338:(real-time, simultaneous live connections of students together) components combined can enliven online interactions. Depending on the technology used, synchronous sessions can provide both audio and video connections, allowing an interchange involving both sight and sound, and all the rich nonverbal communication inherent in tone of voice and facial expressions. In a more recent study with distance learning, it is argued that distance learning works strictly to teach academic skill and that face-to-face learning teaches more well rounded skill. Author Jennifer J. Roberts' research discusses a blend of the two teaching mediums and their importance. Brian E. Mennecke, et al., examined how online mediums affect the communication between educators and their students. They discovered an absence of consistent social cues which resulted in their emphasizing a more personal approach to communicating, with added significance placed on the cultural perspectives of the students and how they communicate in an online environment.
350:
Zhan & Mei, 2013), satisfaction (Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997; Richardson & Swan, 2003; So & Brush, 2008; Zhan & Mei, 2013), and performance (Lomicka & Lord, 2007; Richardson & Swan, 2003)." A positive social presence enables students to engage with each other with ease, while a negative social presence has been shown to increase disappointment in users, which decreases cognition and familiarity with the material. Without social presence learning interaction suffers, which has negative effects on learning performance. Patrick
Lowenthal discussed future trends in online learning with social presence theory in mind. He stated "researchers and practitioners alike will have to consider a new host of things related to social presence with the continued blurring of boundaries between classroom and fully online courses as well as between course bound communication tools (e.g., discussion forums) and non-course bound tools (e.g., Facebook and Twitter)...."
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development of interpersonal relationships. In a study conducted by Jahng and Littau in 2016, it was found that the importance we give to computer-mediated communications in order to trust the people we communicate with is reinforced. Their study describes how important it is for journalists to be active on social media in order to create a bond of trust with their audiences. Individuals do not feel comfortable when professionals are not as active on social platforms as is the established norm. Joshua
Weidlich, et al., write that every medium can be identified by how genuine are the emotions that are felt by the receiver when the subject communicates emotions both verbally and non verbally.
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further that text-based communications should account for not all users having a level of comfort in its use. Courses or conferences that rely heavily on such a system for communication should begin with light and casual conversation in areas that the user has familiarity with, which helps them in gaining a comfort level with the technology. Later work by
Palloff and Pratt, in 1999 and 2003, validated Gunawardena's recommendation, and they called for establishing learning communities among online users at the very beginning of courses. In doing so, Palloff and Pratt argued that affective filters are lowered.
359:
predictable degree of perceived social presence. Social contexts involve task orientation, privacy, topics, social relationships, and social process. As an example, when a conversation is task-based and public without a sense of community being in place, the perception of social presence is low and affective filtering (a communication blockage brought about by negative emotional feelings) is high. In addition, research sheds light on the relationship between a shared learning space and participants' satisfaction and encourages the building up of a shared learning space for a better e-learning environment.
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McIssac found that social context was more qualitative (a learned skill-set rather than a prescriptive set of actions) to achieve positive impact, online communication was more strongly related to quantifiable and organizational skills of participants, and that interactivity constituted skill sets and communication styles used in combination. As a result, Tu and McIssac identified the following variables that had strong positive effects on the fueling or perception of social presence.
525:. In 1992, Walther argued that social relationships could stimulate changes in discourse as well. In examining text-based computer-mediated communication (e-mails) of conference participants, Walther discovered participants formed impressions of other participants from their communications. These impressions developed into visual interpretations of the other, and a sense of intimacy and identification between participants, which led to greater perception of social presence.
25:
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Research related to the importance of social presence to the success of students points to the need to design social communication tools to enhance users' experience of one another. Social presence affects different aspects of a learner's experience, such as their "success (Russo & Benson, 2005;
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has evolved, a more relational view of social presence has emerged. Social presence has come to be viewed as the way individuals represent themselves in their online environment. It's a personal stamp that indicates that the individual is available and willing to engage and connect with other persons
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Patrick R. Lowenthal noted that concepts of social presence fall on a spectrum between users' perceptions of a person being real or "being there" and whether two communicators experience positive interpersonal and emotional connections between each other. Lowenthal believes that most researchers tend
358:
Social presence is critical in improving instructional effectiveness in any setting, especially in distance education. In 2000–2001, Tu argued that within distance learning, social presence has three dimensions: social context, online communication, and interactivity. Social contexts contribute to a
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technologies. They use social communication tools to enhance the student experience and to overcome the challenges of forming interpersonal relationships in a virtual space. Designers seek to provide a high-quality experience for the users by encouraging meaningful interactions between users and the
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The integrational activity includes the behavior that keeps the interaction in process, and the comprehensibility that goes in the exchange between individuals. Argyle, in 1969, identified the functions of six non-verbal cues and the role they play in the communications process. There are three that
172:
The definitions and interpretations of social presence—given by multiple sources after the original work conducted by Short, Williams, and
Christie—have offered a more unobstructed view that Social Presence is more of a combination of factors that present themselves in a way so as to develop greater
151:
Social
Presence Theory is defined by the different apparent physical proximities produced by various media, the two more popular media being face-to-face communication and online interaction. Social presence is measured by the ability to project physical and emotional presence and experience it from
168:
Other research has defined social presence as the awareness of others in an interaction, combined with an appreciation of the interpersonal aspects of that interaction. In 1995, Gunawardena argued that social presence varied with perception and was a subjective issue based upon objective qualities.
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In 1991, Gunawardena argued that a purely text-based communication system (e-mail, discussion boards, and chat) rests upon the assumption that people using such a system have already developed a level of comfort with the technology that allows the person to effectively use it. Gunawardena argued
262:
On a continuum of social presence, the face-to-face medium is considered to have the most social presence; and written, text-based communication the least. Inter-party and interpersonal exchanges are two aspects of interactions identified by Short, Williams, and
Christie. It is assumed in Social
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Interactivity involves the activities and communication styles that online users engage in. In 1986, Norton identified eleven communication styles that can be associated with online communications: impression-leaving, contentious, open, dramatic, dominant, precise, relaxed, friendly, attentive,
155:
Definitions of social presence are inconsistent, as scholars attempt to pinpoint what the phenomenon encompasses, and how it can be adapted as new media of interpersonal communication arise. Social
Presence in recent years has been defined as the feeling of community a learner experiences in an
536:
In their 2002 study on social presence, Tu and McIssac declared, "Social presence positively influences online instruction; however, frequency of participation does not represent high Social
Presence". In both a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the interactions of 51 volunteers, Tu and
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Social
Presence Theory provides a foundation for communication systems designers and serves as a main principle in computer-mediated-communication studies. Gorham & Cristophel (1990), Tu & McIsaac (2002), and Aragon (2003) place high importance on using engagement tactics, in online
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While research in social presence is ongoing, researchers are confidently recommending designing online and e-format courses along the three dimensions that have been discussed. By building trust online, providing social "hand holding" support up front in any course using computer-mediated
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in their online community. Social presence is demonstrated by the way messages are posted and how those messages are interpreted by others. Social presence defines how participants relate to one another, which in turn affects their ability to communicate effectively.
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in 1970, there were two types of functions identified for non-verbal cues. One of the functions is directly related to the message that is being sent from one individual to another is concerned with the communication process and the integrational aspects.
111:
communications. The theory notes that computer-based communication is lower in social presence than face-to-face communication, but different computer-based communications can affect the levels of social presence between communicators and receivers.
388:, designed by Chih-Hsiung Tu, distinguished social context, online communication, and interactivity based on a CMC attitude instrument and perceived privacy. However, Tu acknowledged that future work needs to improve the validity of the research.
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The most basic of interactions are done face-to-face; and the participants exchange, in addition to verbal communication, a set of non-verbal cues, such as facial expression, direction of gaze, posture, dress, and body language. In the work about
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Dixson, Marcia D.; Greenwell, Mackenzie R.; Rogers-Stacy, Christie; Weister, Tyson; Lauer, Sara (2017). "Nonverbal immediacy behaviors and online student engagement: Bringing past instructional research into the present virtual classroom".
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concept of intimacy. Wiener and
Mehrabian identified immediacy as nonverbal communication behaviors such as eye contact and body movements that can enhance closeness in interactions. Argyle and Dean noted intimacy as a combination of
200:
Chih-Hsiung Tu said that Short et al.'s definition was not satisfactory because it did not include all components of social presence. He also said that the theory did not address enough degrees of social presence in
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online environment. We have developed multiple non-verbal intimacy behaviors in the online community that enhance our relationships with people when we communicate in a medium where there is no real-life contact.
677:
communication, and promoting informal relationships, teachers and instructors can provide a strong sense of social presence, increase a sense of community, and in turn increase interaction among participants.
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Westerman, David; Spence, Patric R.; Lin, Xialing (2015). "Telepresence and Exemplification in Health Messages: The Relationships among Spatial and Social Presence and Exemplars and Exemplification Effects".
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Zhan, Zehui; Mei, Hu (2013). "Academic self-concept and social presence in face-to-face and online learning: Perceptions and effects on students' learning achievement and satisfaction across environments".
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Wei, Jie; Seedorf, Stefan; Lowry, Paul Benjamin; Thum, Christian; Schulze, Thimo (2017). "How increased social presence through co-browsing influences user engagement in collaborative online shopping".
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Roberts, J. J. (2019). Online learning as a form of distance education : linking formation learning in theology to the theories of distance education. Hts : Theological Studies, 75(1), 1–9.
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Grieve, Rachel; Padgett, Christine R.; Moffitt, Robyn L. (2016-01-01). "Assignments 2.0: The role of social presence and computer attitudes in student preferences for online versus offline marking".
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So, Hyo-Jeong; Brush, Thomas A. (2008). "Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors".
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Presence Theory that in any interaction involving two parties, both parties are concerned with acting out certain roles and developing or maintaining some sort of personal relationship.
2952:
Shen, Kathy Ning; Yu, Angela Yan; Khalifa, Mohamed. "Knowledge Contribution in Virtual Communities: Accounting for Multiple Dimensions of Social Presence through Social Identity".
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Wei, J; Seedorf, S; Lowry, P; Thum, C; Schulze, T (August 2017). "How increased social presence through co-browsing influences user engagement in collaborative online shopping".
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others in interactions. Effective communication is measured by the parties' interpersonal involvement while considering the constraints of the communication medium used.
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1920:
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Kim, Jihyun; Song, Hayeon; Lee, Sanguk (2018). "Extrovert and Lonely Individuals' Social TV Viewing Experiences: A Mediating and Moderating Role of Social Presence".
229:
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We are social beings, and we crave socialization, and social presence explains how we form relationships and how beneficial and necessary they are to our lives.
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classrooms, geared towards increasing social presence and reducing distance. These tactics include humanizing the interactions between instructor and students.
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Kendall, Julie E.; Kendall, Kenneth E. (2017). "Enhancing Online Executive Education Using Storytelling: An Approach to Strengthening Online Social Presence".
1260:
Dixson, Marcia (2016). "Nonverbal immediacy behaviors and online student engagement: bringing past instructional research into the present virtual classroom".
970:"Understanding the determinants of users' subjective well-being in social networking sites: an integration of social capital theory and social presence theory"
2116:
Johnson, R. D., Hornik, S., & Salas, E. (2008). "An empirical examination of factors contributing to the creation of successful e-learning environments".
3137:
2479:
Gunawardena, Charlotte N.; Zittle, Frank J. (1997). "Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer-mediated conferencing environment".
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Designers have accepted Social Presence Theory as a major design principle, to gain insight into user behavior when developing web-based applications and
472:
When I have asynchronous conversations in this CSCL environment, I also feel that I deal with very real persons and not with abstract anonymous persons
2923:
Shen, Kathy Ning; Khalifa, Mohamed (2008). "Exploring Multidimensional Conceptualization of Social Presence in the Context of Online Communities".
2313:
Biocca, Frank; Harms, Chad; Burgoon, Judee K. (2003). "Toward a More Robust Theory and Measure of Social Presence: Review and Suggested Criteria".
2887:
Sallnäs, Eva-Lotta; Rassmus-Gröhn, Kirsten; Sjöström, Calle (2000). "Supporting presence in collaborative environments by haptic force feedback".
224:. Social contexts contribute to a predictable degree of perceived social presence. Social contexts involve task orientation and privacy, topics,
3007:
Steinfield, Charles W. (1986). "Computer-Mediated Communication in an Organizational Setting: Explaining Task-Related and Socioemotional Uses".
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When I have real-time conversations in this CSCL environment, I feel that I deal with very real persons and not with abstract anonymous persons
255:
Social Presence Theory in communication is effective if the communication medium has the appropriate social presence required for the level of
2441:
Gorham, Joan; Christophel, Diane M. (1990). "The relationship of teachers' use of humor in the classroom to immediacy and student learning".
1956:
Jahng, M; Littau, J (2016). "Interacting Is Believing: Interactivity, Social Cue, and Perceptions of Journalistic Credibility on Twitter".
2370:
Burgoon, Judee K.; Buller, David B.; Hale, Jerold L.; Turck, Mark A. (1984). "Relational Messages Associated with Nonverbal Behaviors".
1644:
Turner, J (2018). "Options for the Construction of Attentional Social Presence in a Digitally Enhanced Multicommunicative Environment".
1556:"Building modern online social presence: A review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends"
1325:"Building modern online social presence: A review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends"
1069:"Building modern online social presence: A review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends"
1022:"Building modern online social presence: A review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends"
923:"Building modern online social presence: A review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends"
876:"Building modern online social presence: A review of social presence theory and its instructional design implications for future trends"
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and immediacy defined as the psychological distance between two parties that is conveyed through verbal and nonverbal cues in speech.
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Recent research highlights the importance of social presence in educational settings when delivering feedback on marked assessments.
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animated, and image. What style participants use in communicating, especially the style teachers use, will impact social presence.
259:
involvement required in an engagement, which is one of the challenges communicators have at the time of engaging their audience.
49:
1801:"Online learning as a form of distance education: Linking formation learning in theology to the theories of distance education"
3053:
Tu, Chih-Hsiung (2001). "How Chinese Perceive Social Presence: An Examination of Interaction in Online Learning Environment".
2861:"Learning with Invisible Others: Perceptions of Online Presence and their Relationship to Cognitive and Affective Learning"
782:
712:
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Kiliç Çakmak, Ebru; Çebi, Ayça; Kan, Adnan (2014). "Developing a "Social Presence Scale" for E-learning Environments".
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When I have asynchronous conversations in this CSCL environment, I also have my communication partner in my mind‟s eye
2096:
692:
67:
3113:"Options for the Construction of Attentional Social Presence in a Digitally Enhanced Multicommunicative Environment"
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Tu, Chih-Hsiung; McIsaac, Marina (2002). "The Relationship of Social Presence and Interaction in Online Classes".
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Lomicka, Lara; Lord, Gillian (2007). "Social presence in virtual communities of foreign language (FL) teachers".
2346:
1501:
792:
757:
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202:
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first funded Short et al.'s work in an attempt to observe customer's attitudes towards different media channels.
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When I have real-time conversations in this CSCL environment, I have my communication partner in my mind‟s eye
84:
762:
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Real-time conversations in this CSCL environment can hardly be distinguished from face-to-face conversations
125:
2464:"Social Presence Theory and Implications for Interaction and Collaborative Learning in Computer Conferences"
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are contributing factors to Social Presence with intimacy defined as a measure of communication involving
2824:"Examining Social Presence in Online Courses in Relation to Students' Perceived Learning and Satisfaction"
1848:
Mennecke, Brian E.; Triplett, Janea L.; Hassall, Lesya M.; Conde, Zayira Jordán; Heer, Rex (2011-04-26).
787:
717:
88:
3030:"On-line learning migration: From social learning theory to social presence theory in a CMC environment"
1603:"On-line learning migration: From social learning theory to social presence theory in a CMC environment"
1411:"Social presence theory and implications for interaction collaborative learning in computer conferences"
2529:
Kehrwald, Benjamin (2008). "Understanding social presence in text-based online learning environments".
256:
3172:
Wei, Chun-Wang; Chen, Nian-Shing; Kinshuk (2012). "A model for social presence in online classrooms".
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108:
40:
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2154:"How Chinese Perceive Social Presence: An Examination of Interaction in Online Learning Environment"
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702:
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Emblems: Gestures being used instead of a word, like moving your head up and down to signify "yes."
521:, and the perceived need to communicate over distances were positively associated with increasing
92:
2341:
Birdwhistell, R.L. (1970). Kinesics and Context. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press.
2957:
2277:
Argyle, M; Lalljee, M; Cook, M (1968). "The effects of visibility on interaction in the dyad".
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Argyle, M; Lalljee, M; Cook, M (1968). "The effects of visibility on interaction in the dyad".
727:
186:
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Karel Kreijns, Paul A. Kirschner, Wim Jochems, and Hans van Buuren developed a self-reporting
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Lombard, Matthew; Ditton, Theresa (2006). "At the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence".
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777:
331:
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825:"Toward a More Robust Theory and Measure of Social Presence: Review and Suggested Criteria"
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522:
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Feedback: This is mainly for the speaker to know how the audience is receiving the message.
225:
217:
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Building learning communities in cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom
8:
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Norton, Robert W. (1986). "Communicator style in teaching: Giving good form to content".
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2347:"Social presence, trust, and social commerce purchase intention: An empirical research"
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1502:"Social presence, trust, and social commerce purchase intention: An empirical research"
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103:. Research on social presence theory has recently developed to examine the efficacy of
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explores how the "sense of being with another" is influenced by digital interfaces in
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2393:"Social Presence and Online Learning: A Current View from a Research Perspective"
1476:"Social Presence and Online Learning: A Current View from a Research Perspective"
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1197:
747:
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2761:"Examining online social brand engagement: A social presence theory perspective"
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Lamendola, Walter (2010). "Social Work and Social Presence in an Online World".
1992:
1921:"Examining online social brand engagement: A social presence theory perspective"
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Interpersonal attitudes: eye-gaze, gestures, proximity, and facial expressions.
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Argyle, Michael; Dean, Janet (1965). "Eye-Contact, Distance and Affiliation".
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2631:"Sociocultural Factors and Social Presence in an Online Learning Environment"
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Aragon, Steven R. (2003). "Creating social presence in online environments".
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2016:
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1850:"An Examination of a Theory of Embodied Social Presence in Virtual Worlds*"
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2077:"The Evolution and Influence of Social Presence Theory on Online Learning"
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334:(pre-produced content accessed individually by students on the web) and
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to fall somewhere on the spectrum between those two perceptions.
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Mutual attention and responsiveness: eye-gaze, head nods, and gestures.
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Language within language: Immediacy, a channel in verbal communication
95:, social presence theory was first formally introduced by John Short,
232:, also examines this quality of human connection through technology.
2629:
Stapa, Siti Hamin; Maros, Marlyna; Krish, Pramela (9 January 2012).
2500:
Jahng, Mi Rosie; Littau, Jeremy (2016). "Interacting is Believing".
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2216:
377:, created by Charlotte Gunawardena and Frank Zittle, consists of 14
732:
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182:
174:
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248:, where the degree of social presence is equated to the degree of
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The concept of social presence originated from Morton Wiener and
823:
Biocca, Frank; Harms, Chad; Burgoon, Judee K. (October 2003).
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within a group that has a positive effect on the individual's
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Illustrations: Hand gestures to paint a picture or an object.
138:
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1847:
1554:
Cui, Guoqiang; Lockee, Barbara; Meng, Cuiqing (2012-03-11).
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Cui, Guoqiang; Lockee, Barbara; Meng, Cuiqing (2012-03-11).
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Cui, Guoqiang; Lockee, Barbara; Meng, Cuiqing (2012-03-11).
1020:
Cui, Guoqiang; Lockee, Barbara; Meng, Cuiqing (2012-03-11).
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Cui, Guoqiang; Lockee, Barbara; Meng, Cuiqing (2012-03-11).
3301:
Social Presence theory article at the University of Twente
370:
There are three common forms of measuring social presence:
1991:
Kreijns, Karel; Xu, Kate; Weidlich, Joshua (2021-06-22).
3138:"Interpersonal Effects in Computer-Mediated Interaction"
541:
Variables Identified in Data from Tu and McIssac (2002)
2970:
Short, J. A., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976).
2468:
International Journal of Educational Telecommunications
1131:
Short, John; Williams, Ederyn; Christie, Bruce (1976).
708:
Social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE)
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1372:
Short, John, Ederyn Williams, and Bruce Christie 1976.
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Annals of the International Communication Association
1415:
International Journal of Education Telecommunications
1130:
1993:"Social Presence: Conceptualization and Measurement"
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items to indicate users' perceived social presence.
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are integrational and three that are informational.
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of the other person in a communication interaction.
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International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction
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1918:
1431:
632:Type of tasks (planning, creativity, social tasks)
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2312:
2118:International Journal of Human-Computer Studies,66
1499:
822:
16:Viewed social effects of communications technology
2801:Rice, Ronald E. (1993). "Media Appropriateness".
2560:Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education
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2440:
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2205:New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education
2139:ISALT Resources: Theories, Concepts, and Measures
1990:
1727:
1689:. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press.
1158:"At the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence"
968:Chang, Chun-Ming; Hsu, Meng-Hsiang (2016-02-15).
316:
3307:
3111:Turner, Jeanine Warisse; Foss, Sonja K. (2018).
2315:Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
829:Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
386:Social Presence and Privacy Questionnaire (SPPQ)
228:, and social process. A closely related theory,
3174:Educational Technology Research and Development
2868:Journal of Educational Technology & Society
2628:
212:, social presence rests upon three dimensions:
3171:
2889:ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction
2821:
2675:Lee, Kwan Min (2004). "Presence, Explicated".
2557:
3204:Electronic Commerce Research and Applications
2822:Richardson, Jennifer C.; Swan, Karen (2019).
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2502:Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly
1958:Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly
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1628:
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1434:Electronic Commerce Research and Applications
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920:
869:
295:Channel control: head nods and eye movements.
3034:Journal of Network and Computer Applications
2759:Osei-Frimpong, Kofi; McLean, Graeme (2018).
1805:HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies
1684:
1607:Journal of Network and Computer Applications
1500:Baozhou, Lu; Weighou, Fan; Zhou, Mi (2015).
1234:Sallnas, Rassmus-Grohn, & Sjostrom 2000.
1218:
1216:
266:
240:Social Presence Theory classifies different
2972:The social psychology of telecommunications
2922:
2858:
2768:Technological Forecasting and Social Change
2716:
2581:Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice
2499:
2461:
2345:Lu, Baozhou; Fan, Weiguo; Zhou, Mi (2016).
2047:Kilic Cakmak, Cebi, & Kan 2014, p. 765.
1955:
1928:Technological Forecasting and Social Change
1905:
1903:
1408:
1133:The Social Psychology of Telecommunications
626:Social relationships (love and information)
101:The Social Psychology of Telecommunications
3110:
3006:
2698:Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
2599:
2231:
2132:
1919:Osei-Frimpong, K; McLean, G (March 2018).
1909:Kilic Cakmak, Cebi, & Kan 2014, p. 764
1893:
1891:
1625:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1230:
1228:
1156:Lombard, Matthew; Ditton, Theresa (1997).
235:
181:. Several researchers have suggested that
3223:
3081:
2961:
2951:
2842:
2645:
2344:
2074:
2024:
1816:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1453:
1296:"Curriculum Vitae – Patrick R. Lowenthal"
1213:
68:Learn how and when to remove this message
3262:Wiener, M., & Mehrabain, A. (1968).
2740:New Directions for Teaching and Learning
2528:
2041:
1900:
1765:
1756:
1538:
1368:
1366:
967:
640:Psychological attitude toward technology
244:media on a one-dimensional continuum of
3271:
3135:
2977:
2648:Journal of Technology in Human Services
2635:GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies
1888:
1798:
1783:
1384:
1225:
601:Characteristics of real-time discussion
3308:
3084:American Journal of Distance Education
2915:Services, A. T. (2018, September 27).
2859:Russo, Tracy; Benson, Spencer (2005).
2853:https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i1.5345
2737:
2481:American Journal of Distance Education
2400:Journal of Interactive Online Learning
2202:
2128:
2126:
1951:
1949:
1712:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1664:
1643:
1560:Education and Information Technologies
1524:
1483:Journal of Interactive Online Learning
1329:Education and Information Technologies
1259:
1135:. London: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
1073:Education and Information Technologies
1026:Education and Information Technologies
974:Behaviour & Information Technology
927:Education and Information Technologies
880:Education and Information Technologies
159:
2050:
1897:Shen, Yu, & Khalifa 2010, p. 339.
1680:
1678:
1676:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1363:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1015:
1013:
1011:
629:Language skills (writing and reading)
3268:. New York; Appleton-Century-Crofts.
2800:
2390:
1771:Shen, Yu, & Khalifa 2010, p. 338
1473:
1375:
1179:
1177:
1175:
783:Social information processing theory
713:Social information processing theory
615:Characteristics of discussion boards
509:In 1986, Steinfield found that task
208:In 2000–2001, Tu argued that within
87:. Developed from the foundations of
18:
2674:
2123:
2059:
2056:Kilic Cakmak, Cebi, & Kan 2014.
1946:
1799:Roberts, Jennifer J. (2019-09-26).
1693:
1547:
1316:
13:
3052:
3027:
2919:. Retrieved from Memorial Library.
2815:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1993.tb00309.x
2793:Palloff, R. M., Pratt, K. (2003).
2786:Palloff, R. M., Pratt, K. (1999).
2710:10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00072.x
2689:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00302.x
2462:Gunawardena, Charlotte N. (1995).
2384:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1984.tb00023.x
2151:
1789:Kendall & Kendall 2017, p. 64.
1673:
1670:Biocca, Harms, & Burgoon 2003.
1637:
1600:
1594:
1493:
1462:
1246:
1237:
1107:
1060:
1008:
914:
863:
14:
3332:
3294:
1186:The Internet and Higher Education
1172:
1149:
693:Emotions in virtual communication
587:Use of emoticons and paralanguage
302:The informational functions are:
288:The integrational functions are:
2152:Tu, Chih-Hsiung (January 2001).
2083:, IGI Global, pp. 113–128,
1866:10.1111/j.1540-5915.2011.00317.x
1601:Tu, Chih-Hsiung (January 2000).
203:computer-mediated communications
23:
3055:Educational Media International
2158:Educational Media International
2145:
2110:
2089:10.4018/978-1-60566-984-7.ch010
2068:
1984:
1912:
1841:
1792:
1774:
1721:
1425:
1402:
1288:
1204:
1162:Computer Mediated Communication
793:Computer-Mediated Communication
573:Keyboarding and accuracy skills
353:
323:computer-mediated communication
3021:10.1080/23808985.1986.11678637
2780:10.1016/j.techfore.2017.10.010
2602:Mass Communication and Society
2075:Lowenthal, Patrick R. (2010),
2065:Wei, Chen, & Kinshuk 2012.
1940:10.1016/j.techfore.2017.10.010
961:
874:; Meng, Cuiqing (2012-03-11).
816:
365:
317:Computer-mediated interactions
1:
3287:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.002
2992:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.05.009
2797:. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
2790:. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
2614:10.1080/15205436.2017.1350715
2426:10.1080/03634523.2016.1209222
1997:Educational Psychology Review
1274:10.1080/03634523.2016.1209222
986:10.1080/0144929x.2016.1141321
809:
504:
375:Social Presence Scale (SPRES)
3248:10.1080/08934215.2014.971838
3216:10.1016/j.elerap.2017.07.002
2917:Social Presence Theory (PDF)
2803:Human Communication Research
2731:10.1016/j.system.2006.11.002
2372:Human Communication Research
1446:10.1016/j.elerap.2017.07.002
1198:10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.08.002
395:, consisting of five items:
7:
3136:Walther, Joseph B. (1992).
3096:10.1207/S15389286AJDE1603_2
2351:Computers in Human Behavior
1780:Kendall & Kendall, 2017
1685:Birdwhistell, R.L. (1970).
1506:Computers in Human Behavior
1474:Cobb, Susan Copley (2009).
1409:Gunawardena, C. N. (1995).
788:Computers are social actors
718:Computers are social actors
680:
570:Familiarity with recipients
89:interpersonal communication
85:human-computer interactions
43:. The specific problem is:
10:
3337:
3157:10.1177/009365092019001003
2954:PACIS 2007 Proceedings. 98
2327:10.1162/105474603322761270
2291:10.1177/001872676802100101
2196:
2009:10.1007/s10648-021-09623-8
1742:10.1177/001872676802100101
841:10.1162/105474603322761270
137:, physical proximity, and
115:
3275:Computers & Education
3186:10.1007/s11423-012-9234-9
3067:10.1080/09523980010021235
2980:Computers & Education
2937:10.1080/10447310802335789
2660:10.1080/15228831003759562
2593:10.12738/estp.2014.2.1847
2543:10.1080/01587910802004860
2493:10.1080/08923649709526970
2455:10.1080/03634529009378786
2363:10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.057
2170:10.1080/09523980010021235
2133:iSALT Team (2014-01-01).
1572:10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1
1518:10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.057
1341:10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1
1085:10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1
1038:10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1
939:10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1
892:10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1
658:Communication strategies
547:
267:Face-to-face interactions
3028:Tu, Chih-Hsiung (2000).
2514:10.1177/1077699015606680
2135:"Social Presence Theory"
1970:10.1177/1077699015606680
703:Media naturalness theory
559:II. Online Communication
99:, and Bruce Christie in
2443:Communication Education
2414:Communication Education
1535:Argyle & Dean 1965.
1262:Communication Education
1210:Krish 2012, p. 101-102.
413:Factor Social Presence
236:Classification of media
124:study of immediacy and
93:symbolic interactionism
3145:Communication Research
3046:10.1006/jnca.1999.0099
2844:10.24059/olj.v7i1.1864
2752:10.1002/tl.37219862606
1818:10.4102/hts.v75i1.5345
1619:10.1006/jnca.1999.0099
1544:Burgeoon, et al., 1984
728:Theories of technology
230:electronic propinquity
81:Social presence theory
3316:Mass media technology
3236:Communication Reports
2901:10.1145/365058.365086
1222:Westerman 2015, p. 95
798:Media Richness Theory
778:Invitational rhetoric
590:Communication Styles
584:Assertive/Acquiescent
393:Social Presence Scale
45:formatting, cohesion.
3117:Communication Theory
2880:jeductechsoci.8.1.54
2677:Communication Theory
2391:Cobb, S. C. (2009).
1687:Kinesics and Context
1646:Communication Theory
1243:Tu and McIssac, 2002
768:Communication theory
758:Online Communication
688:Communication theory
666:User characteristics
523:online communication
226:social relationships
218:online communication
50:improve this article
39:to meet Knowledge's
2795:The virtual student
723:Social translucence
698:Hyperpersonal model
653:Access and location
612:Trust relationships
604:Length of messages
562:III. Interactivity
542:
160:Additional Research
2572:10.1111/dsji.12121
2531:Distance Education
2309:. London: Methuen.
2307:Social Interaction
2305:Argyle, M (1969).
1717:. London: Methuen.
1715:Social Interaction
1713:Argyle, M (1969).
773:Multicommunicating
540:
122:Albert Mehrabian's
105:telecommunications
3129:10.1093/ct/qty002
1854:Decision Sciences
1658:10.1093/ct/qty002
674:
673:
556:I. Social Context
502:
501:
210:distance learning
179:affective filters
107:media, including
78:
77:
70:
41:quality standards
32:This article may
3328:
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2974:. London: Wiley.
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2654:(1–2): 108–119.
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2081:Social Computing
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1634:Steinfield 1986.
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1005:
965:
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867:
861:
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820:
618:Formal/informal
576:Timely Response
543:
539:
398:
397:
343:social computing
193:, proximity and
73:
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62:
59:
53:
27:
26:
19:
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3325:
3321:Virtual reality
3306:
3305:
3297:
3140:
2963:10.1.1.149.3188
2863:
2831:Online Learning
2826:
2763:
2395:
2279:Human Relations
2246:10.2307/2786027
2217:10.1002/ace.119
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1730:Human Relations
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872:Lockee, Barbara
870:Cui, Guoqiang;
868:
864:
821:
817:
812:
807:
748:Ederyn Williams
683:
645:Size of groups
598:Informal/formal
515:interdependence
507:
368:
356:
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246:social presence
238:
162:
118:
97:Ederyn Williams
74:
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1986:
1961:
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1927:
1914:
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1455:10722/245387
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1306:. Retrieved
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675:
535:
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392:
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374:
372:
369:
361:
357:
354:Significance
348:
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332:Asynchronous
328:
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58:January 2019
55:
48:Please help
44:
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3281:: 131–138.
3015:: 777–804.
2986:: 318–336.
2487:(3): 8–26.
2357:: 225–237.
1512:: 225–237.
1308:6 September
1304:. June 2021
1301:Google Docs
743:Group think
548:Dimensions
519:uncertainty
366:Measurement
336:synchronous
191:eye contact
146:post office
144:The U.K.'s
135:eye contact
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3310:Categories
2537:: 89–106.
2234:Sociometry
2104:2022-10-17
1381:Rice, 1993
810:References
803:Persuasion
511:complexity
505:Conclusion
3256:143363105
3210:: 84–99.
3194:145286710
3165:145557658
3151:: 52–90.
3123:: 22–45.
3075:143947023
3061:: 45–60.
3040:: 27–37.
2958:CiteSeerX
2774:: 10–21.
2683:: 27–50.
2668:143540765
2622:148886826
2608:: 50–70.
2566:: 62–81.
2551:145402355
2522:147467235
2508:: 38–58.
2449:: 46–62.
2434:151596209
2420:: 37–53.
2406:(3): 241.
2299:143613225
2225:144048026
2186:143947023
2178:0952-3987
2017:1040-726X
1978:147467235
1964:: 38–58.
1934:: 10–21.
1874:0011-7315
1835:204367149
1827:2072-8050
1750:143613225
1652:: 22–45.
1613:: 27–37.
1588:254412061
1580:1360-2357
1440:: 84–99.
1357:254412061
1349:1360-2357
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1268:: 37–53.
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553:Variables
401:No. Item
250:awareness
187:immediacy
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3000:14292272
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1882:10503085
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1736:: 3–17.
1192:: 8–16.
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733:Kinesics
681:See also
276:done by
274:Kinesics
183:intimacy
175:intimacy
34:require
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