367: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7342:(3): 192–95. 7341: 7337: 7333: 7326: 7310: 7306: 7300: 7286: 7282: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7260: 7253: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7203: 7196: 7181: 7177: 7176: 7168: 7160: 7154: 7150: 7143: 7135: 7129: 7124: 7123: 7114: 7112: 7097:on 2009-09-24 7096: 7092: 7088: 7082: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7030: 7021: 7012: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6960: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6917: 6909: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6892:(1): E9–E12. 6891: 6887: 6883: 6876: 6868: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6827: 6819: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6776: 6774: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6744:9780963117212 6740: 6736: 6735: 6728: 6724: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6699: 6698:public domain 6693: 6691: 6682: 6676: 6672: 6665: 6663: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6615: 6607: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6501: 6493: 6487: 6483: 6476: 6461: 6457: 6450: 6442: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6393: 6391: 6382: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6333: 6325: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6276: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6225:"Nocardiosis" 6219: 6211: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6160: 6152: 6146: 6142: 6135: 6127: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6076: 6068: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6009: 6001: 5995: 5991: 5984: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5940: 5938: 5929: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5902:(183167): 3. 5901: 5897: 5893: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5829: 5821: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5788:: e141–e162. 5787: 5783: 5779: 5772: 5758:on 2024-01-02 5757: 5753: 5749: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5728: 5723: 5719: 5717:9780128037089 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5682: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5639: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5604: 5596: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5497: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5448: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5430: 5425: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5377: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5347: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5300: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5251:PLOS Medicine 5248: 5241: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5212: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5146: 5141: 5137: 5135:9780126990577 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5108: 5089: 5085: 5078: 5072: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5049:(6): 605–11. 5048: 5044: 5037: 5029: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4966:on 2016-12-02 4965: 4961: 4957: 4951: 4936: 4933:. St. Louis. 4932: 4928: 4922: 4914: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4889:(7): 654–59. 4888: 4884: 4880: 4873: 4865: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4814: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4785:9780963117212 4781: 4777: 4776: 4768: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4739: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4710: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4676: 4670: 4666: 4659: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4617: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4560: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4537:(1): 155–71. 4536: 4532: 4525: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4496: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4459: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4430: 4423: 4413:on 2015-02-06 4412: 4408: 4402: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4353: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4224: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4032: 4027: 4026:Space Shuttle 4021: 4017: 4013: 4003: 4001: 4000:Herrerasaurus 3997: 3993: 3992: 3991:Tyrannosaurus 3987: 3986: 3981: 3980: 3975: 3974:Herrerasaurus 3970: 3969: 3964: 3960: 3952: 3951: 3950:Herrerasaurus 3946: 3941: 3934:Fossil record 3931: 3928: 3924: 3910: 3907: 3903: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3862:immunologists 3859: 3855: 3854:pulmonologist 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3826:medical field 3823: 3813: 3811: 3807: 3806:sulphonamides 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3766:Edward Jenner 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3750:Louis Pasteur 3746: 3742: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3718:Ibn al-Khatib 3708: 3704: 3701: 3696: 3694: 3690: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3652:miasma theory 3649: 3645: 3641: 3640: 3635: 3631: 3626: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3610: 175 AD 3604: 3600: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3568: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3545:Uncontrolled 3544: 3541: 3537: 3534: 3530: 3527: 3523: 3522: 3521: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3499: 3495: 3494:host organism 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3472: 3469:, leading to 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3447: 3445: 3441: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3380: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3330: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3315:poliomyelitis 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3286: 3279: 3276:9, 10, 16–18 3275: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3260: 3257: 3256: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3213: 3212: 3208: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3190: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3168: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3117: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3080: 3079: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3031: 3027: 3024: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 3010: 3009: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2983:(in millions) 2980: 2976:Percentage of 2975: 2973:(in millions) 2970: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2960: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2935: ≥50,000 2930: 2922: 2914: 2906: 2898: 2890: 2882: 2874: 2866: 2858: 2855: 250–500 2850: 2842: 2839: no data 2834: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2784: 284–516 2778: 213–283 2772: 172–212 2766: 115–171 2746: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2731: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2715: 2714:immune system 2711: 2707: 2703: 2698: 2688: 2685: 2681: 2680:self-limiting 2676: 2674: 2673:tetracyclines 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2628:antiprotozoal 2625: 2624:antiparasitic 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2603: 2592: 2590: 2586: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2569:treated with 2568: 2557: 2556:to newborns. 2555: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2540: 2539:herd immunity 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2517: 2513: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2494:opsonoization 2491: 2487: 2486: 2485: 2483: 2482:T lymphocytes 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2459: 2458:typhoid fever 2455: 2451: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2393: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2369: 2359: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2348:disinfectants 2346: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2333: 2332: 2331: 2329: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2292:Public health 2283: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2251: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2211: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2191: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2108: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2099: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2010:antimicrobial 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1952: 1942: 1940: 1930: 1928: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1907: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1869: 1867: 1864:(rather than 1863: 1862: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1825: 1824:Herpesviridae 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1803: 1799: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1724: 1715: 1713: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1645: 1642: 1634: 1623: 1620: 1616: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1592: – 1591: 1587: 1586:Find sources: 1580: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1564:This article 1562: 1558: 1553: 1552: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1505: 1496: 1492: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1482:refrigeration 1479: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1453:hemagglutinin 1450: 1446: 1442: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1406:carbohydrates 1403: 1399: 1389: 1387: 1386: 1381: 1380: 1379:Mycobacterium 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1345:electrostatic 1342: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1274:xenodiagnosis 1271: 1270: 1265: 1261: 1256: 1255: 1250: 1249: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1213:growth medium 1210: 1202: 1201:Gram negative 1198: 1197:nutrient agar 1193: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1173: 1171: 1170:pathognomonic 1160: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1110: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1088: 1084: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1025: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 997: 993: 990: 987: 984: 980: 976: 972: 969: 966: 962: 959: 956: 952: 949: 946: 942: 938: 937: 932: 931: 926: 922: 921: 916: 915: 910: 906: 903: 900: 896: 892: 889: 888: 887: 881:among others. 880: 879:avian malaria 876: 872: 868: 867: 861: 856: 846: 843: 839: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 812: 807: 803: 794: 792: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 769: 767: 763: 759: 755: 747: 743: 740: 737: 733: 730: 726: 725: 724: 717: 713: 711: 710:wound healing 707: 706: 701: 699: 694: 690: 686: 682: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 636:immune system 634:a suppressed 628: 623: 614: 612: 608: 599: 586: 583: 581: 578: 575: 574: 570: 569:ear infection 565: 562: 558: 553: 550: 549: 546: 543: 541: 538: 535: 534: 528: 526: 515: 513: 508: 503: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 468: 465: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 437: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 411: 407: 403: 399: 396: 395: 390: 389: 384: 380: 379: 377: 374: 370: 368: 363: 362:Basidiomycota 360: 357: 356:dermatophytes 354:species; and 353: 352: 348: 346: 341: 337: 336: 331: 328: 327: 325: 322: 319: 318: 313: 312: 307: 306: 301: 300: 295: 294: 289: 288: 283: 279: 276: 273: 272: 267: 266: 261: 260: 255: 254: 249: 248: 243: 240: 239: 238: 237:) including: 236: 226: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 191: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 82: 80: 76: 72: 69: 65: 60: 56: 51: 46: 38: 36: 31: 24: 19: 14014:Epidemiology 13936:Chondropathy 13931:Bone disease 13903:Skin disease 13731:Malnutrition 13708:Benign tumor 13689: 13587:Epidemiology 13563: 13535: 13421:DTaP-IPV/Hib 13212:Yellow fever 13125:EpiVacCorona 12882:Tuberculosis 12855:Pneumococcal 12823:Lyme disease 12651:Heterologous 12561: 12550:Immunization 12474:Enzyme assay 12320: 12315: 12304:Karyorrhexis 12280:Myocytolysis 12270:Fat necrosis 12175:Inflammation 12163:Hemodynamics 12156:Pathogenesis 12140: 11990:Rural health 11975:Nanomedicine 11526:Rheumatology 11457: / 11376:Hand surgery 11361:Neurosurgery 11128:Yellow fever 11118:Tuberculosis 10733:Notification 10704:Hand washing 10699:Food hygiene 10684:Disinfection 10580:Immunization 10531:Anthelmintic 10519:prophylactic 10407:Respiratory 10331:Hyperendemic 10281:WAIFW matrix 9936:Environment- 9689:Transmission 9665:Urbanization 9463:Host tropism 9359:Determinants 9346: 9345:Concepts in 9280:Parasitology 9239:Bacteriology 9222:microbiology 9217: 9178: 9135: 9124: 9109: 9090: 9034: 9030: 9024: 8984: 8980: 8967: 8957:14 September 8955:. Retrieved 8944: 8934: 8892:(4): e6237. 8889: 8883: 8873: 8863:14 September 8861:. Retrieved 8857:the original 8850: 8840: 8832: 8827: 8802: 8798: 8792: 8765: 8755: 8720: 8716: 8706: 8689: 8685: 8679: 8636: 8630: 8620: 8596: 8589: 8565: 8558: 8548: 8541: 8530: 8523: 8506: 8502: 8492: 8449: 8445: 8435: 8425: 8418: 8407:. Retrieved 8390: 8381: 8348: 8344: 8338: 8311: 8307: 8297: 8278: 8261:the original 8251: 8237: 8229: 8196: 8192: 8186: 8172: 8164: 8153:. Retrieved 8144: 8135: 8124:. Retrieved 8094: 8090: 8056: 8029: 8025: 8015: 8004:. Retrieved 7990: 7963:dengue fever 7953: 7940: 7927: 7906: 7882: 7858: 7846:. Retrieved 7832: 7813: 7802:. Retrieved 7784: 7733: 7729: 7719: 7676: 7672: 7662: 7619: 7615: 7605: 7572: 7568: 7562: 7551:. Retrieved 7542: 7533: 7498: 7494: 7484: 7441: 7437: 7426: 7385: 7381: 7374: 7339: 7335: 7325: 7313:. Retrieved 7299: 7289:, retrieved 7262: 7252: 7209: 7205: 7195: 7184:. Retrieved 7174: 7167: 7149:The hot zone 7148: 7142: 7121: 7099:. Retrieved 7095:the original 7090: 7081: 7070:. Retrieved 7043: 7039: 7029: 7020: 6973: 6969: 6959: 6926: 6922: 6916: 6889: 6885: 6875: 6840: 6836: 6826: 6792:(11): 2413. 6789: 6785: 6761:. Retrieved 6733: 6671:Microbiology 6670: 6651:, retrieved 6624: 6614: 6574:(1): 86–87. 6571: 6567: 6557: 6514: 6510: 6500: 6481: 6475: 6465:17 September 6463:. Retrieved 6459: 6449: 6406: 6402: 6346: 6342: 6332: 6289: 6286:Gut Microbes 6285: 6275: 6232: 6228: 6218: 6173: 6169: 6159: 6140: 6134: 6089: 6085: 6075: 6022: 6018: 6008: 5989: 5983: 5950: 5946: 5899: 5895: 5885: 5842: 5838: 5828: 5785: 5781: 5771: 5760:. Retrieved 5756:the original 5751: 5699: 5689: 5652: 5648: 5638: 5613: 5609: 5603: 5568: 5564: 5554: 5543:. Retrieved 5510: 5506: 5496: 5461: 5457: 5447: 5439: 5424: 5413:. Retrieved 5404: 5395: 5376: 5364:. Retrieved 5355: 5346: 5336:, retrieved 5309: 5299: 5254: 5250: 5240: 5229:. Retrieved 5225:the original 5220: 5211: 5168: 5164: 5154: 5117: 5107: 5095:. Retrieved 5084:immunize.org 5083: 5071: 5046: 5042: 5036: 4993: 4989: 4979: 4968:. Retrieved 4964:the original 4959: 4950: 4939:. Retrieved 4930: 4921: 4886: 4882: 4872: 4827: 4823: 4813: 4802:. Retrieved 4774: 4767: 4757:, retrieved 4748: 4738: 4727:. Retrieved 4718: 4709: 4697:. Retrieved 4693:the original 4683: 4664: 4658: 4647:. Retrieved 4638: 4605: 4577:. Retrieved 4568: 4559: 4534: 4530: 4524: 4513:. Retrieved 4504: 4495: 4485:, retrieved 4468: 4458: 4447:. Retrieved 4438: 4429: 4421: 4415:. Retrieved 4411:the original 4401: 4366: 4362: 4352: 4341:. Retrieved 4332: 4323: 4312:. Retrieved 4269: 4265: 4255: 4245:, retrieved 4236: 4227: 4050:, funded by 4029: 4023: 3999: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3973: 3966: 3956: 3948: 3919: 3888:chemotherapy 3870: 3838:primary care 3834:Epidemiology 3819: 3774:Albert Sabin 3745:William Budd 3738: 3697: 3689:Islamic diet 3667: 3656:tuberculosis 3643: 3637: 3627: 3602: 3570: 3547:urbanization 3540:rain forests 3510:vector-borne 3503: 3437: 3416:tuberculosis 3354: 3292: 3282: 3085:Tuberculosis 2958: 2945: 2942: 2760: 82–114 2740:Epidemiology 2735: 2728: 2718: 2694: 2677: 2610:; including 2601: 2598: 2588: 2582: 2563: 2543: 2520: 2516:inflammation 2509: 2498:phagocytosis 2463: 2416: 2412:pest control 2405: 2394: 2364: 2358:prophylactic 2326: 2318:hand washing 2311: 2268:inflammation 2265: 2224:organ system 2222:location or 2217: 2197: 2172:Epidemiology 2170: 2161: 2157:, cannot be 2144: 2138: 2134:tuberculosis 2130:Mycobacteria 2114: 2102: 2096: 2093:appendicitis 2082: 2061:complication 2050: 2025:chemotherapy 1980: 1954: 1936: 1924: 1920: 1909: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1875: 1865: 1861:colonization 1859: 1858:to speak of 1843: 1831: 1829: 1822: 1810: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1784: 1766:geographical 1729: 1709: 1667:rather than 1656:encephalitis 1652: 1637: 1628: 1618: 1611: 1604: 1597: 1585: 1573:Please help 1568:verification 1565: 1525: 1510: 1493: 1489:immunoassays 1486: 1475: 1472:Strep throat 1465: 1460: 1438: 1418:fermentation 1395: 1383: 1377: 1338: 1299: 1289: 1281: 1267: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1206: 1174: 1166: 1154: 1123: 1111: 1103: 1080: 1067: 1065: 1039: 1026:transmission 1022: 994: 988: 970: 960: 950: 934: 928: 918: 912: 904: 894: 890: 884: 864: 849:Transmission 844: 840: 809: 800: 793: 770: 751: 722: 703: 696: 656: 632: 617:Colonization 610: 606: 604: 521: 507:asymptomatic 504: 477: 429:schistosomes 404:) including 392: 386: 367:Cryptococcus 365: 351:Pneumocystis 349: 343: 334: 315: 309: 305:Rabies virus 303: 299:Lyssaviruses 297: 291: 285: 269: 263: 257: 251: 245: 232: 192: 184:inflammation 157: 148: 144: 140: 120: 116: 34: 18: 13790:Ear disease 13785:Eye disease 13623:from market 13519:Controversy 13453:researchers 13369:Hepatitis B 13255:Hepatitis C 13200:Chicken pox 13026:Hepatitis E 13021:Hepatitis B 13016:Hepatitis A 12967:Chikungunya 12944:Shigellosis 12798:Brucellosis 12684:Therapeutic 12638:Inactivated 12578:Development 12566:Inoculation 12558:Vaccination 12328:Hemosiderin 12209:Hyperplasia 12204:Hypertrophy 12180:Cell damage 12060:Wikiproject 11849:Venereology 11794:Neonatology 11691:Dermatology 11546:Gynaecology 11538:gynaecology 11521:Pulmonology 11339:Eye surgery 11301:Specialties 11210:(1918–1920) 11208:Spanish flu 11204:(1346–1353) 11202:Black Death 11159:Robert Koch 11062:History of 10986:Eradication 10897:Biosecurity 10622:Vaccination 10597:Inoculation 10575:Drug safety 10570:Combination 10497:and Control 10445:Soft tissue 10399:Anatomical 10366:Seasonality 10346:Mesoendemic 10326:Holoendemic 10319:Farr's laws 10231:Attack rate 10029:Animal bite 10025:Insect bite 9961:Respiratory 9588:Air quality 9576:Environment 9486:Comorbidity 9402:Attack rate 9385:Infectivity 8717:J R Soc Med 8452:(1): 1–34. 8314:(3): 1184. 5120:: 193–220. 4830:(9): 2392. 4689:"Infection" 4233:"infection" 4107:Coinfection 4076:antibiotics 4056:spaceflight 4006:Outer space 3906:antibiotics 3786:eradication 3758:Robert Koch 3722:Renaissance 3714: 1369 3700:Black Death 3685: 1250 3533:agriculture 3531:Changes in 3451:Coevolution 3423:Spanish flu 3379:Black Death 3363:(or global 3240:Hepatitis B 2981:Deaths 1993 2971:Deaths 2002 2754: 28–81 2644:intravenous 2626:(including 2567:hepatitis C 2531:vaccination 2454:Mary Mallon 2419:quarantined 2354:antibiotics 2335:antiseptics 2280:salpingitis 2121:Robert Koch 2041:HIV disease 1906:Coinfection 1842:implying a 1802:subclinical 1795:inapparent, 1754:serological 1664:Metagenomic 1590:"Infection" 1541:neurotoxins 1529:clostridial 1477:S. pyogenes 1467:Serological 1343:due to the 1325:fluorescent 1314:biochemical 1260:embryonated 1062:to another. 925:rotaviruses 666:mutualistic 652:oral cavity 525:antibiotics 459:infestation 345:Aspergillus 207:antifungals 199:antibiotics 195:medications 14003:Categories 13554:Thiomersal 13500:Paul Offit 13475:Jonas Salk 13451:Inventors/ 13322:research: 13299:research: 13236:research: 13165:Skycovione 13155:Sanofi–GSK 13100:SARS-CoV-2 13011:Hantavirus 12977:rVSV-ZEBOV 12962:Adenovirus 12930:research: 12808:Diphtheria 12646:Attenuated 12494:Blood bank 12337:Lipofuscin 12333:Lipochrome 12309:Karyolysis 12238:Cell death 12219:Metaplasia 11822:Psychiatry 11808:(PM&R) 11801:Phlebology 11789:Pediatrics 11616:Anatomical 11581:Diagnostic 11561:Obstetrics 11511:Nephrology 11496:Hematology 11491:Geriatrics 11484:Hepatology 11469:Cardiology 11459:Immunology 11169:Jonas Salk 10869:infections 10810:Sanitation 10778:Quarantine 10637:resistance 10555:Antiseptic 10536:Ascaricide 10526:Antifungal 10514:Antibiotic 10495:Prevention 10428:Intestinal 10361:Prevalence 10341:Inequality 10290:Occurrence 10089:Breastmilk 9973:Bioaerosol 9945:Sapronosis 9920:Horizontal 9792:Endogenous 9771:Viral load 9731:Index case 9297:Entomology 9137:DiseasesDB 8409:2023-11-17 8391:HathiTrust 8155:2023-11-17 8126:2013-11-27 8091:BioScience 8006:2015-09-24 7916:influenzas 7912:pneumonias 7848:21 October 7804:2020-10-05 7553:2020-11-10 7291:2023-03-02 7186:2022-10-20 7101:2010-01-21 7072:2017-03-26 6763:2013-11-27 6653:2020-01-23 6176:(5): 250. 5762:2024-01-02 5545:2022-06-28 5415:2017-04-19 5366:17 October 5338:2021-08-13 5231:2010-01-14 4970:2016-12-02 4941:2016-12-02 4804:2022-10-20 4759:2023-11-17 4729:2023-11-10 4649:2023-11-10 4579:2022-04-22 4515:2019-12-09 4487:2019-12-09 4469:StatPearls 4449:2019-12-09 4417:2015-08-20 4343:2022-04-22 4314:2021-03-26 4247:2023-11-17 4219:References 4002:specimen. 3985:Allosaurus 3804:developed 3798:penicillin 3794:antibiotic 3770:Jonas Salk 3734:microscopy 3707:Al-Andalus 3632:physician 3588: 460 3581:Thucydides 3579:historian 3480:, such as 3337:See also: 3319:diphtheria 3196:Meningitis 2986:1993 Rank 2978:all deaths 2847: ≤250 2814:See also: 2710:interferon 2702:SARS-CoV-2 2669:quinolones 2665:macrolides 2653:penicillin 2648:resistance 2620:antifungal 2608:antibiotic 2595:Treatments 2490:complement 2478:antibodies 2286:Prevention 2276:meningitis 2208:quarantine 2151:spirochete 2089:nosocomial 2085:iatrogenic 2053:root cause 1904:See also: 1749:hypotheses 1732:indication 1601:newspapers 1531:diseases ( 1362:Gram stain 1302:microscopy 1296:Microscopy 1286:triatomine 1237:Eukaryotic 1119:antibodies 1024:Iatrogenic 1013:childbirth 941:tape worms 909:fecal-oral 779:analysis, 766:peritoneum 689:human skin 500:runny nose 439:Arthropods 427:, such as 425:trematodes 413:roundworms 388:Toxoplasma 330:Ascomycota 311:Ebolavirus 293:Rhinovirus 271:Salmonella 203:antivirals 190:response. 71:sporozoite 66:showing a 13690:Infection 13633:Phase III 13621:Withdrawn 13549:Pox party 13359:ALVAC-CEA 13281:Protozoan 13170:Sputnik V 13120:CoronaVac 13090:Rotavirus 12993:Pandemrix 12845:Pertussis 12786:Bacterial 12670:Synthetic 12633:Conjugate 12585:Adjuvants 12562:Infection 12349:Steatosis 12292:Apoptosis 12229:Glandular 12214:Dysplasia 12146:Neoplasia 12141:Infection 12122:Pathology 12010:Physician 11894:education 11752:Neurology 11747:Narcology 11611:Pathology 11589:Radiology 11464:Angiology 11428:Andrology 11179:John Snow 10981:Discovery 10907:Disease X 10867:Emerging 10815:Screening 10716:Isolation 10560:Antiviral 10386:Twindemic 10336:Incidence 10213:Modelling 10176:Perinatal 10108:Cutaneous 9999:Linked to 9909:Perinatal 9828:Exogenous 9820:formation 9562:Pregnancy 9419:Endotoxin 9414:Virulence 9290:helminths 9231:pathogens 9183:(journal) 8653:0959-8138 8466:0025-7273 7888:"Table 5" 7758:1476-4687 7711:225041500 7695:0036-8075 7636:1539-3704 7543:Drugs.com 7501:: 25–64. 7315:11 August 7011:198135563 6951:201283277 6720:Chapter 8 6588:2080-4806 6531:0901-8328 6517:: 22766. 6423:1234-1983 6363:2234-3806 6306:1949-0976 6249:0095-1137 6192:1999-4915 6108:1935-2735 6049:0027-8424 5859:0095-1137 5802:1733-134X 5702:: 22–39. 5507:Evolution 5458:Evolution 5273:1549-1277 5185:1474-1741 5010:0893-8512 4931:StudyBlue 4846:1420-3049 4824:Molecules 4304:227067133 4288:2154-1663 3886:or after 3850:internist 3846:pneumonia 3810:synthetic 3741:John Snow 3698:When the 3648:epidemics 3573:Antiquity 3554:transport 3467:virulence 3463:resistant 3444:commensal 3427:Influenza 3402:influenza 3311:pertussis 3152:Pertussis 2636:topically 2616:antiviral 2579:ribavirin 2435:lockdowns 2368:virulence 2356:, called 2272:pneumonia 2204:influenza 2018:poisoning 2012:drugs or 2004:(such as 1990:traumatic 1939:virulence 1916:pathogens 1866:infection 1848:ambiguity 1832:infection 1830:The word 1758:genotypic 1434:selective 1402:enzymatic 1398:metabolic 1370:Bacillota 1366:acid-fast 1352:stain or 1240:parasites 1134:PET scans 1130:CAT scans 1090:abscesses 1087:cutaneous 1077:Diagnosis 1058:from one 1056:pathogens 1030:injection 1009:pregnancy 923:species, 736:virulence 678:mammalian 670:commensal 433:helminths 421:tapeworms 410:parasitic 406:nematodes 376:Parasites 284:. (E.g. 235:pathogens 193:Specific 176:Mammalian 160:pathogens 129:pathogens 121:infection 102:parasitic 94:Bacterial 79:Specialty 48:Infection 37:(journal) 13981:Medicine 13391:Prostvac 13384:Gardasil 13379:Cervarix 13326:Hookworm 13205:Shingles 13187:Smallpox 13105:Corbevax 13041:Gardasil 13036:Cervarix 12779:Vaccines 12733:Schedule 12704:Global: 12612:Timeline 12554:Vaccines 12504:Serology 12299:Pyknosis 12245:Necrosis 12224:Squamous 12168:Ischemia 12040:Category 11516:Oncology 11447:medicine 11445:Internal 11293:Medicine 11113:Syphilis 11108:Smallpox 11083:HIV/AIDS 10890:EARS-Net 10805:Safe sex 10757:services 10728:Lockdown 10499:measures 10401:location 10381:Syndemic 10376:Sporadic 10356:Pandemic 10351:Outbreak 10309:Epidemic 10162:Prenatal 10054:Mosquito 9938:to-human 9913:Neonatal 9906:Prenatal 9854:Zoonosis 9699:concepts 9630:Humidity 9615:Commerce 9491:Diabetes 9424:Exotoxin 9285:protozoa 9268:Mycology 9251:Virology 9244:bacteria 9059:11542695 9013:Archived 9009:11542696 8951:Archived 8926:23658630 8885:PLOS ONE 8819:19683831 8768:: 1–50. 8747:12411628 8698:15309812 8671:16373721 8571:ABC-CLIO 8403:Archived 8373:10642539 8241:Archived 8221:20357515 8176:Archived 8149:Archived 8117:Archived 8064:Archived 8048:22296079 8000:Archived 7937:botulism 7895:Archived 7893:. 1995. 7871:Archived 7869:. 2004. 7842:Archived 7822:Archived 7798:Archived 7776:36261521 7703:33093097 7654:32491919 7589:23806898 7547:Archived 7525:25232278 7476:19759533 7410:19684573 7366:16476746 7309:Archived 7285:archived 7244:16914744 7236:11303090 7180:Archived 7066:Archived 7002:31325286 6993:10957193 6943:31440916 6908:28515626 6867:31027668 6818:29135922 6757:Archived 6753:21413252 6723:Archived 6712:Archived 6701:Archived 6647:archived 6643:21413348 6606:24982790 6549:24167660 6441:24078518 6381:22779069 6324:22572875 6267:14532173 6210:29748498 6126:25793495 6067:20855600 5975:28014329 5967:20132979 5928:25614838 5877:31142607 5820:35505859 5681:28448507 5630:18657880 5595:86478171 5539:Archived 5535:73418339 5527:30734920 5488:85448255 5480:30900249 5432:Archived 5409:Archived 5384:Archived 5360:Archived 5332:archived 5328:21250326 5291:26633705 5203:20577268 5088:Archived 5063:22318282 5028:26016486 4935:Archived 4913:23778792 4864:30231567 4798:Archived 4794:21413346 4753:archived 4723:Archived 4643:Archived 4573:Archived 4509:Archived 4481:archived 4477:28613714 4443:Archived 4393:25530442 4337:Archived 4308:Archived 4296:33208389 4241:archived 4090:See also 4072:bacteria 4064:microbes 4040:virulent 3927:polygyny 3778:smallpox 3705:reached 3676:scholar 3634:Ibn Sina 3622:Sushruta 3526:habitats 3506:zoonotic 3498:zoonoses 3490:pathogen 3455:parasite 3453:between 3408:Smallpox 3386:smallpox 3365:epidemic 3361:pandemic 3218:Syphilis 2820:Pandemic 2816:Epidemic 2697:COVID-19 2523:immunity 2474:immunity 2470:inoculum 2445:Immunity 2390:epidemic 2220:anatomic 2188:pandemic 2184:epidemic 2176:outbreak 2162:in vitro 2159:cultured 2155:syphilis 2141:pathogen 1994:surgical 1886:subacute 1827:family. 1791:clinical 1787:apparent 1762:temporal 1537:botulism 1455:to bind 1426:alcohols 1385:Nocardia 1364:and the 1329:antigens 1321:antibody 1317:staining 1290:T. cruzi 1282:T. cruzi 1217:bacteria 1203:bacteria 1177:cyanosis 1115:antigens 1048:organism 979:impetigo 830:causing 729:pathogen 693:virulent 496:coughing 441:such as 417:pinworms 408:such as 302:such as 242:Bacteria 219:medicine 188:adaptive 164:bacteria 151:, is an 13993:Viruses 13967:Portals 13580:Related 13526:General 13288:Malaria 13175:Valneva 13140:Novavax 13135:Moderna 13130:Janssen 13115:CanSino 13095:Rubella 13053:Measles 12924:Td/Tdap 12894:Typhoid 12877:Tetanus 12872:Q fever 12803:Cholera 12793:Anthrax 12662:Peptide 12626:Classes 12607:Storage 12377:Autopsy 12342:Melanin 12322:pigment 12199:Atrophy 12136:Disease 12080:Outline 12050:Commons 11995:Therapy 11892:Medical 11455:Allergy 11423:Urology 11316:Surgery 11093:Malaria 11088:Leprosy 11078:Cholera 10694:Hygiene 10632:booster 10565:Asepsis 10304:Endemic 10299:Cluster 9883:Source 9818:Biofilm 9655:Poverty 9625:Ecology 9603:El Niño 9556:Smoking 9434:factors 9375:Biofilm 9351:Outline 9256:viruses 9131:D003141 9120:001-139 9039:Bibcode 8989:Bibcode 8946:Gizmodo 8917:3639165 8894:Bibcode 8783:7176254 8738:1279260 8662:1322233 8515:6399073 8484:6339840 8475:1139262 8353:Bibcode 8345:Science 8329:3903457 8213:9341063 8113:1312814 7998:. WHO. 7942:E. coli 7933:cholera 7767:9580435 7738:Bibcode 7673:Science 7645:7281624 7597:5487584 7516:4159373 7467:3172006 7446:Bibcode 7418:1707096 7390:Bibcode 7357:2465549 7214:Bibcode 7206:Science 7061:7115270 6899:5432783 6858:7096727 6809:5713381 6597:4074726 6540:3809354 6454:Lee R. 6432:3825189 6372:3384809 6315:3463488 6201:5977243 6170:Viruses 6117:4368190 6058:2951449 6027:Bibcode 5919:4295611 5868:6711893 5811:9047866 5727:7150340 5672:5423694 5573:Bibcode 5282:4668834 5194:3899649 5145:7149788 5019:4451395 4904:3760236 4855:6225154 4384:4340604 4058:on the 4024:A 2006 3852:or the 3693:hygiene 3669:najasat 3662:in the 3630:Persian 3552:Modern 3357:history 3327:tetanus 3323:measles 3307:malaria 3174:Tetanus 3130:Measles 3108:Malaria 2480:and/or 2306:hygiene 2180:endemic 2057:sequela 2037:malaria 2033:measles 1986:colitis 1975:or the 1882:chronic 1798:silent, 1697:plasmid 1669:primers 1615:scholar 1533:tetanus 1521:genomes 1517:primers 1441:enzymes 1414:species 1233:viruses 1142:abscess 1052:disease 965:kissing 920:Giardia 869:) is a 802:Disease 797:Disease 785:sterile 764:or the 758:sterile 498:, or a 484:fatigue 394:Babesia 383:malaria 335:Candida 282:viroids 278:Viruses 168:viruses 153:illness 125:tissues 68:malaria 13713:Cancer 13616:WHO-EM 13536:Lancet 13413:TA-NIC 13398:NicVAX 13245:Dengue 13085:Rabies 12911:Typhus 12850:Plague 12728:Policy 12689:Toxoid 12617:Trials 12070:Portal 11937:MD–PhD 11137:People 11098:Plague 10902:CRISPR 10854:Zoning 10709:Gloves 10120:Fomite 9954:Routes 9849:Vector 9716:Fomite 9697:Basic 9660:Travel 9540:Gender 9261:prions 9169:(IDSA) 9057: 9007: 8924: 8914: 8817: 8780: 8745: 8735: 8696: 8669: 8659: 8651: 8608: 8577: 8532:plates 8513: 8482: 8472: 8464: 8371: 8326: 8285: 8219: 8211: 8111: 8046: 7939:, and 7774: 7764: 7756: 7730:Nature 7709: 7701: 7693: 7652: 7642: 7634: 7595: 7587: 7523: 7513: 7474: 7464: 7438:Nature 7416: 7408: 7382:Nature 7364: 7354: 7277: 7242: 7234: 7155: 7130: 7058: 7008: 7000: 6990: 6949: 6941: 6906: 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