348:
1121:) in the Algerian Tadrart and Tassili as well as the Libyan Acacus regions of the Sahara. The region was initially peopled by gatherers and hunters in 10,000 BP, and then, peopled by cattle herders in 7500 BP, which gave rise to pastoralism in the region. The cattle and sheep pastoralists, who once occupied higher elevated areas (e.g., mountainous refugia) in 7500 BP, due to increased desertification, likely migrated into lower elevated areas (e.g., near lakes) for part-time settlement prior to 5000 BP. Pastoralists after 5000 BP occupied higher and lower elevated areas on a seasonal basis and possessed often-used lithic grinding tools, ceramics (plain in detail), and, with heightened use, distantly located resources.
667:). Though uncommon, ceramics and lithic complexes were also used. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic especially hunted Barbary sheep, among other animals, as well as used ceramics and basic lithic constructs between 10,000 BP to 8800 BP. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic, who possessed a sophisticated social organization, as well as exceptional stone tools and ceramics, created the Round Head rock art. Amid an early period of the Holocene, semi-settled Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic hunters, who created a refined material culture (e.g., stone tools, decorated pottery) as early as 10,000 BP, also created the engraved Kel Essuf and painted Round Head rock art styles located in the region (e.g., some in the
1058:) and hairstyles (e.g., chignons). 2% of the overall human artforms (i.e., six) have hands and fingers, and some may have had closed fists. The human artforms were generally portrayed as figures with thickly muscled arms and legs. Human artforms consisted of both men and women, though women numbered up to nine in total (4% of overall human artforms). Some aspects of the rock art, though increasingly rare, may have portrayed a mother and her children. There may have also been portrayal of two supernatural individuals.
529:
371:
739:
22:
441:
holder images, 77 horned images, and 34 bow bearer images that have been recognized. In the
Tassili region, there are at least 55 arm band wearing images, 43 images with traits similar to form to a "T", 22 connected and 20 disconnected forms shaped like a "half-moon", and 7 "Great God" images. The Round Head rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer are located in urban-like lithic complexes (e.g., rock shelters, rock arches, rock canyons). The final period of the Round Head rock art portrayals have been characterized as
1125:
Lake Chad and the Niger Delta. While some migrated south of the Sahara, other
Central Saharan hunter-gatherers may have taken on the custom of pastoralism (e.g., herding domesticated cattle and goats). Given the opportunity to become socially distinguished, to develop food surplus, as well as to acquire and aggregate wealth, this led to the adoption of a domestic cattle pastoral economy by some Central Saharan hunter-gatherers. In exchange, cultural information regarding use of vegetation (e.g.,
1070:, bears the meaning of a person who is alive in contrast to a person is dead, and in African dance, is usually the starting stance that bears the meaning of unlimited expressive possibility. Among asymmetric-armed human artforms, one man is depicted with an extended arm and clenched fist, and another arm drawn back for a subsequent strike. There is also the depicted situation of what may be an adult protecting two children (or two human artforms depicted smaller for unclear an unclear purpose).
936:
of the stick to denote peace and wisdom; afterward, men who have been initiated receive the reserved hunting emblem of the bow. Traditional Sub-Saharan
African cultures regularly use horn emblems in reference to their focus on improved reproductive capability and development. Comparatively, Round Head rock art may have been created, in specially chosen rockshelters, by initiating individuals who were undergoing ceremonial rites. As with the Nigerien
284:, the most contentious among academic debates has remained the topic of chronology. Round Head, Kel Essuf, and Bubaline rock art, as the oldest chronological types, have been regarded as less certain compared to the younger chronological types (e.g., rock art depicting Saharan animals, which could be chronologically approximated to a specific timespan). Consequently, two types of chronologies (i.e., high chronology, low chronology) were developed.
383:
superimposed state of Round Head rock art upon Kel Essuf rock art is viewed as showing that Kel Essuf rock art chronologically precedes Round Head rock art and is also perceived as a pattern of development, from simpler detailed Kel Essuf engravings to more complexly detailed (e.g., fingers) Round Head paintings. Mori (1967) has found continued support by
Hallier & Hallier (1999) and Streidter et al. (2002 – 2003).
237:) in Africa underwent mass extinction; consequently, the engraved stone portrayals of these macroscopic, undomesticated buffalos in unenclosed rock art zones resulted in them being identified as Bubaline. In contrast, located in enclosed rock art zones, there are engraved Kel Essuf ("spirit of dead" in the Tuareg language) art, which portray short-armed, little human artforms with legs and penile appendages.
969:
415:) of Niger and Algeria. The Round Head rock artists may have originated in this core area, and may have had a cultural practice of association, via long distance, among other Round Head rock artists. The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of both the Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art, which occupy rockshelters in the same regions (e.g.,
984:, also appear in Round Head rock art. In the Round Head rock art of Tassili, mighty deities are portrayed centrally on rockshelter walls. Comparatively, throughout Sub-Saharan African cultures, rocks and caves are regularly viewed as being inhabited by spirits and awe-inspiring mountains of high elevation regularly viewed as being habitations of the
403:
Bous, Air) of Niger. These areas are viewed as archaeologically similar (e.g., pottery). Undomesticated flora and animals were used in
Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherer cultures between 10,000 BP and 8000 BP as well as 8800 BP and 7400 BP. Based on the dates acquired for the ceramics in the northern Sahara (8th millennium BP),
387:
horns atop the heads of the Kel Essuf forms that are like the Round Head forms in configuration (e.g., shape, position). Due to the absence of these likenesses in
Pastoral rock artforms, these likenesses may be concluded as cultural particularities unique to the hunter-gatherers who created the Kel Essuf and Round Head rock artforms.
260:, spiritual animal forms), in painted Round Head rock art. Painted Round Head rock art and engraved Kel Essuf rock art usually share the same region and occasionally the same rockshelters in contrast to engraved Bubaline rock art, which rarely appear in rock art zones where painted Round Head rock art is portrayed predominantly.
445:(e.g., dominant mandible, big lips, rounded nose). A distinct portrayal of a single, domesticated cow created in the Round Head rock art style may serve as evidence for some of the hunter-gatherers, who created the Round Head rock art, adopting the culture of cattle pastoralism from incoming cattle pastoralists.
789:), along with methods (e.g., abrasion, scraping) to form the bone tools. The process occurred locally and the type of lithic implements used in the process of forming the bone tools may have also been used to grind ochre and process flora. Bone tool decorations may reflect a style and design that derive from
71:, spiritual animal forms), in painted Round Head rock art. Painted Round Head rock art and engraved Kel Essuf rock art usually share the same region and occasionally the same rockshelters. The Round Head rock art of Tassili and the surrounding mountainous areas bear considerable similarity with traditional
898:. As one of the primary aspects of Sub-Saharan African cultures are their conservative values, despite change in the material economy, mainstay values remain (e.g., women's role to bear and rear children, men's participation in ceremony to facilitate the positive passing of time). The creators of the
1089:." There is also a situation depicting African dance and likely involving a person of elite stature. The most notable of situations for bent-on-knees human artforms is one portraying two dancing individuals, with white-colored halos around their heads, which may denote the attainment of a particular
935:
A vital aspect for young male and female initiates of Sub-Saharan
African ceremonies to partake in is body painting. Body painting symbolisms are regularly used for the purpose of petitioning spirits for improved reproductive capability and security. Young male initiates receive the spiritual emblem
556:
used for the purpose of dwelling or ritual are absent from the
Central Sahara amid the early period of the Holocene, Round Head rock art may be viewed as monumental Central Saharan rock art amid the early period of the Holocene. The possibility of there being some hunter-gatherers who did not create
402:
While the Round Head rock art is found in less abundance in the mountainous regions (e.g., Tadrart, Acacus) of
Algeria and Libya, it is found in greatest abundance in the plateau area of Tassili. The precursors for Round Head rock art may have originated in the mountainous northern area (e.g., Adrar
927:
are a regular theme in both Round Head rock art and modern
African cultures. A limited group of men (e.g., male relatives of the dead and their ancestors, male ritual initiates) are permitted to make physical contact with secret masks. The repeated painting over of Round Head rock art in Tassili is
702:
In the Tadrart Acacus region of Libya, hunter-gatherers may have begun to dwell starting between 10,721 cal BP and 10,400 cal BP. Hunter-gatherers dwelled in various locations at Tin Torha (e.g., Torha East, Torha North, Two Caves). At Torha East, hunter-gatherers used bones, lustrous lithic items,
456:
does not give prominence to humans, Round Head rock art does give prominence to humans; the difference in human prominence depicted by Bubaline rock artists and Round Head rock artists, as indicative of increasing awareness of the importance and agency of humans, may be viewed as a representational
306:
Credence to the high chronology is given via decoratively detailed Saharan ceramics dated to 10,726 BP. A spatula and lithic grinding tools with ocher remnants on them, which serves as evidence of painting, were found in an Acacus rockshelter with Round Head rock art. Paint from Round Head rock art
1124:
As cattle pastoralism had endured in the Sahara since 7500 BP, Central Saharan hunters and herders may have lived together in a common area for a long period of time. Desertification may have resulted in migrations from the Central Saharan region, where the Round Head paintings are located, toward
1026:
With the exception of the depicted artform of a giraffe, depicted artforms of undomesticated animals, animals that were favored for hunting, and hunting situations, are absent from the Round Head rock art at Jebel Uweinat. Rather, Round Head rock art at Jebel Uweinat is primarily composed of human
863:
hunter-gatherers hunted different kinds of animals and used numerous grinding and flaking stone technologies and ceramics for the purpose of improving the overall number of undomesticated vegetation gathered. Among hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic, there was use of ceramics, due to the increased
440:
Round Head rock art is the earliest painted rock art in the Central Sahara. Round Head rock art number up to several thousand depictions in the Central Sahara. In the region (e.g., Tassili, Tadrart) of Algeria and region (e.g., Acacus) of Libya, there are at least 149 painted body images, 85 stick
394:
Comparative analysis of the rock art from Tassili n’Ajjer and Djado resulted in the conclusion that the Round Head rock art of Djado was the precursor to the Round Head rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer. With the enneris of the mountainous area of Djado as its origin, the creators of the Round Head rock
334:
existed. Between 16th to 15th millennium BP, the environment was humid. From 20,000 BP to 13,000 BP, there was a varied climate system. The high elevated regions with mountains were considerably more wet than low elevated regions without mountains, which led to the variation in climate. Regions of
198:
hunter-gatherers hunted different kinds of animals and used numerous grinding and flaking stone technologies and ceramics for the purpose of improving the overall number of undomesticated vegetation gathered. Among hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic, there was use of ceramics, due to the increased
390:
A cultural particularity unique to the Kel Essuf rock art, in contrast to the Round Head rock art, are penile forms; these penile forms, or additional appendages, may be indicative of maleness, and may be absent from the Round Head rock art due to taboo. Aside this absence, both the Kel Essuf and
386:
The striking likenesses between the Kel Essuf and Round Head rock artforms, along with likeness in shape, include the following notable traits: forms shaped like a “half-moon” connected to the shoulder(s), engraved forms shaped like a “half-moon” near “figures”, forms bearing bows and sticks, and
302:
While the Kel Essuf rock art and Bubaline rock art have not been found layered above one another, in addition to the Kel Essuf rock art being found within a dark hued patina, it has been found layered beneath Round Head rock art. Due to the layering and the artistic commonalities between the Kel
943:
There are considerable affinities between Sub-Saharan Africans and Round Head rock art in the performative roles of women. For example, in many traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures, men are usually the primary ceremonial leaders and women are usually performing secondary, but, nevertheless,
382:
Mori (1967) first hypothesized that Round Head rock art evolved from Kel Essuf rock art in the Acacus region; this hypothesized evolution of one rock art type into another receives support due to Round Head rock art having been superimposed upon Kel Essuf rock art in the Tadrart of Algeria. The
398:
The "pecked Djado-Roundheads", or Kel Essuf rock art, in the Djado mountains of northern Niger are viewed as having great likeness with the Round Head rock art in the region (e.g., Tadrart, Tassili) of Algeria and to some rock art in the region (e.g., Acacus) of Libya; hence, this is viewed as
263:
Compared to painted Round Head rock art, in addition to its art production method, depictions of domesticated cattle are what makes engraved/painted Pastoral rock art distinct; these distinct depictions in the Central Sahara serve as evidence for different populations entering the region. The
110:
and basic lithic constructs between 10,000 BP to 8800 BP. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic, who possessed a sophisticated social organization, as well as exceptional stone tools and ceramics, created the Round Head rock art. Amid an early period of the Holocene, semi-settled Epipaleolithic and
1061:
Out of the 146 various ways that human artforms were portrayed, 35% were symmetric-armed and standing, 16% were asymmetric-armed and standing, 16% were bent-on-knees, 11% had one leg free, 11% were running and walking, 10% were kneeling and sitting, and 1% were jumping or tiptoeing.
1104:
engaging in what may have been choreographed African dance movements. Among human artforms (e.g., jumping or tiptoeing, running/walking), there are individuals with chignons. Among kneeling and sitting human artforms, there are more individuals portrayed sitting than kneeling.
916:
Traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures bear notable likeness with Round Head rock art. For example, men predominantly partake in the primary ceremonies of traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures, while women may neither obtain in-depth sacred understanding (e.g.,
921:) nor partake in many of the ceremonies. Sub-Saharan African ceremonies being predominantly acted out by men and spiritual knowledge being reserved for men who have been ritually initiated culturally corresponds with 95% of Round Head rock art depictions being men.
991:
The considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between Round Head paintings and modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likeness with the oldest ceramics found in
575:
who resided in the Tassili region long ago. The dark skin complexion of the hunters who created the Round Head rock art was verified via the testing of skin samples taken from human remains located in the Acacus region of Libya and the Tassili region of Algeria.
516:
marks that differ; linear design patterns are exclusive to male art forms, whereas, crescent-shaped and concentric circular design patterns are exclusive to female art forms. Between the 5th millennium BCE and the 4th millennium BCE, the Central
583:, there was a child mummy (5405 ± 180 BP) and an adult (7823 ± 95 BP/7550 ± 120 BP). In the Tassili n'Ajjer region, at Tin Hanakaten rockshelter, there was a child (7900 ± 120 BP/8771 ± 168 cal BP), with cranial deformations due to disease or
1035:) and arrows composing 9% of the overall rock art. Some parts (e.g., arms) of the polychrome-colored human artforms, which may have had body embellishments, were red-colored and other parts (e.g., loincloths, accessories, some hairstyles,
964:
are an example of ceremonies where women are the primary actors. Comparatively, ceremonial depictions in Round Head rock art (e.g., at Tan Zoumaitak) portray female human artforms bearing sticks and rounded forms connected to their arms.
1011:, which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. The masks found in Round Head paintings bear close resemblance with masks found in modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Among other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, but especially in
940:, who wore large middle finger rings to provide security against forces that can harm and malevolent spirits, the bands, worn by 90% of male Round Head rock artforms, may have been worn to provide a similar kind of spiritual security.
1065:
Among symmetric-armed human artforms, there are individuals portrayed in combat-ready poses. There are also individuals depicted in an "A-pose" – the most common of depicted posted in the Round Head rock art at Uweinat, which, in
264:
decreased appearance of large undomesticated organisms and increased appearance of one-humped camels and horses depicted in latter rock art (e.g., Pastoral, Camelline, Cabelline) throughout the Sahara serves as evidence for the
816:), which were expertly created, designed, and used by the Tin Torha hunter-gatherers, may have served as collective identity markers and those created bone objects may have served a vital purpose in trade with other groups.
1160:
As late as 2500 BP in the Central Sahara, groups from the Round Head period may have continued to persist as hunters. Central Saharan hunter-gatherers, amid the Horse period of the Central Sahara, were identified by
831:
Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) is shown via their presence in Round Head rock art throughout the Central Sahara (e.g., Libyan region of Tadrart Acacus, Algerian region of Tassili n’Ajjer). Barbary sheep were
162:
Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) is shown via their presence in Round Head rock art throughout the Central Sahara (e.g., Libyan region of Tadrart Acacus, Algerian region of Tassili n’Ajjer). Barbary sheep were
1136:
Migration of hunter-gatherers and cattle herders out of the Central Sahara occurred as the Green Sahara underwent desertification in 4000 BP. Seasonal waterways were the likely migratory route taken to the
856:) were milked and managed, by hunter-gatherers near the Takarkori rockshelter, which is representative of the broader Sahara; this continued until the beginning of the Pastoral Neolithic in the Sahara.
864:
settling and acquiring of undomesticated vegetation, and considerable use of lithic grinding tools, between 8800 BP and 7400 BP. At Uan Afuda, Mesolithic hunter-gatherer settlements had remnants of
199:
settling and acquiring of undomesticated vegetation, and considerable use of lithic grinding tools, between 8800 BP and 7400 BP. At Uan Afuda, Mesolithic hunter-gatherer settlements had remnants of
1023:, the conservativeness of traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures shown; symbolisms found in Round Head paintings are also found in these cultures, which may be indication of cultural continuity.
944:
essential functions, within ceremonies. Men usually are the primary actors in central ceremonies of varying purpose (e.g., healing, fire, rainmaking) and women are secondary actors who contribute
1149:. Dwelling in the Sahelian region began to occur as long inhabited settlement and funerary sites of the northern region of Niger stopped being used. Migration of Central Saharan peoples into the
299:, which portray undomesticated animals, has been estimated to a minimum of 15,000 BP; this has been used as an additional consideration for Bubaline rock art dating well before 10,000 BP.
191:
and managed, by hunter-gatherers near the Takarkori rockshelter, which is representative of the broader Sahara; this continued until the beginning of the Pastoral Neolithic in the Sahara.
287:
The date for Bubaline rock art was approximated to the late period of the Pleistocene or early period of the Holocene using remnants of clay, manganese, and iron oxide in the dark hued
347:
335:
high elevation had occurrences of considerable rainfall, to the extent that lakes developed, whereas, regions of low elevation had occurrences of considerable dryness. Amid the
2056:
The World of Petroglyphs: "Roundheads" In The Djado And Tassili-Mountains (N-Niger / S-Algeria): Pecked and painted human figures in the rock picture inventory of these regions
773:). A bone tool, with decorations, may have been used as a handle for a leadership emblem. A human bone, which may show evidence of human intervention, is also present. Various
106:). Though uncommon, ceramics and lithic complexes were also utilized. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic especially hunted Barbary sheep, among other animals, as well as utilized
407:(8949 BP), Libya (8950 BP), and Tin Hanakaten (9420 BP), the core area for the most ancient ceramics of the Sahara may have likely been in the shared region (e.g., Tassili,
976:
Common traits between Round Head rock art and Sub-Saharan African cultures include concepts of down-headed animals and mighty deities. Down-headed animals, which appear in
303:
Essuf rock art and Round Head rock art of the Central Sahara, the engraved Kel Essuf rock art is regarded to be the artistic precursor to the painted Round Head rock art.
399:
showing that the hunting societies who created these rock art were of the same cultural unit and cultural ideology, though having cultural varieties unique to each area.
871:
Before the migration of cattle herders into Jebel Uweinat between 4400 BCE and 3300 BCE, African hunter-gatherers may have created the painted Round Head rock art at
307:
in the region (e.g., Acacus) of Libya was also tested and dated to 6379 BP. Altogether, these show continuation of the Round Head rock art tradition well into the
525:
markings (e.g., breasts, belly, thighs, shoulders, calves), was created by Africans, during the Round Head Period of Tassili N’Ajjer, in Tanzoumaitak, Algeria.
339:, with its varied climate system, the mountainous environment remained sufficiently humid, which allowed for animal, plant, and human life to be sustained.
291:. Rock walls were estimated to have developed between 9200 BP and 5500 BP using substances of organic origin found within the depths of the rock walls. The
655:, which may have been suitable for the mobile lifestyle of semi-sedentary Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers. Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers built a simple
90:, which may have been suitable for the mobile lifestyle of semi-sedentary Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers. Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers built a simple
395:
art of Djado migrated, from Djado to Tassili, and, as continuation of the Djado artistic tradition, produced the Round Head rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer.
735:
at Torha Two Caves dates between 9774 cal BP and 9534 cal BP and the earliest bone tool at Torha East Rinf dates between 9679 cal BP and 9536 cal BP.
314:
Based on 13 sediment samples from the floor directly at or near the walls of Round Head rock art in Sefar and Ti-n-Tazarift, and determined via the
663:. In 10,000 BP, Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers, to some extent, engaged in processing of flora, and were specialists in the use of Barbary sheep (
631:
of different appearance were therefore living in the Tassili and most probably in the whole Central Sahara as early as the 10th millennium BP."
322:
date of 9000 BP to 10,000 BP. Most scholars are of the view that, from 9500 BP to 7500 BP, Round Head rock artists created Round Head rock art.
2968:
1133:) in the Central Sahara (e.g., Uan Tabu, Uan Muhuggiag) was shared by Central Saharan hunter-gatherers with incoming Early Pastoral peoples.
115:) as early as 10,000 BP, also created the engraved Kel Essuf and painted Round Head rock art styles located in the region (e.g., some in the
2145:
1073:
Among bent-on-knees human artforms, there are semi-squatted individuals. These depicted individuals may portray, as is found throughout
2639:
1039:, large armbands) were white-colored. Though likely more, at least 43% of Round Head rock art at Jebel Uweinat portrays traditional
2742:"The Bone Artifact Collection from Wadi Ti-n-Torha (Northern Tadrart Akakus, Libya): A Reappraisal Based on Technological Analysis"
928:
similar to the repeated painting over that occurs for young male initiates in Mali rockshelters (where masks are kept), among the
43:, which was largely created from 9500 BP to 7500 BP and ceased being created by 3000 BP. The Round Head Period is preceded by the
2577:"Re-entering the central Sahara at the onset of the Holocene: A territorial approach to Early Acacus hunter–gatherers (SW Libya)"
949:
1192:, there were equitable transactions of materials (e.g., gold) made between Sub-Saharan West Africans and North Africans (e.g.,
731:) also was increasingly used in concert with lithic tools purposed for grinding and pottery purposed for boiling. The earliest
2988:
2922:
2855:
2662:
1530:
51:. Round Head rock art number up to several thousand depictions in the Central Sahara. Human and undomesticated animal (e.g.,
3103:
1100:
Among one leg free human artforms, there are depictions of African dance involving squat-and-kick movements. Two women with
945:
552:
Central Saharan hunter-gatherers, such as those of the Acacus region, had a sense of monumentality. While architectural
253:
64:
2397:
894:
The Round Head rock art of Tassili and the surrounding mountainous areas bear considerable similarity with traditional
797:, cords), which may be similar to basket weaving (e.g., basketry, rope) and pottery design found in the Acacus region.
3232:
3170:
3070:
2417:
2359:
1835:
1722:
537:
477:, crocodiles, and fish are portrayed in Round Head rock art. Round Head rock art also features depictions related to
315:
1989:"OSL dating of quaternary deposits associated with the parietal art of the Tassili-n-Ajjer plateau (Central Sahara)"
777:
methods (e.g., fracturing, sawing) were employed on selected bones, using various kinds of lithic implements (e.g.,
3269:
2289:
3274:
1876:
819:
Amid the early Sahara, Round Head rock artists, who had a sophisticated culture and engaged in the activity of
584:
171:
in the Sahara. Between 7500 BCE and 3500 BCE, amid the Green Sahara, undomesticated central Saharan flora were
150:
Amid the early Sahara, Round Head rock artists, who had a sophisticated culture and engaged in the activity of
3203:
2054:
918:
591:, as well as another child and three adults (9420 ± 200 BP/10,726 ± 300 cal BP). Based on examination of the
2256:"Prehistoric Colonization of the Central Sahara: Hunters versus Herders and the Evidence from the Rock Art"
953:
961:
956:. While men become psychologically entranced, via dance, women provide aid to men (e.g., Southern African
782:
3259:
3222:
3151:"All that Glitters is Not Gold: Facing the Myths of Ancient Trade between North and Sub-Saharan Africa"
836:
in stone enclosures near Uan Afuda cave. From up to 9500 BP, this continued until the beginning of the
659:, dated to 10,508 ± 429 cal BP/9260 ± 290 BP, which may have been used for the purpose of serving as a
167:
in stone enclosures near Uan Afuda cave. From up to 9500 BP, this continued until the beginning of the
94:, dated to 10,508 ± 429 cal BP/9260 ± 290 BP, which may have been used for the purpose of serving as a
1872:"Coprolites from Rock Shelters: Hunter-Gatherers "Herding" Barbary Sheep in the Early Holocene Sahara"
595:
child mummy and Tin Hanakaten child, the results verified that these Central Saharan peoples from the
3279:
3264:
2339:
1185:
924:
257:
68:
840:
in the Sahara. Between 7500 BCE and 3500 BCE, amid the Green Sahara, undomesticated central Saharan
766:
644:
571:. Long-dwelling Tuareg from the same area also recognized the Round Head rock art as a creation of
83:
1172:", who are indicated to have been pursued by Garamantes. Contrary to the popular academic myth of
3150:
981:
3102:
Tohamy, Adel Kamel Tohamy Geady; Farag, Handouqa Ibrahim; Ali, Asmaa Abdelalim (October 2022).
2521:
749:
Most bone tools were found in Torha East. Bone tools derive from various kinds of fauna (e.g.,
72:
2915:
What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa
2848:
What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa
1523:
What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa
868:
with undomesticated vegetation within them and cords, which date between 8700 BP and 8300 BP.
318:
dating method, the Round Head rock art may have been created amid the Holocene and may have a
203:
with undomesticated vegetation within them and cords, which date between 8700 BP and 8300 BP.
3104:"Economic Life in the Age of the Round Heads in North Africa through Rock Art (7000-3000) BC"
2980:
1871:
533:
513:
2654:
1932:"Plant behaviour from human imprints and the cultivation of wild cereals in Holocene Sahara"
2588:
2405:
2094:
2000:
1314:
827:, also developed pottery, used vegetation, and managed animals. The cultural importance of
512:, 70% of which is composed of anthropomorphic art forms; male and female art forms feature
486:
482:
158:, also developed pottery, used vegetation, and managed animals. The cultural importance of
98:. In 10,000 BP, Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers, to some extent, engaged in processing of
8:
1189:
1101:
899:
778:
227:
111:
Mesolithic hunters, who created a refined material culture (e.g., stone tools, decorated
2592:
2409:
2098:
2004:
1318:
3184:
3084:
2994:
2777:
2668:
2620:
2557:
2499:
2455:
2431:
2373:
2320:
2229:
2126:
2063:
2032:
1969:
1909:
1728:
1630:
1346:
1154:
1074:
1051:
837:
680:
620:
521:
depiction of a horned running woman, who may have been a goddess or a dancer with body
497:
449:
319:
168:
128:
1169:
800:
The distinct designs of the various bone objects (e.g., item with an hourglass shape,
3238:
3228:
3188:
3176:
3166:
3126:
3088:
3076:
3066:
3058:
3036:
2998:
2984:
2928:
2918:
2888:
2861:
2851:
2781:
2769:
2761:
2741:
2672:
2658:
2624:
2612:
2604:
2561:
2549:
2541:
2503:
2491:
2483:
2475:
2423:
2413:
2377:
2365:
2355:
2324:
2312:
2263:
2233:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2165:
2157:
2118:
2110:
2036:
2024:
2016:
1961:
1913:
1901:
1893:
1841:
1831:
1823:
1801:
1732:
1718:
1714:
1702:
1660:
1634:
1610:
1588:
1536:
1526:
1466:
1380:
1350:
1338:
1330:
1090:
1082:
1067:
906:. The dark-skinned ethnic groups, who created the Round Head rock art, differed from
895:
750:
664:
564:. The dark-skinned ethnic groups, who created the Round Head rock art, differed from
470:
453:
296:
292:
103:
3122:
2435:
2130:
2067:
1931:
522:
226:, Caballine, Cameline), based on a variety of factors (e.g., art method, organisms,
3158:
3118:
2976:
2753:
2650:
2649:. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art. p. 16.
2596:
2533:
2467:
2347:
2304:
2205:
2106:
2102:
2008:
1973:
1951:
1943:
1885:
1710:
1622:
1326:
1322:
1078:
872:
770:
518:
458:
363:
336:
219:
44:
40:
3059:"Cultural adaptations at Uan Tabu from the Upper Pleistocene to the Late Holocene"
1004:
528:
408:
370:
2600:
2308:
2083:"Decorated boulders and other neglected features of the Central Saharan rock art"
2012:
1626:
1036:
985:
883:
824:
738:
604:
359:
331:
308:
223:
215:
155:
48:
21:
211:
2757:
2351:
2194:"The Earliest Rock Paintings of the Central Sahara: Approaching Interpretation"
1173:
1157:
is verified via Saharan influenced pottery that appear in the Sahelian region.
937:
790:
758:
668:
640:
596:
505:
485:; for example, there is Round Head rock art at Tassili N’Ajjer that features a
427:) as well as have common resemblances (e.g., traits, shapes) with one another.
420:
116:
79:
3180:
3162:
2932:
2865:
2773:
2616:
2553:
2487:
2225:
2122:
2028:
1947:
1905:
1889:
1794:"Penis only for Gods? Sexual Imagery in the Earliest Central Saharan Rock Art"
1540:
1342:
3253:
3242:
3130:
3040:
2892:
2765:
2608:
2545:
2537:
2479:
2369:
2316:
2267:
2217:
2169:
2161:
2114:
2020:
1897:
1845:
1805:
1664:
1611:"Places, monuments, and landscape: Evidence from the Holocene central Sahara"
1592:
1470:
1384:
1334:
1193:
1114:
1047:
1040:
993:
853:
743:
728:
676:
592:
541:
424:
375:
355:
351:
249:
241:
184:
124:
60:
52:
36:
26:
3080:
2427:
643:, the walls of rockshelters (e.g., Tin Torha, Tin Hanakaten) were used as a
82:, the walls of rockshelters (e.g., Tin Torha, Tin Hanakaten) were used as a
2911:"Round Heads: Religion and spirituality of ancient central Saharan hunters"
2495:
1965:
1094:
1000:
977:
929:
879:
849:
786:
754:
628:
616:
615:
study showed that the skeletons could be divided into two types, the first
612:
572:
474:
265:
180:
1138:
1118:
1055:
1008:
997:
712:
708:
580:
478:
462:
269:
1956:
1653:"Women and prehistoric rituals in the Round head rock art of the Sahara"
2471:
1177:
1146:
1142:
957:
860:
828:
794:
720:
704:
656:
600:
412:
195:
159:
91:
3155:
Landscapes, Sources and Intellectual Projects of the West African Past
3227:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 3, 19–24, 45–55, 105, 107.
1581:"Leading role of male hunters in Central Saharan prehistoric rituals"
1166:
1162:
1130:
968:
903:
732:
660:
608:
588:
561:
553:
466:
234:
95:
3028:
2910:
2880:
2843:
2255:
2082:
1988:
1793:
1652:
1580:
1518:
1458:
1372:
1302:
557:
any rock art in the Central Sahara has also been previously raised.
2647:
The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art
2576:
2193:
1150:
1126:
1086:
1032:
809:
774:
493:
248:) artforms are usually portrayed, with a variety of details (e.g.,
245:
107:
59:) artforms are usually portrayed, with a variety of details (e.g.,
56:
1519:"Similarity between Round-Head Paintings and Kel Essuf Engravings"
1181:
1028:
960:
women musically encircling San men as they dance around a fire).
910:
886:, the formal finish of Round Head paintings occurred by 3000 BP.
865:
820:
805:
801:
724:
716:
688:
684:
652:
624:
587:
that bears a resemblance with ones performed among Neolithic-era
568:
501:
442:
404:
200:
188:
176:
151:
136:
132:
112:
87:
2290:"Saharan Rock Art, A Reflection Of Climate Change In The Sahara"
1303:"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules"
907:
845:
833:
813:
565:
288:
281:
172:
164:
2881:"Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs?"
2456:"Male genital modification: A sexual selection interpretation"
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1459:"Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs?"
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1016:
841:
762:
696:
692:
672:
509:
416:
144:
140:
120:
99:
3029:"Rain and rock art in the Sahara: a possible interpretation"
2575:
Cancellieri, Emanuele; Di Lernia, Savino (23 January 2014).
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
86:
for proto-village huts that families resided in, as well as
2950:
2948:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
1085:), a set of traditional African dance techniques known as "
1020:
1012:
648:
448:
The Round Head rock art tradition is a continuation of the
430:
391:
Round Head rock art are largely composed of male artforms.
1739:
1525:. Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences: 173, 175–177, 179.
2850:. Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences: 321–323, 325–330.
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1206:
1046:
As found in traditional African cultures (e.g., tattoos,
532:
Round Head depiction of a horned running woman with body
2939:
2679:
1373:"Saharan rock art sites as places for celebrating water"
3063:
Uan Tabu in the Settlement History of the Libyan Sahara
2404:. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 14–15.
25:
Round Head figures and zoomorphic figures, including a
3224:
Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara
2698:
2402:
The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science
1671:
342:
3149:
Magnavita, Sonja; Magnavita, Carlos (18 July 2018).
2574:
1930:
Mercuri, Anna Maria; et al. (29 January 2018).
102:, and were specialists in the use of Barbary sheep (
611:complexions. Soukopova (2013) thus concludes: “The
3148:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3008:
2844:"Uweinat Roundhead: Body Proportions and Postures"
560:The creators of the Round Head rock art possessed
2740:Petrullo, Giacoma; Barich, Barbara (March 2021).
2053:Hallier, U. W.; Hallier, Brigitte C. (May 2004).
1113:There is an abundance of ancient rock art (e.g.,
3251:
2904:
2902:
2640:"The Archaeology of Rock Art in Northern Africa"
2249:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
3005:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1093:as a result of the energetic, rhythmic African
1003:of Djenne-Djenno was likely established by the
3101:
2917:. Royal Academy For Overseas Sciences: 8, 14.
2872:
2842:Noguera, Alessandro Menardi (September 2015).
2739:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2074:
2052:
1646:
1644:
1604:
1602:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
330:From 60,000 BP or 40,000 BP to 20,000 BP, the
2899:
2396:Lee, Raymond L.; Fraser, Alistair B. (2001).
2240:
2176:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
980:, and portray shamanic animal sacrifice as a
703:ostrich eggshells, and pottery. Flora (e.g.,
639:At the start of 10th millennium BP, amid the
78:At the start of 10th millennium BP, amid the
16:Earliest rock paintings of the Central Sahara
3144:
3142:
3140:
2735:
2733:
2297:Tabona: Revista de Prehistoria y ArqueologĂa
1828:The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Figurines
1817:
1815:
1778:
1477:
1391:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
214:is categorized into different groups (e.g.,
2973:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2568:
2453:
2442:
2346:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 301–302.
2283:
2281:
2279:
2277:
1870:Rotunno, Rocco; et al. (9 July 2019).
1641:
1599:
1357:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
579:In the Acacus region, at the Uan Muhuggiag
2809:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2645:. In David, Bruno; McNiven, Ian J (eds.).
2331:
2048:
2046:
1925:
1923:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1547:
3220:
3137:
3052:
3050:
3026:
2954:
2908:
2878:
2704:
2692:
2637:
2631:
2515:
2513:
2395:
2253:
2191:
2080:
1955:
1812:
1791:
1772:
1703:"Africa, north: Sahara, West and Central"
1688:
1650:
1615:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
1608:
1578:
1516:
1456:
1370:
1300:
1219:
2710:
2287:
2274:
1830:. Oxford University Press. p. 108.
1225:
996:, which have been dated to 250 BCE. The
967:
737:
527:
431:Round Head Rock Art and Hunter-Gatherers
369:
346:
20:
3065:. All’Insegna del Giglio. p. 233.
2841:
2788:
2043:
1986:
1980:
1929:
1920:
1869:
1852:
240:Human and undomesticated animal (e.g.,
3252:
3195:
3095:
3056:
3047:
2981:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.397
2966:
2960:
2519:
2510:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2338:Barich, Barbara E. (4 December 2012).
2337:
1821:
1700:
1694:
435:
3201:
2655:10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190607357.013.17
2143:
2137:
651:that families resided in, as well as
496:, Round Head rock art was created at
3221:Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013).
2340:"Gender in North African Prehistory"
1188:of Sub-Saharan West Africans during
1050:), some human artforms may have had
2909:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015).
2879:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015).
2384:
2081:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2018).
1517:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015).
1457:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015).
675:, in the region (e.g., some in the
634:
547:
123:, in the region (e.g., some in the
13:
1184:-driven capture, enslavement, and
358:from the Round Heads depicting an
343:Origins of the Round Head Rock Art
206:
14:
3291:
2967:Vydrin, Valentin (30 July 2018).
1822:Barich, Barbara (December 2018).
1701:Barich, Barbara (December 2008).
687:, in the region (e.g., Djado) of
316:optically stimulated luminescence
135:, in the region (e.g., Djado) of
3111:Journal of Aswan Faculty of Arts
3057:Garcea, Elena A.A. (July 2019).
2638:Di Lernia, Savino (March 2017).
2454:Rowanchilde, Raven (June 1996).
2344:A Companion to Gender Prehistory
2288:Aïn-Séba, Nagète (3 June 2022).
2210:10.2752/175169711X12961583765333
1715:10.1016/B978-012373962-9.00320-4
1301:Soukopova, Jitka (August 2017).
742:Zoomorphic figures, including a
3214:
3123:10.21608/mkasu.2022.133968.1041
2522:"The lesser gods of the Sahara"
1792:Soukopova, Jitka (March 2017).
1609:Di Lernia, Savino (June 2013).
1579:Soukopova, Jitka (March 2016).
623:affinities, the other a robust
492:During the early period of the
2192:Soukopova, Jitka (July 2011).
2107:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2018.05.001
1987:Mercier, Norbert (July 2012).
1877:Journal of African Archaeology
1709:. Academic Press. p. 63.
1371:Soukopova, Jitka (June 2016).
1327:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2016.12.011
889:
585:artificial cranial deformation
536:markings, who may have been a
337:late period of the Pleistocene
1:
2746:African Archaeological Review
1199:
1091:psychological/spiritual state
859:Between 8800 BP and 7400 BP,
275:
194:Between 8800 BP and 7400 BP,
39:, monumental form of Central
2601:10.1016/J.QUAINT.2013.08.030
2309:10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15
2087:Journal of Arid Environments
2013:10.1016/J.QUAGEO.2011.11.010
1627:10.1080/0067270X.2013.788867
1307:Journal of Arid Environments
896:Sub-Saharan African cultures
374:Round Head figure wearing a
73:Sub-Saharan African cultures
7:
3206:. Harvard University Press.
2975:. Oxford University Press.
2144:Ahmed, Achrati (May 2020).
1707:Encyclopedia of Archaeology
962:First menstrual cycle rites
10:
3296:
2758:10.1007/s10437-020-09374-x
2352:10.1002/9781118294291.ch14
848:, stored, and cooked, and
671:, some in the Tadrart) of
325:
119:, some in the Tadrart) of
3163:10.1163/9789004380189_003
3157:. Brill. pp. 25–26.
3027:Soukopova, Jitka (2020).
2520:Keenan, Jeremy H (2002).
2254:Soukopova, Jitka (2020).
2062:. StoneWatch. p. 2.
1948:10.1038/s41477-017-0098-1
1890:10.1163/21915784-20190005
1651:Soukopova, Jitka (2019).
1108:
35:rock art is the earliest
2581:Quaternary International
2538:10.1179/pua.2002.2.3.131
2398:"The Bridge to the Gods"
1993:Quaternary Geochronology
767:Phacochoerus aethiopicus
691:, and the region (e.g.,
619:-African type with some
280:For the rock art of the
139:, and the region (e.g.,
3270:History of North Africa
1031:that wield bows (e.g.,
978:South African rock art
973:
746:
544:
457:transition in Central
379:
367:
29:
3275:History of the Sahara
971:
741:
531:
373:
350:
268:undergoing increased
233:In 5000 BP, buffalo (
24:
483:animal domestication
47:and followed by the
2593:2014QuInt.320...43C
2410:2001rbra.book.....L
2099:2018JArEn.156...96S
2005:2012QuGeo..10..367M
1319:2017JArEn.143...10S
1190:classical antiquity
1007:progenitors of the
900:Round Head rock art
804:-knife made from a
679:, most abundant in
436:Round Head Rock Art
127:, most abundant in
3260:Prehistoric Africa
2526:Public Archaeology
2472:10.1007/BF02692110
1180:) engaging in the
1155:Sub-Saharan Africa
1102:chignon hairstyles
1075:Sub-Saharan Africa
1052:body modifications
974:
838:Pastoral Neolithic
747:
647:for proto-village
607:periods possessed
545:
465:period toward the
450:Kel Essuf rock art
380:
368:
362:very close to the
320:terminus ante quem
169:Pastoral Neolithic
30:
2990:978-0-19-938465-5
2969:"Mande Languages"
2924:978-90-756-5260-4
2857:978-90-756-5260-4
2664:978-0-19-060735-7
2262:: 59–60, 62, 66.
2150:Rock Art Research
1532:978-90-756-5260-4
1083:African-Americans
751:Ammotragus lervia
665:Ammotragus lervia
454:Bubaline rock art
452:tradition. While
297:prehistoric Egypt
293:Qurta petroglyphs
230:, superimposed).
104:Ammotragus lervia
3287:
3280:Saharan rock art
3265:Stone Age Africa
3246:
3208:
3207:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3146:
3135:
3134:
3108:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3054:
3045:
3044:
3024:
3003:
3002:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2937:
2936:
2906:
2897:
2896:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2839:
2786:
2785:
2737:
2708:
2702:
2696:
2690:
2677:
2676:
2644:
2635:
2629:
2628:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2517:
2508:
2507:
2451:
2440:
2439:
2393:
2382:
2381:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2294:
2285:
2272:
2271:
2251:
2238:
2237:
2189:
2174:
2173:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2050:
2041:
2040:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1959:
1927:
1918:
1917:
1867:
1850:
1849:
1819:
1810:
1809:
1789:
1776:
1775:, p. 19-24.
1770:
1737:
1736:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1669:
1668:
1648:
1639:
1638:
1606:
1597:
1596:
1576:
1545:
1544:
1514:
1475:
1474:
1454:
1389:
1388:
1368:
1355:
1354:
1298:
1223:
1222:, p. 45–55.
1217:
1079:African diaspora
1068:West African art
972:Great God figure
771:Vulpes rueppelli
635:Cultural history
548:Hunter-Gatherers
519:Saharan rock art
459:Saharan rock art
235:Bubalus antiquus
45:Kel Essuf Period
41:Saharan rock art
3295:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3250:
3249:
3235:
3217:
3212:
3211:
3204:"The Histories"
3200:
3196:
3173:
3147:
3138:
3106:
3100:
3096:
3073:
3055:
3048:
3025:
3006:
2991:
2965:
2961:
2953:
2940:
2925:
2907:
2900:
2877:
2873:
2858:
2840:
2789:
2738:
2711:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2680:
2665:
2642:
2636:
2632:
2573:
2569:
2518:
2511:
2452:
2443:
2420:
2394:
2385:
2362:
2336:
2332:
2303:(22): 308–310.
2292:
2286:
2275:
2252:
2241:
2190:
2177:
2142:
2138:
2079:
2075:
2059:
2051:
2044:
1985:
1981:
1928:
1921:
1868:
1853:
1838:
1820:
1813:
1790:
1779:
1771:
1740:
1725:
1699:
1695:
1687:
1672:
1649:
1642:
1607:
1600:
1577:
1548:
1533:
1515:
1478:
1455:
1392:
1369:
1358:
1299:
1226:
1218:
1207:
1202:
1111:
1037:bows and arrows
1027:artforms, with
982:rainfall ritual
892:
884:desertification
852:animals (e.g.,
681:Tassili n'Ajjer
637:
550:
498:Tassili N'Ajjer
438:
433:
345:
332:Aterian culture
328:
309:Pastoral Period
278:
222:, Round Heads,
209:
207:Classifications
183:animals (e.g.,
129:Tassili n'Ajjer
49:Pastoral Period
17:
12:
11:
5:
3293:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3248:
3247:
3233:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3194:
3171:
3136:
3094:
3071:
3046:
3004:
2989:
2959:
2957:, p. 105.
2955:Soukopova 2013
2938:
2923:
2898:
2871:
2856:
2787:
2752:: 2–3, 14–18.
2709:
2705:Soukopova 2013
2697:
2695:, p. 107.
2693:Soukopova 2013
2678:
2663:
2630:
2567:
2509:
2441:
2418:
2383:
2360:
2330:
2273:
2239:
2175:
2136:
2073:
2042:
1979:
1919:
1851:
1836:
1811:
1777:
1773:Soukopova 2013
1738:
1723:
1693:
1689:Soukopova 2013
1670:
1640:
1598:
1546:
1531:
1476:
1390:
1356:
1224:
1220:Soukopova 2013
1204:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1174:North Africans
1110:
1107:
1077:and among the
1056:facial tattoos
919:creation myths
891:
888:
791:basket weaving
759:Gazella dorcas
641:Epipaleolithic
636:
633:
597:Epipaleolithic
549:
546:
506:Tadrart Acacus
437:
434:
432:
429:
344:
341:
327:
324:
277:
274:
208:
205:
175:, stored, and
80:Epipaleolithic
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3292:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3234:9781443845793
3230:
3226:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3205:
3198:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3172:9789004380189
3168:
3164:
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3156:
3152:
3145:
3143:
3141:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3072:9788878141841
3068:
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3019:
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2648:
2641:
2634:
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2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
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2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
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2523:
2516:
2514:
2505:
2501:
2497:
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2461:
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2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2419:0-271-01977-8
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2361:9781118294291
2357:
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2326:
2322:
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2269:
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2250:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2198:Time and Mind
2195:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2140:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2069:
2065:
2058:
2057:
2049:
2047:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1936:Nature Plants
1933:
1926:
1924:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1866:
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1847:
1843:
1839:
1837:9780199675616
1833:
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1734:
1730:
1726:
1724:9780123739629
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1691:, p. 20.
1690:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1647:
1645:
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1501:
1499:
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1472:
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1435:
1433:
1431:
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1413:
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1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
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1316:
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1308:
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1279:
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1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1205:
1197:
1195:
1194:Carthaginians
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1106:
1103:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1063:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1048:scarification
1044:
1042:
1041:African dance
1038:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
999:
995:
994:Djenne-Djenno
989:
987:
983:
979:
970:
966:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
941:
939:
933:
931:
926:
922:
920:
914:
912:
909:
905:
901:
897:
887:
885:
881:
876:
874:
873:Jebel Uweinat
869:
867:
862:
857:
855:
854:Barbary sheep
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
830:
826:
822:
817:
815:
812:, leadership
811:
807:
803:
798:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
745:
744:Barbary sheep
740:
736:
734:
730:
729:Andropogoneae
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
632:
630:
626:
622:
621:Mediterranean
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
593:Uan Muhuggiag
590:
586:
582:
577:
574:
570:
567:
563:
558:
555:
543:
539:
535:
534:scarification
530:
526:
524:
523:scarification
520:
515:
514:scarification
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
455:
451:
446:
444:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
377:
376:Barbary sheep
372:
365:
361:
360:anthropomorph
357:
354:: example of
353:
352:Djado Plateau
349:
340:
338:
333:
323:
321:
317:
312:
310:
304:
300:
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
273:
271:
267:
261:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
242:Barbary sheep
238:
236:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
204:
202:
197:
192:
190:
186:
185:Barbary sheep
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
157:
153:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
76:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:Barbary sheep
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
28:
27:Barbary sheep
23:
19:
3223:
3215:Bibliography
3197:
3154:
3114:
3110:
3097:
3062:
3032:
2972:
2962:
2914:
2884:
2874:
2847:
2749:
2745:
2707:, p. 3.
2700:
2646:
2633:
2584:
2580:
2570:
2529:
2525:
2463:
2460:Human Nature
2459:
2401:
2343:
2333:
2300:
2296:
2259:
2201:
2197:
2153:
2149:
2146:"RAR Review"
2139:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2055:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1957:11567/979083
1939:
1935:
1884:(1): 76–94.
1881:
1875:
1827:
1824:"The Sahara"
1797:
1706:
1696:
1656:
1618:
1614:
1584:
1522:
1462:
1376:
1310:
1306:
1159:
1135:
1123:
1112:
1099:
1087:getting down
1072:
1064:
1060:
1045:
1025:
1001:civilization
990:
975:
954:rhythmically
942:
934:
930:Dogon people
923:
915:
893:
880:Green Sahara
877:
870:
858:
850:domesticated
818:
799:
755:Canis aureus
748:
701:
638:
629:Black people
613:osteological
578:
573:black people
559:
551:
491:
447:
439:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
378:-styled mask
329:
313:
305:
301:
286:
279:
266:Green Sahara
262:
239:
232:
210:
193:
181:domesticated
149:
77:
32:
31:
18:
3202:Herodotus.
2887:: 116–120.
1465:: 116–119.
1170:Troglodytes
1147:Nile Valley
1139:Niger River
1119:petroglyphs
1009:Bozo people
998:egalitarian
890:Ethnography
882:undergoing
808:tooth, two
713:Panicoideae
709:Echinochloa
581:rockshelter
479:agriculture
463:Paleolithic
270:desiccation
3254:Categories
3181:1041204346
3033:Expression
2933:1091181355
2885:Expression
2866:1091181355
2774:8936533854
2617:5146151649
2554:5525845873
2532:(3): 138.
2488:5656566239
2466:(2): 191.
2260:Expression
2226:8322366572
2204:(2): 195.
2156:(1): 109.
2123:8156836407
2029:5901395315
1999:: 2, 5–6.
1906:8197143305
1798:Expression
1657:Expression
1621:(2): 178.
1585:Expression
1541:1091181355
1463:Expression
1377:Expression
1343:7044514678
1200:References
1178:Garamantes
1167:Aithiopian
1153:region of
1143:Chad Basin
902:possessed
861:Mesolithic
829:shepherded
795:basketware
721:Pennisetum
705:Brachiaria
657:stone wall
645:foundation
601:Mesolithic
489:antelope.
413:Adrar Bous
276:Chronology
254:ceremonies
196:Mesolithic
160:shepherded
92:stone wall
84:foundation
65:ceremonies
33:Round Head
3243:826685273
3189:201331821
3131:2735-4164
3089:133766878
3041:2499-1341
2999:240363385
2893:2499-1341
2782:216390833
2766:0263-0338
2673:134533475
2625:128897709
2609:1040-6182
2562:140954728
2546:1465-5187
2504:206820828
2480:1045-6767
2378:129703953
2370:815474264
2325:249349324
2317:2530-8327
2268:2499-1341
2234:143429582
2218:1751-696X
2170:809603634
2162:0813-0426
2115:0140-1963
2037:140611969
2021:1871-1014
1942:(2): 73.
1914:198731047
1898:2191-5784
1846:944462988
1806:2499-1341
1733:128002774
1665:2499-1341
1635:162877973
1593:2499-1341
1587:: 68–71.
1471:2499-1341
1385:2499-1341
1351:132225521
1335:0140-1963
1313:: 10–12.
1163:Herodotus
1131:Digitaria
1115:paintings
1033:long bows
946:musically
904:dark skin
878:With the
834:corralled
825:gathering
783:bladelets
733:bone tool
661:windbreak
609:dark skin
589:Nigerians
562:dark skin
554:monuments
504:, and at
467:Neolithic
461:from the
364:Kel Essuf
220:Kel Essuf
165:corralled
156:gathering
96:windbreak
3081:48360794
2496:24203319
2436:16848465
2428:41951270
2131:91151284
2068:44206739
1966:29379157
1151:Sahelian
1127:Cenchrus
810:pendants
775:debitage
761:, Large
753:, Bird,
605:Pastoral
494:Holocene
469:period.
356:painting
246:antelope
224:Pastoral
216:Bubaline
212:Rock art
108:ceramics
57:antelope
2589:Bibcode
2406:Bibcode
2095:Bibcode
2001:Bibcode
1974:3302383
1315:Bibcode
1182:chariot
1176:(e.g.,
1081:(e.g.,
1054:(e.g.,
1029:archers
950:vocally
938:Songhai
911:Berbers
866:baskets
821:hunting
806:warthog
802:spatula
793:(e.g.,
725:Sorghum
717:Panicum
689:Nigeria
685:Algeria
677:Tadrart
653:hearths
625:Negroid
569:Berbers
538:goddess
502:Algeria
487:muzzled
471:Buffalo
443:Negroid
425:Tadrart
405:Tibesti
326:Climate
250:dancing
201:baskets
187:) were
152:hunting
137:Nigeria
133:Algeria
125:Tadrart
113:pottery
88:hearths
61:dancing
37:painted
3241:
3231:
3187:
3179:
3169:
3129:
3087:
3079:
3069:
3039:
3035:: 79.
2997:
2987:
2931:
2921:
2891:
2864:
2854:
2780:
2772:
2764:
2671:
2661:
2623:
2615:
2607:
2587:: 59.
2560:
2552:
2544:
2502:
2494:
2486:
2478:
2434:
2426:
2416:
2376:
2368:
2358:
2323:
2315:
2266:
2232:
2224:
2216:
2168:
2160:
2129:
2121:
2113:
2093:: 98.
2066:
2035:
2027:
2019:
1972:
1964:
1912:
1904:
1896:
1844:
1834:
1804:
1800:: 69.
1731:
1721:
1663:
1659:: 54.
1633:
1591:
1539:
1529:
1469:
1383:
1379:: 69.
1349:
1341:
1333:
1145:, and
1109:Legacy
1019:, and
986:divine
952:, and
908:Tuareg
846:farmed
814:emblem
787:flakes
779:blades
669:Acacus
627:type.
617:Melano
603:, and
566:Tuareg
542:dancer
475:cattle
421:Acacus
289:patina
282:Sahara
228:motifs
189:milked
179:, and
177:cooked
173:farmed
117:Acacus
3185:S2CID
3117:(1).
3107:(PDF)
3085:S2CID
2995:S2CID
2778:S2CID
2669:S2CID
2643:(PDF)
2621:S2CID
2558:S2CID
2500:S2CID
2432:S2CID
2374:S2CID
2321:S2CID
2293:(PDF)
2230:S2CID
2127:S2CID
2064:S2CID
2060:(PDF)
2033:S2CID
1970:S2CID
1910:S2CID
1729:S2CID
1631:S2CID
1347:S2CID
1186:trade
1095:dance
1017:Niger
1005:Mande
925:Masks
844:were
842:flora
763:Bovid
697:Niger
695:) of
693:Djado
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