38:
45:
366:
not certain. Atop the plateau to the west of the settlement there was a citadel comprising two forts on the accessible eastern half separated by a gated wall 1.1 metres (3.6 ft) thick from another fort built atop the ruins of the
Himyarite temple. This last fort overlooked the harbour. It has been suggested that the forts may have been no more than watchtowers or lighthouses.
358:) superstructures have long since disappeared. It is thus impossible to determine whether buildings had one or two storeys except in the case of the thickest foundations walls, which almost certainly supported two storeys. The building types have no known equivalents among medieval Ḥaḍramī architecture, but are similar to ancient
572:
evidence for the importation of wheat, rice, millet and sorghum. The rice was thought by its discoverers to have come from either Egypt or India, but it may have come from
Madagascar, which is known to have exported rice to Kilwa that was then traded with Aden. There is also evidence—the pottery from
326:
The settled area of Sharma encompassed five hectares. Despite the site's origin in a single act of foundation, there is little evidence of planning. Buildings are widely separated and the areas between them show signs of being used for refuse (potsherds and animal bones). The only hint of urbanism is
365:
Sharma was originally protected on the landward side by an earthen and stone wall 2.1 metres (6.9 ft) thick stretching from one plateau to the other. At some point, this wall was destroyed or eroded and rebuilt. At some point, the entire settlement might have been enclosed by walls, but this is
580:
provides a brief glimpse at the trade networks of the entire western half of the Indian Ocean. The diversity of unglazed Indian pottery found at the site suggests that Indian merchants were present there. There may have been a permanent community of East
African merchants importing familiar pottery
218:
have been recovered from the site, suggestive of a flourishing trade during
Himyarite times. No evidence of Himyarite settlement beyond the temple has been found. The main period of settlement was the tenth through twelfth centuries, and that settlement, by far the most extensive in the history of
400:
are common, but most significant is the large and varied corpus of imported ceramic and glass vessels. Sharma has the "richest" collection of imported
Chinese ceramics "ever found on an Islamic site" of the eleventh century. Some Chinese styles found at Sharma have not been found at any other
540:
There is about one twentieth as much glass from vessels has been recovered from Sharma as ceramic. It is mostly of
Persian origin, but some may be from Egypt or Syria. Some of the glass vessels were merely containers, but others were probably trade goods in their own right.
317:
Sharma was partially occupied again in the late thirteenth century into the early fourteenth (the time of al-Dimashqī). This is considered the sixth phase of medieval Sharma. It was partially re-occupied a third and last time in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries.
509:) have been found dating to the late twelfth century, perhaps indicative of Ayyubid encroachment. The number of African imports is unusually high: 16.2% of all unglazed ceramics and perhaps as much as 21.5% in the first phase. They belong to the tradition known as
305:
in Oman. The high point of Sharma was the fourth phase, roughly the second half of the eleventh century. The decline of Sharma from about 1150 may be linked to the rise of its obvious rivals, al-Shiḥr and Mirbāṭ, or to the aggressive policy of the
Persian port of
289:
as a major hub of international trade may have drawn merchants away from the
Persian Gulf and towards the Red Sea. The error of al-Muqaddasī in placing Sharma on the Red Sea is best explained by the port's having been only just founded at the time of his writing.
373:
that was rebuilt twice. The original mosque was little more than a single room 25 square metres (270 sq ft) in area. The second mosque was built on top of the demolished original. It was 52 square metres (560 sq ft) with a front courtyard
380:). The third mosque is badly preserved, but it too was built over the earlier mosques. It had an interior area of 197 square metres (2,120 sq ft). The mosque sat at the edge of the plain overlooking the beach and was visible from the sea.
265:
The foundation of Sharma should probably be linked to the earthquake that destroyed the
Persian port of Siraf in 977. That Sharma was not founded by locals is certain. Local tribesmen lacked the connections to create a flourishing port
345:
Sharma was a less a city than a fortified warehouse complex. Its buildings were mostly storehouses, perhaps each associated with a particular good or merchant. Its population was small, mainly administrators, soldiers and craftsmen.
190:
Sharma was an isolated settlement, over 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the nearest oasis or village. It has limited freshwater. The settlement had four cisterns and three wells, however, and may have cultivated the plateau.
183:) at the tip of Raʾs Sharma. The settlement faces the west. The geography of the site makes it easily defensible, since the continental plateau rises 30 metres (98 ft) above the plain, which is accessible via two narrow
596:
that led to and from East Africa and India. As for types of goods, the large number of stoneware jars indicates a high volume of trade in eastern perishables. Most of the incense recovered from the site is
494:, are rare compared to the sgraffiato. There are a few examples of what might be the earliest glazed ware produced in South Arabia at Aden and Zabīd, or else evidence of the thirteenth-century occupation.
341:
has been identified as well as glass slag. There were two cemeteries located outside the town itself, one to the northeast and another to the southwest. These have not been excavated by archaeologists.
592:. It warehoused goods between their point of origin and point of sale. It may be seen as a northern extension of the "Swahili corridor". Its geographical position placed at the crossroads of the
483:
in East Africa. In Siraf, its prevalence is associated with the city's decline. It was produced in Persia between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Earlier types of pottery, such as
Persian
270:
and the wealth to defend it from the existing port of al-Shiḥr, which would certainly have opposed it. The most likely candidates for the founders are émigrés from Siraf. The extension of the
362:
types from the same region. The main large building type has an east–west hallway with three rooms to the north and three to the south. The buildings are devoid of architectural decoration.
130:
and was "one of the busiest harbours of the Indian Ocean" until its abrupt abandonment around 1180. Although known from texts, the location of the settlement was only discovered in 1996.
187:. The plain itself is 5–7 metres (16–23 ft) higher than the beach and accessible only by two pathways, while the isolated plateau west of the settlement was accessible by only one.
293:
The history of Sharma has been divided into six phases. The third phase is characterized by the construction of the main defensive wall. This may be linked to the campaigns of the
962:
613:. High-value African goods like ivory, rock crystal and gold were probably stored at Sharma for pickup by Indian merchants. There may have been African slaves resident in Sharma.
552:
had also been found at Sharma. It may originate in the area, since these minerals are found in Arabia, but the style has also been found at Kilwa, with pieces originating in
918:
601:, which was certainly transited. Other incenses recovered from the site may have been imported. Circumstantial cases may be made linking Sharma with the trade in
354:
One hundred buildings have been identified by archaeologists within the settlement. Their stone foundations or basement walls survive, but the earthen (probably
497:
The unglazed wares found at Sharma are varied and distinctive. Besides the probable local production and those from Yadhghat, there are types from India,
285:
into the Red Sea may have provided propitious circumstances for the founding of a new trade emporium in southern Arabia. Likewise, the reemergence of the
405:
and 90.7% are unglazed. Pottery may have been produced at Sharma, but no evidence of its production has come to light. The nearest known kiln was at
262:
mentions Sharma for the last time, noting only that it and al-Shiḥr were the two harbours of Ḥaḍramawt. They operated independently of one another.
468:. The earliest Chinese pieces were fired in the late ninth century and the latest in the early twelfth, but eleventh-century firings predominate.
1091:
983:
Pradines, Stéphane (2019). "Islamic Archaeology in the Comoros: The Swahili and the Rock Crystal Trade with the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates".
1081:
66:
1076:
179:
on a plain situated between two plateaus overlooking a sandy beach. It possessed a deep anchorage. There is another isolated plateau (Arabic
581:
for their own use. The African pottery and crockery may also be linked to grain importation. There may also have been Comorians or even
1071:
297:
to extend their authority into Ḥaḍramawt around 1063. It also corresponds with the fall of the Buyids. In 1053, too, the
401:
archaeological site in the Islamic world. Of the recovered pieces of pottery from the site, 4.3% are Chinese, 5.0% are
1051:
134:
excavations began in 2001. They have revealed a large, heavily fortified port founded around 980 by merchants from
1106:
1101:
1096:
206:
have also been found. Around the start of the first millennium, Sharma was probably a seasonal settlement. A
37:
1086:
534:
1027:"The Sharma Horizon: Sgraffiato Wares and Other Glazed Ceramics of the Indian Ocean Trade (ca 980–1150)"
409:
about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) to the north and it seems to have provided some pottery to the port.
223:
210:
structure, probably a temple, has been found on the eastern plateau. Pre-Islamic artefacts from India,
943:
573:
Yadhghat—that Sharma traded with the Ḥaḍramī tribes of the interior, perhaps even forging alliances.
610:
388:
Only a few coins have been recovered from Sharma. Other objects include combs, weights, pearls and
259:
510:
1026:
250:
wrote that Sharma and Lasʿā on the coast of Ḥaḍramawt were stopovers on the sailing route from
577:
560:. It is possible that it was brought to Sharma along the same routes as the African pottery.
445:
1004:
Rougeulle, Axelle (2003). "Excavations at Sharmah, Ḥaḍramawt: The 2001 and 2002 Seasons".
173:
Sharma was located on the Raʾs Sharma promontory about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of
8:
480:
453:
154:
145:
Sharma had a small permanent population of merchants and soldiers and served mainly as a
1044:
Sharma: Un entrepôt de commerce médiéval sur la côte du Hadramawt (Yémen, ca. 980–1180)
1013:
948:
598:
202:
artefacts have been recovered from the plateau at the tip of Raʾs Sharma. Remains of a
127:
1047:
952:
609:, with the reprocessing of rough processed sugar cane from the Comoros, and with the
286:
282:
278:
119:
992:
971:
938:
930:
905:
569:
461:
389:
158:
582:
530:
235:
107:
428:
stonewares. Objects from ten different Chinese kiln sites have been identified:
227:
247:
934:
1065:
502:
488:
402:
298:
162:
146:
81:
68:
1046:. British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs, 17. ArchaeoPress.
602:
514:
425:
413:
203:
139:
123:
909:
549:
522:
449:
397:
334:
150:
131:
115:
1017:
589:
557:
513:
and items of the same type have been found at coastal sites of Shanga,
484:
472:
307:
271:
996:
975:
310:. The final abandonment of the port may have come about only after an
545:
476:
441:
417:
294:
207:
199:
175:
593:
491:
465:
433:
429:
421:
406:
359:
355:
239:
606:
553:
526:
437:
393:
311:
243:
327:
a lane with small buildings on either side that may have been a
457:
370:
274:
255:
215:
585:
at Sharma (some of the copal may originate from Madagascar).
518:
498:
475:
styles imported from Persia. It is well known from Siraf and
302:
157:. Nevertheless, its site possesses the richest assortment of
135:
376:
338:
251:
211:
184:
875:
873:
871:
869:
867:
865:
863:
861:
848:
846:
796:
794:
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
782:
673:
671:
669:
667:
654:
652:
639:
637:
635:
633:
631:
629:
627:
625:
412:
Among the types of Chinese pottery found at the site are
329:
960:
Pradines, Stéphane (2017). "Review of Rougeulle 2015".
896:
Beaujard, Philippe (2016). "Review of Rougeulle 2015".
858:
843:
779:
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
759:
757:
755:
722:
720:
718:
716:
714:
712:
710:
708:
706:
664:
649:
622:
471:
The glazed earthenware of Sharma comes mostly in three
753:
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
735:
704:
702:
700:
698:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
686:
833:
831:
829:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
809:
568:
Sharma probably imported much of its food. There is
732:
683:
806:
1063:
1031:Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
1006:Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
501:, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea coast and the
258:and were about one day apart. Around 1300,
529:. The most likely point of origin for the
1041:
1024:
1003:
944:1983/19dba84f-b071-49ef-a3e4-18d4e583269b
942:
919:"The Swahili Corridor Revisited (review)"
879:
852:
800:
677:
658:
643:
982:
959:
895:
773:
726:
1092:12th-century disestablishments in Asia
1064:
916:
837:
222:Sharma is mentioned in three works of
1082:Ports and harbours of the Arabian Sea
1077:Port cities in the Arabian Peninsula
611:Indian Ocean trade in African slaves
533:pieces found at Sharma, however, is
505:. Egyptian kegs (of a type known as
219:the site, was created from scratch.
111:
13:
14:
1118:
126:. It was deeply involved in the
43:
36:
1042:Rougeulle, Axelle, ed. (2015).
230:records that Sharma and Lasʿā (
985:Journal of Islamic Archaeology
963:Journal of Islamic Archaeology
321:
44:
1:
1072:Archaeological sites in Yemen
923:African Archaeological Review
588:Sharma was mainly a transit
349:
168:
7:
234:) were dependencies of the
10:
1123:
1025:Rougeulle, Axelle (2005).
888:
383:
224:medieval Islamic geography
194:
935:10.1007/s10437-018-9294-2
62:
31:
24:
616:
563:
281:(945) and of the Shiite
511:Triangular-Incised Ware
333:(market). The port did
161:from its period in the
82:14.760833°N 49.606944°E
122:(South Arabia) on the
16:Medieval port in Yemen
1107:12th century in Yemen
1102:11th century in Yemen
1097:10th century in Yemen
917:Horton, Mark (2018).
910:10.15184/aqy.2016.127
544:Crockery carved from
487:, and later, such as
605:from Madagascar and
337:. One (non-pottery)
87:14.760833; 49.606944
1087:980s establishments
479:in Persia and from
78: /
904:(352): 1129–1131.
599:East African copal
403:glazed earthenware
226:. Writing in 985,
128:Indian Ocean trade
997:10.1558/jia.39521
976:10.1558/jia.35279
314:assault in 1180.
287:Mediterranean Sea
283:Fatimid caliphate
97:
96:
1114:
1057:
1038:
1021:
1000:
979:
956:
946:
913:
883:
877:
856:
850:
841:
835:
804:
798:
777:
771:
730:
724:
681:
675:
662:
656:
647:
641:
570:archaeobotanical
233:
178:
159:Chinese ceramics
118:trading port in
113:
93:
92:
90:
89:
88:
83:
79:
76:
75:
74:
71:
47:
46:
40:
22:
21:
1122:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1054:
891:
886:
878:
859:
851:
844:
836:
807:
799:
780:
772:
733:
725:
684:
676:
665:
657:
650:
642:
623:
619:
566:
420:porcelains and
386:
369:Sharma had one
352:
324:
231:
197:
174:
171:
86:
84:
80:
77:
72:
69:
67:
65:
64:
58:
57:
56:
55:
54:
53:
52:
48:
27:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1120:
1110:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1059:
1058:
1052:
1039:
1022:
1001:
991:(1): 109–135.
980:
970:(2): 267–271.
957:
929:(2): 341–346.
914:
892:
890:
887:
885:
884:
882:, p. 295.
880:Rougeulle 2003
857:
855:, p. 294.
853:Rougeulle 2003
842:
805:
803:, p. 296.
801:Rougeulle 2003
778:
731:
682:
680:, p. 291.
678:Rougeulle 2003
663:
661:, p. 223.
659:Rougeulle 2005
648:
646:, p. 287.
644:Rougeulle 2003
620:
618:
615:
565:
562:
385:
382:
351:
348:
323:
320:
246:. About 1150,
196:
193:
170:
167:
149:point between
132:Archaeological
95:
94:
60:
59:
50:
49:
42:
41:
35:
34:
33:
32:
29:
28:
25:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1119:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1067:
1055:
1053:9781784911942
1049:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
964:
958:
954:
950:
945:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
894:
893:
881:
876:
874:
872:
870:
868:
866:
864:
862:
854:
849:
847:
839:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
816:
814:
812:
810:
802:
797:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
775:
774:Beaujard 2016
770:
768:
766:
764:
762:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
728:
727:Pradines 2017
723:
721:
719:
717:
715:
713:
711:
709:
707:
705:
703:
701:
699:
697:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
679:
674:
672:
670:
668:
660:
655:
653:
645:
640:
638:
636:
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
621:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
595:
591:
586:
584:
579:
574:
571:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
542:
538:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
503:Swahili coast
500:
495:
493:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
469:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
408:
404:
399:
395:
391:
381:
379:
378:
372:
367:
363:
361:
357:
347:
343:
340:
336:
335:produce glass
332:
331:
319:
315:
313:
309:
304:
300:
296:
291:
288:
284:
280:
276:
275:Buyid emirate
273:
269:
263:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
244:Red Sea coast
241:
237:
229:
225:
220:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
192:
188:
186:
182:
177:
166:
164:
163:Islamic world
160:
156:
152:
148:
147:transshipment
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
109:
105:
101:
91:
63:Coordinates:
61:
39:
30:
23:
1043:
1034:
1030:
1009:
1005:
988:
984:
967:
961:
926:
922:
901:
897:
603:rock crystal
587:
575:
567:
543:
539:
506:
496:
470:
411:
392:. Pieces of
387:
375:
368:
364:
353:
344:
328:
325:
316:
292:
267:
264:
228:al-Muqaddasī
221:
204:shell midden
198:
189:
180:
172:
144:
140:Persian Gulf
124:Gulf of Aden
103:
99:
98:
1012:: 287–307.
838:Horton 2018
576:The Sharma
550:greenschist
531:red-slipped
398:glass beads
390:kohl sticks
322:Archaeology
301:had raided
260:al-Dimashqī
151:East Africa
85: /
1066:Categories
1037:: 223–246.
558:Madagascar
485:lusterware
473:sgraffiato
446:Jingdezhen
396:and small
238:rulers of
73:49°36′25″E
70:14°45′39″N
953:166142195
898:Antiquity
578:"horizon"
546:soapstone
350:Buildings
295:Sulayhids
268:ex nihilo
248:al-Idrīsī
208:Himyarite
200:Neolithic
169:Geography
120:Ḥaḍramawt
1018:41223770
594:monsoons
590:entrepôt
583:Malagasy
525:and the
492:fritware
442:Jianyang
434:Dingzhou
430:Changsha
407:Yadhghat
356:mudbrick
232:al-Shiḥr
176:al-Shiḥr
116:medieval
114:) was a
889:Sources
607:Dembeni
554:Vohemar
527:Comoros
462:Yaozhou
454:Tong'an
438:Ganzhou
414:qingbai
394:incense
384:Pottery
360:Sabaean
312:Ayyubid
299:Seljuks
242:on the
236:Ziyadid
195:History
138:on the
104:Sharmah
1050:
1016:
951:
489:Seljuk
481:Shanga
450:Jizhou
371:mosque
272:Shiite
256:Mirbāṭ
216:Persia
108:Arabic
100:Sharma
51:Sharma
26:Sharma
1014:JSTOR
949:S2CID
617:Notes
564:Trade
535:Pemba
519:Kilwa
515:Manda
499:Sindh
458:Xicun
303:Sohar
277:into
240:Zabīd
185:wadis
155:India
136:Siraf
19:Place
1048:ISBN
548:and
523:Lamu
507:siga
464:and
424:and
418:Ding
416:and
377:ṣaḥn
339:kiln
308:Kish
279:Iraq
252:Aden
214:and
212:Oman
181:jawl
153:and
112:شرمة
993:doi
972:doi
939:hdl
931:doi
906:doi
556:in
477:Tis
466:Yue
426:Yao
422:Yue
330:suq
254:to
102:or
1068::
1035:35
1033:.
1029:.
1010:33
1008:.
987:.
966:.
947:.
937:.
927:35
925:.
921:.
902:90
900:.
860:^
845:^
808:^
781:^
734:^
685:^
666:^
651:^
624:^
537:.
521:,
517:,
460:,
456:,
452:,
448:,
444:,
440:,
436:,
432:,
165:.
142:.
110::
1056:.
1020:.
999:.
995::
989:6
978:.
974::
968:4
955:.
941::
933::
912:.
908::
840:.
776:.
729:.
374:(
106:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
