647:
846:
the towns and countryside in the northern region since 1981. In order to deprive the SNM of a civilian base of support in their area of operation, those living in rural areas between
Hargeisa and the Ethiopian border have suffered particularly brutal treatment. A scorched earth policy that involved the burning of farms, the killing of livestock, the destruction of water-storage tanks and the deliberate poisoning of wells, has been pursued actively by the military. The principal towns have been subjected to a curfew for several years; arbitrary restrictions on the extension of the curfew have facilitated extortion by soldiers and curfew patrols. Internal travel is controlled through military checkpoints .... The existence of the SNM has provided a pretext for President Barre and his military deputies in the north to wage a war against peaceful citizens and to enable them to consolidate their control of the country by terrorizing anyone who is suspected of not being wholeheartedly pro-government. Years of sustained state violence have created a serious level of political unrest in the region.
312:
888:
1043:
165:
447:
838:
36:
1103:
221:
856:
2894:
3478:
108:
3488:
154:
182:
120:
1087:". Although there were hopes amongst of Northern communities for succession as early as 1961, the SNM did not have a clear policy on this matter from the onset. However, any nationalistic objectives amongst SNM members and supporters was abruptly altered in light of the genocide experienced under the Barre regime. As a result, strengthening the case for succession and reclamation of independence to the territory of
982:
responsible for organising logistical support and recruiting new SNM combatants. Consequently, sub-clan affiliation became a key aspect of the military wing of the organisation and the "Guurti" became an integral part of the SNM's central committee after 1988. As a result of this increased support from the local population, the SNM was able to defeat the
Somalian army in the North-West of the country.
1025:‘Duksi’ as secretary-general. Additionally, an eight-member executive council was elected to oversee political and military activities. Reports state that the SNM was indisputably the most 'democratic' of all the fronts in Somalia, since it had five elected leaders since its creation, all of whom had served a full term in office, to be replaced by an elected successor.
978:) move towards independence. Furthermore, the Somalian Army's indiscriminate aerial and artillery bombing of both cities led to the SNM becoming overwhelmed with volunteers. Additionally, Barre's response this operation was seen "as an attack on the whole of the Isaaq people" and led to the Isaaq uniting behind the SNM.
1050:
After the SNM was able to exert control over North-Western
Somalia, the organisation quickly opted for a cessation of hostilities and reconciliation with non-Isaaq communities. A peace conference occurred in Berbera between 15–21 February 1991 restore trust and confidence between Northern communities
531:
The process of
Daarood colonization of the north including seizure of property and economic favouritism at Isaaq expense, greatly intensified under Gani's brutal rule, with the systematic application of the apparatuses of state repression which increased in number and scope after the formation of the
845:
Since 1981, with the formation of the SNM, northern
Somalia has seen the worst atrocities. Serious human right violations, including extra-judicial executions of unarmed civilians, detentions without trial, unfair trials, torture, rape, looting and extortion, have been a prominent feature of life in
790:
signed a peace accord where it was agreed that they would both cease hostilities towards one another and stop harbouring each other's dissident. As a result, forcing the SNM to relocate into
Northern Somalia, a key event which drastically changed the trajectory of the conflict whereby its activities
692:
Women often played an "invisible role" in the organisation working predominantly as nurses and medics during the conflict. Additionally, since they were less likely to arouse suspicion compared to men they travelled more freely allowing them to establish clandestine communication channels which also
589:
and the Gulf would collect a set amount from their communities. This decentralised funding model gave the organisation relative independence. Moreover, enhancing the organisation's accountability to its numerous supporters. Therefore, this financial autonomy provided more freedom to the organisation
576:
merchants and traders to prevent them from financially supporting the organisation. Those who were not imprisoned were forced to report to an 'orientation centre' to prove they were still in town and be degraded. These centres were originally used for socialist propaganda teaching, however were then
985:
By June 1989, the SNM was actively mounting attacks on major hubs across the North-West, blockading transport routes and interfering with regime supplies to military garrisons. As a result, the Barre regime gradually lost control of the area by
December 1989 with exception to major towns which were
878:
A system known as "Qaaraan" which aimed to transform social into economic capital was adopted whereby SNM members would seek support from their respective clans. This system was deeply ingrained in pastoral-nomadic ethics but also extended to urban dwellers. Therefore, acting as a form insurance to
1110:
grand conference. At the second national meeting on 18 May, the SNM Central
Committee, with the support of a meeting of elders representing the major clans in the Northern Regions, declared the restoration of the Republic of Somaliland in the territory of the former British Somaliland protectorate
1028:
The
Central Committee was responsible for the vast majority of decisions and was responsible for organising regular congresses to elect the leadership. Throughout the organisation's period of activity, various clans were incorporated into the SNM. Additionally, leadership roles were awarded across
870:
Unlike other organized guerilla groups which were relatively independent from the non-combatant local population, the SNM established an extensive support network bringing together the diverse segments of the Isaaq population both at home and abroad. The mobilisation of solidarity and relationship
727:
regions. A growing number of northern civilian recruits and defectors from the Somali army, drawn almost exclusively from the Isaaq clan, were shaped into a guerrilla force and trained to produce a hard-core of disciplined fighters. Although the
Ethiopians were said to have initially only supplied
911:
and freed a group of northern dissidents. The assault liberated more than 700 political prisoners according to SNM reports; subsequent independent estimates indicated that approximately about a dozen government opponents escaped. Simultaneously, SNM commando units raided the Cadaadle armoury near
813:
communities who were deemed to be supportive of the SNM. The consequence of the crackdown was a dramatic increase in support of the SNM. As a result, a substantial number of men, soldiers, students, traders, and civil servants joined the exodus to SNM bases in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, this defiant
598:
The establishment of internal revenue sources was a crucial factor allowed the organisation to succeed and outperform its competitors. Additionally, the organisation succeeded in fostering relationships with commercial intermediaries via the 'Abban' system (an indigenous credit system constructed
418:
Due to political and logistical obstacles in Saudi Arabia, the Somali Islamic Democratic party decide to move its headquarters to London and along with Somali London Association, Somali Welfare Association, and Somali National Party (as well as members of the Somali Student Union) to converge and
362:
provided a more favourable political climate for operating an international dissident group, therefore several people relocated to London to work full-time with the movement. The organisation was formally founded in Jeddah in April 1981 by an intellectual elite with the objective of overthrowing
327:
clan begun to collect funds for the aim of launching a newspaper covering Somali affairs. The grassroots group has grown into a semi-political party unofficially referred to as Somali Islamic Democratic party (later Somali National movement) Representing intellectuals, businessmen and prominent
981:
Elders across the Isaaq community took on a leading role to advance mass mobilisation efforts to rejuvenate decimated SNM numbers and capitalise on the enhanced support to organisation by Isaaq civilians. After meetings, it was decided that the Elders also known as the "Guurti" would become
739:
Over the following years, the SNM made numerous clandestine military incursions into northwest Somalia. Although these attacks never posed a direct threat to the regime's control of the area, such activities and the boldness and tenacity of its small force were a constant irritation to the
522:
civilian population perpetrated by WSLF. Killing, looting and rape of civilians by WSLF was common from 1978 onwards. This abuse was due to the Somali state employing the Ogadeni subsection of WSLF as a subsidiary militia that would be used to maintain control over the northern regions of
969:
played a large role in recapturing the cities. Approximately, 50,000 people were killed between March 1988 and March 1989 as a result of the Somalian Army's "savage assault" on the Isaaq population. Although this operation was not viewed as successful, it was seen as the death knell of
944:
from both cities. In Burao, the SNM led to the killing of many Somalian military leaders and the confiscation of valuable military equipment. The Somalian government responded by with a counterattack which led to over 10,000 Somalian soldiers, SNM rebels and civilians being killed.
434:
foreign policy, therefore rejecting alignment with the Soviet Union or the United States and calling for the dismantling of all foreign military bases in the region. However, in the late 1980s a pro-Western foreign policy was adopted and the organisation favored
1153:(9) communities and was endorsed by the SNM. As a result, the conference granted the government of Somaliland local legitimacy beyond the realms of the Isaaq dominated SNM, especially since the town of Borama was predominantly inhabited by the
679:
and was largely financed by the Saudi-Somali community. Moreover, it was published on a monthly basis between June and December 1981 whereby its final edition announced the formal transfer of the organisation's leadership to SNM members in
770:
increased its activities against dissidents and SNM sympathizers. In response, the SNM carried out the assassination of the regional National Security Service Chief in 1986 which led to the newly appointed Northern military commander
584:
constituency for funds, which were primarily collected on a clan basis but wealthy businessmen also contributed. The SNM's initial funding model worked in a similar fashion to 'diya' payments whereby each Isaaq clan resident in
603:’s nationalization processes). Therefore, facilitating the taxing of constituents themselves by commandeering one young man and one sheep from each household. As a result, encouraging entrepreneurialism but also containing it.
548:
The SNM's capability of obtaining funding domestically was critical to its ability to endure as an insurgent organisation due to the lack of external resources. For a variety of geopolitical reasons, the SNM did not rely on
2618:
1930:
Reported Massacres and Indiscriminate Killings in Somalia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, Second Session, July 14,
375:" (SNM). Additionally, there was a call to action for the proposed funding of three full-time staff members. These individuals would go on to quit their jobs in Saudi Arabia to devote their time to the movement.
1078:
between 27 April and 18 May 1991 which aimed to bring peace to Northern Somalia. After extensive consultations amongst clan representatives and the SNM leadership, it was agreed that Northern Somalia (formerly
536:
Armed clashes between Afraad and the Ogaden forces of WSLF began shortly after 1979. An Isaaq army officer arrested 14 leading WSLF fighters who have been harassing and abusing the local population at Gobyar.
646:
948:
However, soon after the Somalian army was able to regain control of both cities by the end of July. This was due to unprecedented levels of internal reinforces, the employment of non-Isaaq militias and
1633:
540:
From February 1982, Isaaq army officers and fighters from the Fourth Brigade started moving into Ethiopia where they formed the nucleus of what would later become the Somali National Movement.
751:
where a small force attacked a fuel tanker supplying the Somalian regime's base in the town. This operation was organised by local commanders without prior planning utilizing a local force of
488:
825:' Africa Subcommittee on 14 July 1988 stated that the actions of the Barre government have "created a level of violence unprecedented in scope and duration in Somalia". The testimony of
2943:
659:
In the Summer of 1981, the organisation published a magazine called "Somalia Uncensored". This magazine aimed to spread the message of the SNM to expatriate communities across
2173:
1770:
989:
Over the subsequent few years, the SNM would exert control of the vast majority of North-Western Somalia and expanded its operations to approximately 50 km East of
430:'s dictatorship, and outlined the case to overthrow the regime to reestablish a just and democratic system. Additionally, the SNM advocated a mixed economy and a
2879:
2773:
1194:"State-making in Somalia and Somaliland: understanding war, nationalism and state trajectories as processes of institutional and socio-cognitive standardization"
1067:
clans. This was especially the case since non-Isaaq communities were said to have been largely associated with Barre's regime and fought on opposing side of the
759:, 1985–86 was the most effective period of guerrilla warfare by the SNM against the Somalian regime whereby its operations extended southwards with support from
565:. The end of the Cold War coincided with the peak of the SNM insurgency, significantly reducing the likelihood of the organisation obtaining superpower support.
643:
delegates received approximately $ 14–25 million in remittances which funded the supply arms of to the rural guerillas who helped overthrow the Barre regime.
1928:
1137:
In May 1993 the "Borama Conference" took place to elect a new President and Vice President. The conference was attended by 150 elders from the Isaaq (88),
1622:
2813:
2500:
1160:
At this conference, the delegates agreed to establish an executive president and a bicameral legislature whereby Somaliland's second president
2168:
1813:
1589:
Zartman, Jacob Blaustein Professor of International Organization and Conflict Resolution and Director of African Studies I. William (1995).
3133:
2527:
2687:
169:
1380:
1208:"Civil Society & their role in Africa's struggle to deepen democracy: Experiences of Somaliland in the Horn by Cde. Iqbal Jhazbhay"
1134:
was elected to govern for a period of two years. Many former SNM members were key in the formation of the government and constitution.
1005:
but resorted to laying siege on them. By the beginning of 1991, the SNM succeeded in taking control of North-Western Somalia including
3532:
3123:
1590:
2246:"The Heritage of War and State Collapse in Somalia and Somaliland: Local-Level Effects, External Interventions and Reconstruction"
1877:
3196:
1235:
391:. The said communities composed primarily of students, activists, intellectuals and African communities, particularly Somalis in
2955:
2838:
2793:
554:
3189:
2628:
2596:
2386:
2359:
1887:
1688:
1600:
1535:
1525:
1423:
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1245:
2700:
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767:
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and other former Somali diplomats, who stated that initially the group's purpose was to overthrow the Siad Barre regime.
1413:
3285:
1751:
3512:
3447:
2040:
1485:
558:
1661:"When Do Rebels Become State-Builders?: A Comparative Case Study of Somaliland, Puntland, and South-Central Somalia"
637:) used SNM radios to transfer money to fighters, this allowed them to also intervene in the organization’s affairs.
572:
regime proved a challenge as the SNM lacked a foreign sponsor. Additionally, the Somalian regime imprisoned wealthy
311:
3308:
3225:
3206:
2982:
732:. Soon after, the Somalian army established the "Isaaq Exterminator" command which aimed to ethnically cleanse the
479:’, which stated that any Somali was welcome to join the movement as long as they believed in the SNM's principles.
899:
On January 2, 1983, the SNM launched its first military operation against the Somalian government. Operating from
3384:
3280:
3118:
2843:
2680:
472:
459:
On 18 October 1981, the organisation had its first official conference at the International Student Union of the
1787:
986:
under active siege by the SNM. On December 5, 1989, the SNM announced that they have taken control of Hargeisa.
475:
in addition to the London-based steering committee. During this, conference it issued a press release entitled ‘
426:. A four-page press release also criticised the nepotism, corruption and chaos into which Somalia endured under
286:
In May 1991, the organisation declared an independent Republic of Somaliland in the region that had constituted
3527:
3522:
3369:
3332:
3275:
3014:
2823:
2138:
1350:
Division, Library of Congress (Wash ) Federal Research; Division, Library of Congress Federal Research (1993).
702:
295:
268:
196:
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3374:
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1818:
606:
Therefore, these processes produced a negotiation between rulers and ruled in which the opinions of ordinary
51:
3295:
3218:
3213:
3184:
2918:
2808:
618:
132:
887:
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benefited traders. One well known woman dubbed the "Somaliland Freedom Fighter" is Amina Mahamoud Suldan.
3389:
2874:
2869:
1042:
3138:
3108:
2893:
2783:
2673:
1840:
1161:
1074:
This conference laid the foundation for the "Grand Conference of the Northern Clans" which occurred in
772:
495:
348:
186:
3517:
3452:
3265:
3235:
3143:
1131:
1092:
68:
2068:
3179:
3128:
2429:"Traditional Structures in Peace and Security Consolidation: Case of House of Elders in Somaliland"
1121:
577:
routinely used to track the movement of citizens in Northern Somalia by the intelligence services.
2446:
879:
prevent the risk of minimise the risk of absolute pauperisation and poverty within clan families.
809:
became increasingly repressive in the North of the country and systematically targeted those from
3459:
3359:
3354:
3318:
3201:
3167:
3150:
3113:
3019:
2902:
2848:
719:
where 3 key military bases were established. From here, it would launch guerrilla raids into the
411:
played greater role in raising funds and spreading awareness of the human rights violation under
3437:
3087:
2798:
2620:
Somalia: State Collapse, Multilateral Intervention, and Strategies for Political Reconstruction
1207:
953:
refugees. Moreover, external assistance to the Somalian regime including mercenary pilots from
822:
780:
388:
267:
regime in the 1980s to the 1990s, as well as being the main anti-government faction during the
158:
63:
1477:
728:
ammunition, Isaaq recruits came with their own arms in addition the equipment seized from the
3399:
3313:
3253:
3103:
3036:
2928:
2923:
2853:
2788:
2708:
1726:
787:
912:
Berbera and escaped with an undetermined amount of arms and ammunition. Directed by Colonel
3442:
3290:
2763:
2349:
1282:
United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services, Resource Information Center.
1018:
962:
460:
280:
58:
46:
1927:
Africa, United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on (1989).
837:
8:
3481:
3427:
3422:
3407:
3300:
3026:
2933:
2818:
2778:
2084:"Dominique Jacquin-Berdal Memorial Lecture: Nationalism and self-determination in Africa"
2083:
1088:
1080:
941:
913:
729:
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347:
where they set meetings for every 3 months discussing the deteriorating situation in the
276:
2099:
1913:
Nationalism and secession in the Horn of Africa: a critique of the ethnic interpretation
1281:
371:
At the first congress in Jeddah, the organisation's name was officially changed to the "
3364:
3270:
2768:
2474:
2327:
2273:
2056:
1977:
830:
818:
668:
412:
291:
287:
35:
1708:
814:
show of resistance in the northwest was met with further subjugation from the regime.
3491:
3487:
3172:
2803:
2758:
2743:
2624:
2592:
2478:
2466:
2382:
2355:
2331:
2319:
2265:
2190:
2122:
2103:
2036:
1981:
1969:
1883:
1858:
1684:
1596:
1531:
1481:
1470:
1419:
1357:
1296:
1241:
1102:
1022:
672:
256:
2588:
The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969–1991
2209:
1995:
920:" and thought to of produced a more coherent and better organised opposition force.
3432:
2458:
2311:
2257:
2182:
2095:
2028:
1961:
1848:
756:
664:
331:
By the end of 1979, the group had a strong foothold in local Somali communities in
272:
940:. In this pre-emptive strike, approximately 3000-5000 men from the SNM routed the
2992:
2987:
2960:
2938:
2753:
2586:
2462:
2376:
1678:
1351:
760:
720:
431:
248:
240:
2403:
2124:
Challenging the Ideal: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland
1788:"Somaliland Freedom Fighter - #1Araweelo News Network | #1Araweelo News Network"
1283:
974:
regime and consequently a point of no return in Northern Somalia's (present day
625:'s largest money transfer and telecom firms started out as an SNM financier. As
3417:
2828:
2748:
904:
892:
855:
800:
527:. I. M. Lewis contextualises the period in which Afraad was formed as follows:
384:
137:
2315:
1965:
1261:
422:
This press conference was reportedly attended by over 500 Somalis from across
387:
soon after, and the organisation's formation was announced on 6 April 1981 in
3506:
3064:
2970:
2470:
2323:
2269:
2194:
2186:
2107:
2032:
1973:
1862:
1853:
1415:
Consider Somaliland: State-Building with Traditional Leaders and Institutions
950:
841:
Up to 90% of Hargeisa (2nd largest city of the Somali Republic) was destroyed
511:
487:
436:
2299:
2233:. Berlin: Berlin Information-center for Transatlantic Security (BITS). 1999.
1949:
1814:"Seizing the Moment- A Case Study on Conflict and Peacemaking in Somaliland"
1592:
Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority
3344:
3049:
2733:
2556:
2261:
2225:
954:
860:
586:
468:
320:
1284:"Somalia: Somali National Movement from its inception through the present"
2646:"Africa Notes: Somaliland: The Little Country that Could - November 2002"
1916:(phd thesis). The London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE).
1150:
1142:
1096:
1083:) would revoke its voluntary union with the rest of Somalia to form the "
1060:
1052:
826:
748:
2501:"The political development of Somaliland and its conflict with Puntland"
2404:"Refworld | Somalia: Civil War, Intervention and Withdrawal 1990 - 1995"
786:
However, in 1988 the situation rapidly changed when President Barre and
3412:
3007:
3002:
2975:
2696:
2277:
1154:
1146:
1138:
1127:
1084:
1064:
1056:
975:
971:
928:
Between the 27 and 31 May 1988, the SNM launched its main offensive on
806:
741:
622:
600:
569:
510:
officers. Afraad's initial objective was to liberate Somalis living in
427:
404:
352:
271:. The organisation was founded in London, England, on April 6, 1981 by
264:
260:
225:
220:
113:
2665:
2245:
1046:
Garaad Cabdiqani of the Dhulbahante who tabled the case for succession
610:
kin mattered since they provided the resources to continue the fight.
2997:
2965:
2728:
2723:
1660:
936:
where it captured a large proportion of the city and fully took over
712:
630:
408:
400:
2447:"Building Peace and the State in Somaliland: The Factors of Success"
2428:
1680:
Somalia - The Untold Story: The War Through the Eyes of Somali Women
1193:
502:
One of the major units of the WSLF was the Fourth Brigade known as "
3069:
2948:
1623:"Political Settlements and State Formation: The Case of Somaliland"
1381:"Political Settlements and State Formation: The Case of Somaliland"
1051:
whereby the SNM leadership had talks with representatives from the
1006:
994:
933:
900:
864:
724:
716:
681:
675:
due to his SNM related activities. This publication was printed in
634:
562:
550:
515:
153:
141:
94:
993:. Although it never gained full control of major cities including
755:
clansmen based in the organisation's Lanqeyrta base. According to
650:
Copies of the Magazine of the Somali National Movement (SNM), 1987
590:
but is also thought to have strengthened the insurgency movement.
2020:
1002:
990:
929:
908:
805:
As the SNM grew in strength and number throughout the 1980s, the
660:
524:
464:
440:
396:
383:
The "Saudi group" reached out to the larger Somali population in
336:
181:
125:
1164:
was elected. Egal would be reelected for a second term in 1997.
3059:
3054:
1996:"US Department of the Army: Analysis of Somalia, December 1993"
1911:
763:
clansmen which would later call themselves the "Southern SNM".
708:
676:
518:, but its focus later shifted due to increasing abuses against
503:
491:
423:
392:
359:
344:
340:
332:
209:
89:
290:
before independence and unification with the former colony of
3044:
2738:
2214:. Internet Archive. New York : Macmillan Educat. Corp.
2174:
Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East
1107:
1075:
1068:
998:
966:
958:
937:
872:
810:
776:
733:
640:
626:
607:
581:
573:
519:
507:
324:
79:
1303:, Volume 550, Issues 86-993, (The Division: 1993), p.xxviii.
684:. The SNM also published the bi-monthly magazine "Liberty".
358:
In 1980, the key leaders in the Saudi group determined that
3155:
1472:
Blood and bone : the call of kinship in Somali society
752:
1709:"Somalia And Survival In The Shadow Of The Global Economy"
1099:
delegation was first to table the case for succession.
794:
1130:" and the formation of an interim administration whereby
671:
broadcaster who was forced to relinquish his role at the
1879:
The Country that Does Not Exist: A History of Somaliland
875:
clans was key to ensuring the upkeep of SNM combatants.
747:
The first military offensive of the SNM took place near
2774:
Postage stamps and postal history of British Somaliland
1021:
was elected as chairman of the organisation alongside
707:
In 1982, the organisation moved its headquarters from
2351:
Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991
2300:"Moral Economies of Mass Violence: Somalia 1988–1991"
1950:"Moral Economies of Mass Violence: Somalia 1988–1991"
1571:
Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia
1527:
Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society
1234:
Connaughton, Stacey L.; Berns, Jessica (2019-09-09).
1029:
clan spectrums although the Isaaq were the majority.
1126:
In May 1991, the SNM announced the independence of "
1111:
and formed a government for the self-declared state.
613:
923:
833:) explains the context in which the SNM was formed:
2244:Ahmed, Ismail I.; Green, Reginald Herbold (1999).
2227:Small Arms in Somaliland: Their Role and Diffusion
1469:
1115:
961:in addition to economic and military aid from the
532:Isaaq-based Somali National Movement in April 1981
2617:Lyons, Terrence; Samatar, Ahmed I. (2010-12-01).
2528:"Somaliland: Democratisation and its Discontents"
1753:Liberty: Magazine of the Somali National Movement
328:figures of the ex-pat community in Saudi Arabia.
3504:
2814:List of colonial governors of British Somaliland
2402:Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for.
1349:
1263:The Somali national movements message to Somalia
1233:
850:
791:lead to an all out war that led to its victory.
1476:. Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press. pp.
775:in unleashing a new wave of terror against the
2139:"Somaliland: Ten Years On | BBC World Service"
1909:
1237:Locally Led Peacebuilding: Global Case Studies
2681:
2498:
2169:"Somalia: An Illusory Political Nation-State"
1676:
1553:Insurgent Fragmentation in the Horn of Africa
1037:
2616:
2018:
568:The task of financing the fight against the
366:
1550:
687:
454:
2688:
2674:
2243:
580:The SNM had to rely on the support of its
255:) was one of the first and most important
2451:The Journal of the Middle East and Africa
2347:
1852:
1841:"The Rise and Fall of Somali Nationalism"
1677:Gardner, Judith; Bushra, Judy El (2004).
419:launch Somali National Movement in 1981.
2584:
2207:
2120:
1101:
1041:
886:
854:
836:
645:
486:
445:
310:
2695:
2554:
2378:Networks Of Dissolution: Somalia Undone
2297:
1947:
1875:
1838:
1588:
1568:
1467:
1411:
795:The Regime's response to SNM activities
3505:
2794:Italian invasion of British Somaliland
2612:
2610:
2608:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2550:
2548:
2522:
2520:
2494:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2444:
2440:
2438:
2374:
2343:
2341:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2081:
1943:
1941:
1926:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1811:
1765:
1763:
1672:
1670:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1564:
1562:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
918:most striking initial military success
882:
696:
450:Emblem of the Somali National Movement
2669:
2643:
2585:Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (2016-04-01).
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1702:
1700:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1523:
1519:
1517:
1505:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1191:
593:
463:. There were 14 delegates drawn from
319:In 1977, a group of Somali expats in
2401:
2354:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
2166:
1845:Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees
1839:Mohamed, Saeed Sheikh (1992-11-01).
1658:
1620:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1375:
1373:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
2644:Shinn, David H. (8 November 2002).
2605:
2573:
2545:
2517:
2485:
2435:
2338:
2284:
2155:
2100:10.1046/j.1365-2990.2003.00450.x-i1
2019:Publications, Europa (2003-09-02).
1938:
1896:
1760:
1667:
1609:
1559:
1494:
1290:
252:
13:
2426:
1934:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
1910:Jacquin-Berdal, Dominique (1999).
1794:
1727:"Financing Terrorism or Survival?"
1697:
1643:
1577:
1514:
1432:
561:(SSDF) insurgency in neighbouring
245:Dhaqdhaqaaqa Wadaniga Soomaaliyeed
14:
3544:
2348:Kapteijns, Lidwien (2012-12-18).
1398:
1370:
1306:
1174:
916:, it was deemed to be the SNM's "
614:Role of commercial intermediaries
559:Somali Salvation Democratic Front
439:involvement in a post-Siad Barre
378:
3533:Factions in the Somali Civil War
3486:
3477:
3476:
2892:
2445:Ridout, Timothy A. (July 2012).
2025:A Political Chronology of Africa
1706:
1639:from the original on 2017-02-02.
924:Liberation of Hargeisa and Burao
663:and elsewhere. It was edited by
621:which would later become one of
219:
180:
163:
152:
118:
106:
34:
2637:
2623:. Brookings Institution Press.
2420:
2395:
2368:
2237:
2218:
2201:
2131:
2114:
2075:
2012:
1988:
1920:
1869:
1832:
1780:
1744:
1719:
1544:
1412:Renders, Marleen (2012-01-20).
1116:The Declaration of Independence
903:bases, commando units attacked
891:Northern dissidents freed from
654:
306:
2555:Prunier, Gérard (2000-04-01).
1275:
1254:
1227:
1200:
859:SNM volunteers in training in
779:population as set out by his "
703:Somaliland War of Independence
269:Somaliland War of Independence
197:Somaliland War of Independence
22:Somali National Movement (SNM)
1:
2298:Bakonyi, Jutta (2009-12-01).
2167:Adan, Amina H. (1994-05-01).
1948:Bakonyi, Jutta (2009-12-01).
1819:Future Generations University
1555:. Cambridge University Press.
1551:Woldemariam, Michael (2018).
1167:
1032:
1009:and other regional capitals.
851:Mobilisation of Local Support
52:Sheikh Yusuf Ali Sheikh Madar
2809:1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion
2499:ISSAfrica.org (2009-09-05).
2463:10.1080/21520844.2012.741040
2211:1980, covering the year 1979
2082:MAYALL, JAMES (2006-06-27).
1771:"Somaliland: Peace Building"
1595:. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
1240:. Rowman & Littlefield.
1012:
363:Barre's dictatorial regime.
301:
7:
2839:Declaration of Independence
2557:"Somalia re-invents itself"
2375:Simons, Anna (1995-12-28).
1882:. Oxford University Press.
1569:De Waal, Alexander (1991).
1093:Garad Cabdiqani Garaad Jama
10:
3549:
2784:Somaliland campaign (1920)
2121:Richards, Rebecca (2009).
1812:Master, Web (2010-01-27).
1119:
1038:The Northern Peace Process
798:
773:Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan
700:
543:
496:Mohamed Farah Dalmar Yusuf
349:Somali Democratic Republic
296:bloody war of independence
3472:
3398:
3340:
3331:
3261:
3252:
3099:
3095:
3086:
3035:
2914:
2910:
2901:
2890:
2862:
2716:
2707:
2316:10.1080/13698240903403790
1966:10.1080/13698240903403790
1132:Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur
768:National Security Service
482:
367:The First Jeddah Congress
315:SNM fighters, late 1980's
257:organized guerilla groups
202:
192:
175:
147:
131:
101:
85:
75:
69:Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur
42:
33:
26:
21:
3513:Somali National Movement
3190:House of Representatives
2187:10.1215/07323867-14-1-99
2127:. University of Bristol.
2033:10.4324/9780203403099-47
1876:Prunier, Gérard (2021).
1854:10.25071/1920-7336.21675
1659:Duffield, Andrew Scott.
1353:Somalia: A Country Study
1301:Somalia: a country study
1122:Somaliland Peace Process
1106:5 May resolution of the
688:Role of women in the SNM
557:for funding, unlike the
506:" which was composed of
455:The First SNM Conference
373:Somali National Movement
263:groups that opposed the
253:الحركة الوطنية الصومالية
237:Somali National Movement
2849:2022 Waheen Market fire
2208:Paradise, Jean (1979).
2088:Nations and Nationalism
1468:Ioan M., Lewis (1994).
766:In the late 1980s, the
2799:Somaliland Camel Corps
2262:10.1080/01436599913947
1112:
1085:Republic of Somaliland
1047:
896:
871:building with diverse
867:
848:
842:
823:United States Congress
651:
534:
499:
451:
389:Connaught Hall, London
316:
244:
64:Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud
3528:Separatism in Somalia
3523:History of Somaliland
2854:Outline of Somaliland
2789:1922 Burao Tax Revolt
2561:Le Monde diplomatique
2381:. Avalon Publishing.
2250:Third World Quarterly
1756:. The Movement. 1986.
1573:. Human Rights Watch.
1530:. The Red Sea Press.
1524:Lewis, I. M. (1994).
1418:. BRILL. p. 65.
1105:
1045:
890:
858:
840:
835:
821:testimony before the
649:
529:
490:
449:
314:
16:Guerilla organization
3020:Sa'ad ad-Din Islands
2764:Habr Yunis Sultanate
2027:. pp. 389–400.
2000:www.africa.upenn.edu
1506:Lewis, I. M (1994).
1192:Balthasar, Dominik.
1019:Ahmed Mohamed Gulaid
629:financiers based in
477:A Better Alternative
461:University of London
281:Ahmed Mohamed Gulaid
59:Abdiqadir Kosar Abdi
47:Ahmed Mohamed Gulaid
3124:Diplomatic missions
2824:War of Independence
2819:State of Somaliland
2779:Somaliland campaign
1089:State of Somaliland
1081:State of Somaliland
914:Mohamed Hashi Lihle
883:The Mandera Assault
697:Military operations
277:Hassan Adan Wadadid
102:Active regions
3309:Telecommunications
2769:British Somaliland
2427:Gatimu, Carolyne.
1790:. 26 October 2019.
1713:Qeh Working Papers
1162:Muhammad Haji Egal
1113:
1048:
932:'s second capital
897:
868:
843:
819:Human Rights Watch
669:BBC Somali Service
652:
594:Revenue generation
500:
452:
413:Mohamed Siad Barre
317:
292:Italian Somaliland
288:British Somaliland
3500:
3499:
3468:
3467:
3327:
3326:
3248:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3197:Political parties
3173:Somaliland Police
3119:Foreign relations
3082:
3081:
3078:
3077:
2888:
2887:
2834:National Movement
2804:Somaliland Scouts
2759:Battle of Berbera
2744:Sultanate of Ifat
2630:978-0-8157-2025-6
2598:978-0-7618-6720-3
2388:978-0-8133-2580-4
2361:978-0-8122-0758-3
1889:978-1-78738-203-9
1690:978-0-7453-2208-7
1621:Philipps, Sarah.
1602:978-1-55587-560-2
1537:978-0-932415-93-6
1425:978-90-04-22254-0
1363:978-0-8444-0775-3
1297:Helen Chapin Metz
1247:978-1-5381-1411-7
1023:Ahmed Ismail Abdi
1017:In October 1981,
667:who was a former
323:hailing from the
233:
232:
215:Succeeded by
3540:
3518:1980s in Somalia
3490:
3480:
3479:
3380:Independence Day
3338:
3337:
3304:
3259:
3258:
3163:
3097:
3096:
3093:
3092:
2912:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2896:
2714:
2713:
2690:
2683:
2676:
2667:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2614:
2603:
2602:
2582:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2552:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2524:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2496:
2483:
2482:
2442:
2433:
2432:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2345:
2336:
2335:
2295:
2282:
2281:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2164:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2066:
2062:
2060:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1945:
1936:
1935:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1907:
1894:
1893:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1826:
1809:
1792:
1791:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1767:
1758:
1757:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1704:
1695:
1694:
1674:
1665:
1664:
1656:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1627:
1618:
1607:
1606:
1586:
1575:
1574:
1566:
1557:
1556:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1521:
1512:
1511:
1510:. Red Sea Press.
1503:
1492:
1491:
1475:
1465:
1430:
1429:
1409:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1377:
1368:
1367:
1356:. The Division.
1347:
1304:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1222:
1221:
1215:www.alnef.org.za
1212:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1189:
665:Hassan Isse Jama
294:in 1960 after a
273:Hassan Isse Jama
254:
224:
223:
206:Preceded by
193:Battles and wars
185:
184:
168:
167:
166:
157:
156:
124:
122:
121:
112:
110:
109:
38:
29:
19:
18:
3548:
3547:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3496:
3464:
3394:
3375:Public holidays
3350:National emblem
3323:
3302:
3240:
3185:House of Elders
3157:
3074:
3031:
2961:Golis Mountains
2956:Mountain ranges
2939:Greater Somalia
2897:
2884:
2858:
2754:Isaaq Sultanate
2703:
2694:
2664:
2663:
2654:
2652:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2615:
2606:
2599:
2583:
2574:
2565:
2563:
2553:
2546:
2537:
2535:
2526:
2525:
2518:
2509:
2507:
2497:
2486:
2443:
2436:
2425:
2421:
2412:
2410:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2346:
2339:
2296:
2285:
2242:
2238:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2206:
2202:
2165:
2156:
2147:
2145:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2119:
2115:
2080:
2076:
2064:
2063:
2054:
2053:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2017:
2013:
2004:
2002:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1946:
1939:
1925:
1921:
1908:
1897:
1890:
1874:
1870:
1837:
1833:
1824:
1822:
1810:
1795:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1768:
1761:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1736:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1707:Reno, William.
1705:
1698:
1691:
1675:
1668:
1657:
1644:
1636:
1625:
1619:
1610:
1603:
1587:
1578:
1567:
1560:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1522:
1515:
1504:
1495:
1488:
1466:
1433:
1426:
1410:
1399:
1390:
1388:
1387:. 24 March 2014
1379:
1378:
1371:
1364:
1348:
1307:
1295:
1291:
1280:
1276:
1268:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1217:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1190:
1175:
1170:
1124:
1118:
1040:
1035:
1015:
926:
885:
853:
829:(co-founder of
803:
797:
781:Letter of Death
705:
699:
690:
657:
616:
596:
546:
485:
457:
381:
369:
343:and especially
309:
304:
229:
228:
218:
217:
212:
208:
179:
164:
162:
161:
151:
140:
119:
117:
116:
107:
105:
93:
67:
62:
56:
55:
50:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3546:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3494:
3484:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3404:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3262:
3256:
3250:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3214:Vice-President
3211:
3210:
3209:
3199:
3194:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3165:
3153:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3100:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3041:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2915:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2844:Border dispute
2841:
2836:
2831:
2829:Isaaq genocide
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2749:Adal Sultanate
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2693:
2692:
2685:
2678:
2670:
2662:
2661:
2636:
2629:
2604:
2597:
2572:
2544:
2516:
2484:
2457:(2): 136–156.
2434:
2419:
2394:
2387:
2367:
2360:
2337:
2310:(4): 434–454.
2283:
2256:(1): 113–127.
2236:
2217:
2200:
2154:
2130:
2113:
2094:(4): 549–557.
2074:
2065:|website=
2041:
2011:
1987:
1960:(4): 434–454.
1937:
1919:
1895:
1888:
1868:
1831:
1793:
1779:
1759:
1743:
1718:
1696:
1689:
1666:
1642:
1608:
1601:
1576:
1558:
1543:
1536:
1513:
1508:Blood and Bone
1493:
1486:
1431:
1424:
1397:
1369:
1362:
1305:
1289:
1274:
1253:
1246:
1226:
1199:
1172:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1120:Main article:
1117:
1114:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1014:
1011:
925:
922:
905:Mandera Prison
893:Mandera Prison
884:
881:
852:
849:
801:Isaaq genocide
799:Main article:
796:
793:
701:Main article:
698:
695:
689:
686:
656:
653:
615:
612:
595:
592:
545:
542:
484:
481:
456:
453:
385:United Kingdom
380:
379:United Kingdom
377:
368:
365:
308:
305:
303:
300:
231:
230:
213:
204:
203:
200:
199:
194:
190:
189:
177:
173:
172:
149:
145:
144:
138:Anti-communism
135:
129:
128:
103:
99:
98:
87:
83:
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939:
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512:Somali Region
509:
505:
498:"Mohamed Ali"
497:
493:
489:
480:
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474:
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466:
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448:
444:
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115:
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96:
91:
88:
84:
81:
78:
74:
70:
66:(1984–1990) 2
65:
60:
53:
48:
45:
41:
37:
32:
25:
20:
3408:Architecture
3385:Calling code
3355:Demographics
3271:Central Bank
3159:
3139:Human rights
3109:Constitution
3050:Maroodi Jeex
2833:
2734:Land of Punt
2653:. Retrieved
2650:www.csis.org
2649:
2639:
2619:
2587:
2564:. Retrieved
2560:
2536:. Retrieved
2534:. 2003-07-28
2532:Crisis Group
2531:
2508:. Retrieved
2504:
2454:
2450:
2422:
2411:. Retrieved
2407:
2397:
2377:
2370:
2350:
2307:
2303:
2253:
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2178:
2172:
2146:. Retrieved
2142:
2133:
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2087:
2077:
2046:. Retrieved
2024:
2014:
2003:. Retrieved
1999:
1990:
1957:
1953:
1929:
1922:
1912:
1878:
1871:
1844:
1834:
1823:. Retrieved
1817:
1782:
1752:
1746:
1735:. Retrieved
1733:. 2002-06-15
1730:
1721:
1712:
1679:
1629:
1591:
1570:
1552:
1546:
1526:
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1414:
1389:. Retrieved
1384:
1352:
1300:
1292:
1277:
1267:, retrieved
1262:
1256:
1236:
1229:
1218:. Retrieved
1214:
1202:
1159:
1136:
1125:
1095:who led the
1073:
1049:
1027:
1016:
988:
984:
980:
955:South Africa
947:
927:
917:
898:
877:
869:
844:
816:
804:
785:
765:
746:
738:
736:population.
721:Maroodi Jeex
706:
691:
658:
655:Publications
639:
617:
605:
597:
587:Saudi Arabia
579:
567:
547:
539:
535:
530:
501:
476:
469:Saudi Arabia
458:
421:
417:
382:
372:
370:
357:
330:
321:Saudi Arabia
318:
307:Saudi Arabia
285:
236:
234:
214:
205:
86:Headquarters
3266:Agriculture
3236:Visa policy
1143:Dhulbahante
1097:Dhulbahante
1061:Dhulbahante
827:Aryeh Neier
757:Hassan Isse
749:Baligubadle
599:outside of
473:Gulf states
97:(1989–1991)
92:(1981–1982)
71:(1990–1991)
61:(1983–1984)
54:(1982–1983)
49:(1981–1982)
3507:Categories
3423:Literature
3303:(currency)
3180:Parliament
3129:Government
3008:Dul Madoba
3003:Buur Dhaab
2976:Buur Dhaab
2944:Waterfalls
2717:Chronology
2697:Somaliland
2655:2020-09-08
2566:2020-09-08
2538:2020-08-01
2510:2020-08-01
2505:ISS Africa
2413:2020-08-01
2304:Civil Wars
2148:2020-07-27
2048:2020-10-28
2005:2020-10-28
1954:Civil Wars
1825:2020-07-15
1737:2020-07-07
1391:2020-07-10
1269:2024-01-07
1220:2019-09-12
1168:References
1147:Warsengali
1128:Somaliland
1065:Warsangeli
1033:Somaliland
976:Somaliland
895:by the SNM
623:Somaliland
494:commander
471:and other
428:Siad Barre
405:Manchester
353:Ogaden War
265:Siad Barre
261:Mujahideen
226:Somaliland
114:Somaliland
3460:Languages
3360:Education
3319:Transport
3301:Shilling
3281:Companies
3226:Ministers
3202:President
3151:Judiciary
3134:Embassies
3114:Elections
2998:Cal Madow
2988:Shimbiris
2983:Mountains
2966:Cal Madow
2903:Geography
2729:Dhambalin
2724:Laas Geel
2479:154645136
2471:2152-0844
2332:145654003
2324:1369-8249
2270:0143-6597
2195:1089-201X
2108:1354-5078
2067:ignored (
2057:cite book
2021:"Somalia"
1982:145654003
1974:1369-8249
1863:1920-7336
1155:Gadabursi
1149:(11) and
1139:Gadabursi
1057:Gadabursi
1013:Democracy
901:Ethiopian
788:Meningstu
713:Dire Dawa
631:Dire Dawa
619:Dahabshil
409:Liverpool
401:Sheffield
302:Formation
176:Opponents
3482:Category
3438:Religion
3276:Airports
3168:Military
3088:Politics
3070:Togdheer
2949:Lamadaya
2934:Wildlife
2875:Military
2870:Maritime
2863:By topic
2701:articles
2408:Refworld
1683:. CIIR.
1634:Archived
1007:Hargeisa
995:Hargeisa
934:Hargeisa
865:Ethiopia
744:regime.
725:Togdheer
717:Ethiopia
682:Ethiopia
635:Ethiopia
563:Puntland
551:Ethiopia
516:Ethiopia
415:regime.
170:Ethiopia
142:Islamism
133:Ideology
95:Hargeisa
76:Group(s)
57:Colonel
3418:Cuisine
3400:Culture
3370:Library
3333:Society
3314:Tourism
3254:Economy
3104:Cabinet
3037:Regions
3015:Islands
2929:Geology
2924:Climate
2709:History
2591:. UPA.
2278:3993185
1847:: 4–7.
1299:, ed.,
1003:Berbera
991:Erigavo
972:Barre's
930:Somalia
909:Berbera
661:England
544:Funding
525:Somalia
465:England
441:Somalia
432:neutral
397:Cardiff
337:Dhahran
187:Somalia
126:Somalia
43:Leaders
3492:Portal
3443:Sports
3345:Anthem
3291:Energy
3231:Mayors
3060:Sanaag
3055:Saaxil
2919:Cities
2880:Postal
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2627:
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2330:
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2268:
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1534:
1484:
1480:–194.
1422:
1360:
1244:
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1141:(21),
951:Ogaden
709:London
677:London
504:Afraad
492:Afraad
483:Afraad
424:Europe
393:London
360:London
345:Jeddah
341:Khobar
333:Riyadh
279:, and
249:Arabic
241:Somali
210:Afraad
148:Allies
123:
111:
90:London
28:Arabic
3453:Games
3433:Music
3428:Media
3296:Ports
3045:Awdal
3027:Caves
2993:Golis
2739:Malao
2475:S2CID
2328:S2CID
2274:JSTOR
2231:(PDF)
1978:S2CID
1774:(PDF)
1731:MERIP
1637:(PDF)
1630:p. 21
1626:(PDF)
1385:GSDRC
1211:(PDF)
1108:Burao
1076:Burao
1069:Isaaq
999:Burao
967:Italy
959:Libya
938:Burao
907:near
873:Isaaq
861:Aware
811:Isaaq
807:Barre
777:Isaaq
742:Barre
734:Isaaq
641:Isaaq
627:Isaaq
608:Isaaq
601:Barre
582:Isaaq
574:Isaaq
570:Barre
555:Libya
520:Isaaq
508:Isaaq
351:post
325:Isaaq
80:Isaaq
3448:Team
3365:Flag
3219:List
3207:List
3160:Xeer
3156:Law
3144:LGBT
3065:Sool
2625:ISBN
2593:ISBN
2467:ISSN
2383:ISBN
2356:ISBN
2320:ISSN
2266:ISSN
2191:ISSN
2104:ISSN
2069:help
2037:ISBN
1970:ISSN
1931:1988
1884:ISBN
1859:ISSN
1685:ISBN
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1242:ISBN
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1053:Issa
1001:and
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957:and
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1962:doi
1849:doi
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