28:
558:
578:
989:
454:
814:
449:
trident. When he has cast without effect the nets suspended from his poised right hand, he boldly lifts his uncovered face to the spectators, and, easily to be recognized, flees across the whole arena. We can not mistake the tunic, since the ribbon of gold reaches from his neck, and flutters in the breeze from his high-peaked cap. Therefore, the disgrace, which the
Secutor had to submit to, in being forced to fight with Gracchus, was worse than any wound.
221:
141:. The net-fighter made up for his lack of protective gear by using his speed and agility to avoid his opponent's attacks and waiting for the opportunity to strike. He first tried to throw his net over his rival. If this succeeded, he attacked with his trident while his adversary was entangled. Another tactic was to ensnare his enemy's weapon in the net and pull it out of his grasp, leaving the opponent defenceless. Should the net miss or the
669:) was this gladiator's signature weapon, few depictions of the device survive. Combat with throwing nets may have occurred on ancient battlefields, but modern experiments and comparisons with modern fishing nets offer the only clues as to how the gladiatorial net was constructed. Such data indicate that the
1025:'s unshielded legs or stabbing down at the helmet in an attempt to poke through an eyehole. The trident itself was too weak to pierce the metal, although a skull found at Ephesus, Turkey, dating to CE 200 to 300 shows that a trident strike to the head could be fatal on a bareheaded opponent. The
493:
of whom
Gracchus was the chief priest. The change of clothing seems to turn a serious fight into a comical one and shames his opponent. It is unusual to see a gladiator depicted this way in a satire, as such fighters usually take the role of men who are "brawny, brutal, sexually successful with women
344:
thus established him as the lowliest, most disgraced, and most effeminate of the gladiator types. Helmets allowed both gladiators and spectators to dehumanise the fighters; when an arena combatant had to kill a comrade-at-arms, someone he had probably lived and trained with every day, his opponent's
153:
had to rely on his trident and dagger to finish the fight. The trident, as tall as a human being, permitted the gladiator to jab quickly, keep his distance, and easily cause bleeding. It was not a strong weapon, usually inflicting non-fatal wounds so that the fight could be prolonged for the sake of
853:
was by no means outmatched. His lack of heavy equipment meant that he could use speed and evasion to his advantage. He also fought with three offensive weapons to his opponent's one. The net-fighter had to avoid close combat at all costs, keep his distance, and wait for an opening to stab with his
439:
Greater still the portent when
Gracchus, clad in a tunic, played the gladiator, and fled, trident in hand, across the arena—Gracchus, a man of nobler birth than the Capitolini, or the Marcelli, or the descendants of Catulus or Paulus, or the Fabii: nobler than all the spectators in the podium; not
448:
To crown all this , what is left but the amphitheatre? And this disgrace of the city you have as well—Gracchus not fighting as equipped as a
Mirmillo, with buckler or falchion (for he condemns—yes, condemns and hates such equipment). Nor does he conceal his face beneath a helmet. See! he wields a
1070:
held the dagger in his left hand. The gladiator could use the dagger to cut his net free if it got snagged on his trident. He might fight with the trident in one hand and the dagger in the other, but this negated the advantage of distance afforded by the longer weapon when wielded by itself. The
746:
kept his left side to his opponent. The armour was designed to let the net-man duck his head behind it, and it was curved so as to deflect a blow from the top downwards, not up towards the eyes. Three examples of this protective gear found at
Pompeii vary between 30 and 35 centimetres (12 and 14
298:
probably became popular as early as the middle of the 1st century CE; the net-fighter had become one of the standard gladiator categories by the 2nd or 3rd century CE and remained a staple attraction until the end of the gladiatorial games. In addition to the
920:
used the drawrope tied to his wrist to bring the net back in hand. On a successful cast, the gladiator tightened the drawcord around the net's perimeter and tried to unbalance or topple his rival. A successful cast of the net could win the battle for the
673:
was circular, with a wide mesh about 3 metres (9.8 feet) in diameter and lead weights along the edges. A rope ran around the perimeter of the mesh, with the ends tied to the gladiator's wrist. Because it was thrown, the net was sometimes called a
937:
named
Astyanax, in his net. In the later image, however, Kalendio lies on the ground, wounded, and raises his dagger to surrender. The inscription above Kalendio shows the sign for "null", implying that the match organisers ordered him killed.
737:
on his left arm, where other gladiators wore it on the right; this allowed him to more fluidly make a right-handed cast of his net. Attached to the top of this was a long bronze or leather guard over the upper left arm and shoulder, known as a
701:, Turkey, shows puncture holes consistent with a trident strike. The wounds are 5 centimetres (2.0 inches) apart and match a bronze trident excavated from Ephesus harbour in 1989. The trident's prongs are 21.6 centimetres (8.5 inches) long.
1091:, L. Pompeius, winner of nine crowns, born in Vienna, twenty-five years of age. His wife put this up with her own money for her wonderful spouse." Nevertheless, the gladiators themselves were prone to boast: A graffito at Pompeii shows the
1016:
to keep his opponent at bay. He held the weapon two-handed, left nearer the prongs, so that he could parry his enemy's strikes with its shaft and strike with both ends. Wielded two-handed, the weapon could land powerful blows. Images show
792:
that left the right shoulder uncovered. He wore fabric padding on his body to provide minimal additional protection. Artistic depictions show that other options included legbands, anklebands, a headband, and a medallion. All told, the
915:
held the net folded up in his right hand and cast it underhanded. He held his trident and dagger in his left hand, careful to keep the trident's prongs pointed downward to avoid snagging it in the mesh. If the toss missed, the
422:
showed the disgust with which he viewed the gladiators' actions: "Caligula bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder, and expressed his horror of those who had had the heart to witness it." The fate of the
277:
with their scaly armour evolved from them. However, because of the stark differences in arms and armour between the two types, the pairing pushed such practices to new extremes. Roman art and literature make no mention of
742:. This guard extended 12 to 13 centimetres (4.7 to 5.1 inches) beyond the shoulder blade and flared outward, allowing free movement of the gladiator's head. The device protected the upper arm, head and face when the
1058:
wearing a tubular arm-guard in lieu of a shield. The guard fits over the left hand and ends in a hooked, knife-like blade that was probably intended to parry the net and trident or to snag and pull away the net.
1045:
parried with the trident prongs and attempted to disarm him. Likewise, the more heavily armoured gladiator tried to block the trident with his shield and force the net-man to lose it. Another type of gladiator,
427:
is not revealed. This was probably not a standard competition, as real gladiators did not surrender so easily. Rather, such tunic-wearing net-men may have served as comic relief in the gladiatorial programming.
1476:
Gracchi, lustrauitque fuga mediam gladiator harenam et
Capitolinis generosior et Marcellis et Catuli Paulique minoribus et Fabiis et omnibus ad podium spectantibus, his licet ipsum admoueas cuius tunc munere
977:; other types of gladiator are often shown without their weapons but can be assumed to be holding them due to their stance, and a net is a particularly difficult weapon to depict. The lack of nets in
251:("net-fighter" or "net-man"), who was themed after the sea, was one exception. Rare gladiator fights were staged over water; these may have given rise to the concept of a gladiator based on a
646:. Archaeologists have excavated three engraved shoulder guards from the gladiator barracks at Pompeii: one is engraved with illustrations of an anchor, a crab, and a dolphin; another with
444:
Gracchus appears once again in
Juvenal's eighth satire as the worst example of the noble Romans who have disgraced themselves by appearing in public spectacles and popular entertainments:
537:
named
Montanus. The fact that his name is recorded indicates that the gladiator was famous. The mosaic dates to c. CE 130, when the Quintilii family had the home built; the emperor
1012:
probably had to resort to fighting with just his trident and dagger, placing him at a disadvantage. The trident was his primary weapon in such situations, and its length allowed the
489:), apparently part of the same costume, and thus enjoys a reprieve, although this attire may not itself have been considered effeminate as it was also worn by the priests of
498:
in the satire is the opposite: "a mock gladiatorial figure, of equivocal sex, regularly dressed in costume of some sort, possibly usually as a woman, and matched against a
357:'s fighting style was another strike against him, as reliance on speed and evasion were viewed as undignified in comparison to the straightforward trading of blows. The
517:. The fact that spectators could see net-fighters' faces humanised them and probably added to their popularity. At Pompeii, graffiti tells of Crescens or Cresces the
166:
simultaneously. For these situations, the lightly armoured gladiator was placed on a raised platform and given a supply of stones with which to repel his pursuers.
969:
used his net. Extant imagery rarely shows gladiators of the type with a net, yet the class is named for the device, and
Juvenal uses the net to quickly identify a
158:'s final backup should the trident be lost. It was reserved for when close combat or a straight wrestling match had to settle the bout. In some battles, a single
957:
knew to expect the net-man's tactics and tried to intercept and hold on to the weapon, possibly unsteadying his enemy by yanking on the net. In such danger, the
176:
and had become standard attractions by the 2nd or 3rd century. The gladiator's lack of armour and his reliance on evasive tactics meant that many considered the
521:, "lord of the girls" and "doctor to nighttime girls, morning girls, and all the rest." Evidence suggests that some homosexual men fancied gladiators, and the
1106:
at the same time. He stood on a bridge or raised platform with stairs and had a pile of fist-sized stones to lob at his adversaries and keep them at bay. The
2220:
392:
were trained for a different role, "in servitude, under strict discipline and even possibly under some restraints." Certain effeminate men mentioned by
720:) instead of the usual bladed dagger. This was previously thought to be an artistic invention or perhaps a ceremonial weapon but a recently excavated
418:, yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors." The reaction of Emperor
849:. Despite the disparity between the nearly nude net-fighter and his heavily armoured adversary, modern re-enactments and experiments show that the
380:
So even the lanista's establishment is better ordered than yours, for he separates the vile from the decent, and sequesters even from their fellow-
892:
was a variant, weighed 15 to 18 kg (33 to 40 lb)—this gladiator was in greater danger of exhausting himself in a long fight. One of the
1114:, "bridge") may have been constructed over water. Such scenarios were one of the rare situations where gladiators were not paired one on one.
282:
until the early Imperial period; for example, the type is absent from the copious gladiator-themed reliefs dating to the 1st century found at
1029:'s helmet was rounded and free of protrusions to avoid snaring the net or being caught in the trident's prongs, but attacks on it forced the
2209:
1392:: Oxford text 1ff. "purior ergo tuis laribus meliorque lanista, in cuius numero longe migrare iubetur psyllus ab ~eupholio.~ quid quod nec
642:—after which such fighters took their name.) His weapons and armour could be decorated. An embellished gladiatorial dagger is held at the
2166:
2155:
926:
884:'s helmet greatly restricted his sight, hearing, and airflow. Coupled with the heavy weight of his arms and armour—the gear of a
818:
494:
of both high and low status, but especially the latter, ill-educated if not uneducated, and none too bright intellectually." The
876:) and force his opponent into close combat so that he could strike with his sword. In close quarters, the net-man had only his
1095:
Antigonus, who claims a ridiculous 2,112 victories, facing a challenger called Superbus, who has won but a single fight.
829:
Astyanax in his net. Nevertheless, in the upper image, Kalendio lies wounded on the ground and raises his dagger to surrender.
643:
1075:
lose both net and trident. He attacked with the dagger when he had the element of surprise and could attempt to wrestle the
1079:
to the ground. Fights could devolve into straight wrestling matches in such situations, perhaps with daggers. Should the
431:
Juvenal's second satire, wherein he deplores the immorality he perceived in Roman society, introduces a member of the
2291:
2276:
2261:
2242:
2192:
2138:
2119:
2104:
2086:
2060:
2045:
2030:
2004:
1986:
1971:
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had all net-fighters who lost in combat put to death so that spectators could enjoy their expressions of agony. The
208:
fighters but as arena clowns. Nevertheless, Roman artwork, graffiti, and grave markers include examples of specific
435:
who is described as a homosexual married (in female persona) to a horn player. Gracchus later appears in the arena:
545:, acquired the house in CE 182 and used it as a country villa. In modern times, popular culture has made the
372:, formed a special sub-class, one even more demeaned than their loincloth-wearing colleagues. The Roman satirist
290:. Nevertheless, graffiti and artifacts from Pompeii attest to the class's existence by this time. Fights between
949:
tricks were to whip the net at his opponent's eyes to blind him and at his legs to trip him. The helmet of the
481:
The passage is obscure, but Cerutti and Richardson argue that Gracchus begins the fight as a loincloth-wearing
1123:
965:
stood by a lost net and left little chance to recover it. Speculation surrounds the frequency with which the
319:'s fire, one constantly moving and escaping, the other determinedly inescapable. Another gladiator type, the
243:
22:
801:
to 17.6 lb), making him the lightest of the standard gladiator types. Like other arena combatants, the
2230:
2051:
Edwards, Catherine (1997). "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome",
1562:
1083:
win and be ordered to kill his rival, he used his knife to stab him or cut his throat. Evidence shows that
981:
images may show gladiators who have already lost the weapon in the fight. Another possibility is that some
747:
inches) in length and about the same in width. They weigh about 1.1 to 1.2 kg (2.4 to 2.6 lb).
468:
384:
the wearers of the ill-famed tunic; in the training-school, and even in gaol, such creatures herd apart….
340:. Likewise, the engulfing net may have been seen as a feminine symbol. The light arms and armour of the
336:
The more skin left unarmoured and exposed, the lower a gladiator's status and the greater his perceived
247:
modelled on real-world precedents. Almost all of these classes were based on military antecedents; the
582:
149:
likely discarded the weapon, although he might try to collect it back for a second cast. Usually, the
2067:
731:
wore minimal armour; unlike other gladiator types, he wore no helmet, greaves, or shield. He wore a
2315:
1753:
pairing, but Zoll 117 says that the two gladiator types do not seem to have ever fought each other.
362:
474:
2206:
945:'s weapon to disarm him and snag away his shield to put him at a significant disadvantage. Other
724:
bone from a gladiator graveyard in Ephesus has wounds consistent with the use of such a weapon.
2092:
27:
1565:
26 gives an alternate translation for the latter graffito: "the netter of girls in the night".
1508:
Evans 90 translates this as "high-peaked cap", and Baker 56 as "queer, conspicuous arm-guard."
880:
shoulder guard for defence; its design forced him to keep his head ducked down behind it. The
557:
769:. This mail covered the arm and upper chest. Equipment styles stayed relatively fixed in the
398:
2163:
900:'s shield (the heaviest part of his equipment), forcing him to block and wear himself out.
592:
is the most readily identifiable gladiator type, due to his signature equipment: arm guard (
770:
569:
armed only with a dagger raises a finger in surrender. His trident lies at the foot of his
300:
2152:
788:) held in place by a wide belt and gaiters or, as images show in lieu of the loincloth, a
8:
1047:
1994:
697:) that stood about as high as a human being. A skull found in a gladiator graveyard in
530:
393:
189:
2320:
2287:
2272:
2257:
2238:
2188:
2134:
2115:
2100:
2082:
2056:
2041:
2026:
2000:
1982:
1967:
1063:
who succeeded in this probably dropped the hook weapon and fought with just a sword.
573:
adversary, and his net is missing. He is also seen bleeding from an artery in his leg
577:
974:
751:
490:
988:
2213:
2170:
2159:
1466:
1386:
1033:
to duck or hide behind his shield. This reduced his field of vision and gave the
872:
453:
717:
813:
2309:
759:
733:
594:
562:
181:
112:
603:
529:
just as often as other types. A mosaic found in 2007 in a bathhouse at the
361:
lived in the worst barracks. Some members of the class trained to fight as
267:
developed as the conflict of a fisherman with a stylised fish. The earlier
256:
235:
70:
2203:
De Vita Caesarum: Caius Caligula (The Lives of the Caesars: Caius Caligula
907:'s primary objective with it was to capture his opponent. A ewer found at
858:
means "pursuer" or "chaser", because this gladiator had to chase down the
1400:, nec cella ponit eadem munimenta umeri ~pulsatamque arma~ tridentem qui
1087:
could be quite successful combatants; a tombstone from Gaul reads, " the
908:
708:) was the gladiator's final weapon. A tombstone found in Romania shows a
402:
were trained as gladiators and may correspond to Juvenal's tunic-wearing
349:
was allowed no head protection; his face was visible to all. The emperor
307:
was viewed as the effeminate counterpoint to the manly, heavily armoured
200:
who fought in tunics may have constituted an even more demeaned subtype (
77:
1000:(left) is wearing a conical arm guard used to snag away the net of the
514:
485:. When the tide turns against him, he dons a tunic and a womanish wig (
337:
321:
173:
18:
Roman gladiator who fought with equipment styled on that of a fisherman
2198:
993:
781:
407:
252:
238:
220:
193:
73:
1110:
tried to scale the structure and get at him. The platform (called a
636:
was not a "gladiator" at all, since he did not fight with the sword—
255:. Fights between differently-armed gladiators became popular in the
953:
was smooth and round to avoid snagging the net. In most cases, the
845:
651:
538:
459:
419:
350:
269:
2144:
839:
698:
638:
611:
432:
373:
287:
212:
who apparently had reputations as skilled combatants and lovers.
185:
180:
the lowliest (and most effeminate) of the gladiators, an already
137:
85:
42:
37:
925:
straightaway. This was not certain, however, as a mosaic at the
2205:), Vol. I. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
2010:
Cerutti, Steven M., and L. Richardson, Jr. (Winter 1989). "The
961:
could sever the drawstring from his wrist with his dagger. The
623:
283:
97:
46:
2131:
Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome
368:
There is evidence that those net-men wearing tunics, known as
2284:
Gladiatrix: The True Story of History's Unknown Woman Warrior
789:
721:
647:
628:
581:
A retiarius depicted by Polish sculptor Pius Weloński at the
330:
125:
102:
66:
1553:
Cresces retiarius puparum nocturnarum mattinarum aliarum ser
440:
excepting him who gave the show at which that net was flung.
365:, another gladiator type, in order to improve their status.
128:
with light padding. He wore no head protection or footwear.
76:
who fought with equipment styled on that of a fisherman: a
1979:
The Gladiator: The Secret History of Rome's Warrior Slaves
525:
would have been particularly appealing. Roman art depicts
120:). Typically, his clothing consisted only of a loincloth (
973:
in his satires. The discrepancy may simply be a case of
345:
helmet added an extra layer of separation. However, the
2178:
The Satires of Juvenal, Persius, Sulpicia, and Lucilius
303:
symbolism inherent in such bouts, the lightly armoured
2055:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
685:
complemented his net with an iron or bronze trident (
2176:
Juvenal; Lewis Evans, trans. (1861). "Satire VIII",
2180:. New York City: Harper & Brothers, Publishers.
2068:
The dying game: How did the gladiators really live?
2023:
The Ancient Life: Life in Classical Athens and Rome
903:In skilled hands, the net was a useful weapon. The
172:first appeared in the arena during the 1st century
1695:
1693:
1426:7.31.3; quoted in Cerutti and Richardson 589–590.
2307:
1798:
1796:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1434:
1432:
1404:solet?" Emphasis added. Translation from Ramsay.
1190:
1188:
2256:. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
2081:. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
654:; and a third with weapons and the inscription
1582:
1580:
1516:
1514:
1372:
1370:
1368:
712:holding a dagger with four spikes (known as a
414:in tunics, matched against the same number of
124:) held in place by a wide belt, or of a short
84:(3rd decl.), hence the name), a three-pointed
2221:Ancient Gladiator Mosaic Found in Roman Villa
2151:. Loeb Classical Library. Online versions of
2038:Performance and Identity in the Ancient World
1793:
1670:
1429:
1301:
1299:
1297:
135:was routinely pitted against a heavily armed
1909:
1907:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1761:
1759:
1732:
1730:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1254:
1252:
1197:
1165:
1054:. Images from the Eastern Roman Empire show
549:probably the most famous type of gladiator.
410:reports this anecdote: "Once a band of five
110:was lightly armoured, wearing an arm guard (
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1577:
1511:
1481:." Emphasis added. Translation from Ramsay.
1365:
1358:
1356:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
870:'s strategy was to keep behind his shield (
1294:
1149:
1147:
1071:dagger also served as a backup should the
2219:Valsecchi, Maria Cristina (7 May 2007). "
2021:Connolly, Peter, and Hazel Dodge (1997).
1964:Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games
1904:
1777:
1756:
1727:
1656:
1640:
1589:
1249:
929:in Madrid shows: in the first panel, the
911:demonstrates the throwing technique: the
817:In the lower frame of this mosaic at the
2040:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1711:
1353:
1270:
1037:an advantage with his speed. Should the
987:
819:National Archaeological Museum in Madrid
812:
576:
556:
541:, who fought in gladiatorial bouts as a
452:
388:The passage suggests that tunic-wearing
219:
26:
2014:of Suetonius, Juvenal, and Petronius",
1144:
273:had borne a fish on their helmets; the
2308:
716:—each spike at the corner of a square
644:Naples National Archaeological Museum
1992:Braund, Susanna Morton, ed. (1996).
933:Kalendio has caught his opponent, a
513:became quite popular throughout the
506:in a mock gladiatorial exhibition."
204:) who were not viewed as legitimate
2286:. London: Berkley Boulevard Books.
2114:. Rome: "L'Erma" di Bretschneider.
2066:Follain, John (15 December 2002). "
992:In this mock gladiatorial fight at
866:("those against the net-man"). The
854:trident or throw his net. The name
837:was traditionally pitted against a
215:
13:
2133:. University of California Press.
843:or, possibly on rare occasions, a
552:
325:("noose-man"), was similar to the
184:class. Passages from the works of
154:entertainment. The dagger was the
14:
2332:
2299:
2271:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
2129:The Heroes of the Amphitheatre",
2016:The American Journal of Philology
808:
224:Relief showing a fight between a
45:in this mosaic from the villa at
1561:." Translation in Jacobelli 49.
1472:: 143ff. "uicit et hoc monstrum
704:A long, straight-bladed dagger (
2147:; G. G. Ramsay, trans. (1918).
1943:
1934:
1925:
1916:
1895:
1886:
1877:
1868:
1859:
1850:
1841:
1832:
1823:
1814:
1805:
1768:
1739:
1702:
1623:
1614:
1605:
1568:
1549:etiarius Cresces puparru domnus
1541:
1532:
1523:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1459:
1450:
1441:
1416:
1413:Cerutti and Richardson 590–591.
1407:
1379:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1317:
1308:
1261:
1050:could also be pitted against a
509:Despite their low status, some
2201:; J. C. Rolfe, trans. (1920).
1999:. Cambridge University Press.
1240:
1231:
1219:
1156:
1135:
927:National Archaeological Museum
315:was also seen as water to the
1:
2237:. Abingdon, Oxen: Routledge.
1955:
1124:List of Roman gladiator types
896:'s tactics was to jab at the
23:List of Roman gladiator types
2252:in Historical Perspective",
2149:Juvenal and Perseus: Satires
2125:Junkelmann, Marcus (2000). "
2099:. Barnes & Noble Books.
1633:, but most sources spell it
7:
2254:Gladiator: Film and History
2227:. Accessed 31 January 2008.
2110:Jacobelli, Luciana (2003).
2074:. Accessed 31 January 2008.
2025:. Oxford University Press.
1520:Cerutti and Richardson 593.
1490:Cerutti and Richardson 592.
1456:Cerutti and Richardson 591.
1447:Cerutti and Richardson 594.
1376:Cerutti and Richardson 589.
1226:Oxford Classical Dictionary
1117:
1041:strike with his sword, the
10:
2337:
2185:The World of the Gladiator
2183:Shadrake, Susanna (2005).
941:The net could ensnare the
862:. They were also known as
797:'s equipment weighed 7 to
65:; literally, "net-man" in
20:
2269:Gladiators: 100 BC–AD 200
2173:accessed 1 February 2008.
1499:Juvenal, Satire VIII, 90.
1021:stabbing downward at the
985:simply did not use nets.
776:Besides these items, the
463:stands victorious over a
2267:Wisdom, Stephen (2001).
2248:Ward, Allen M. (2004). "
2225:National Geographic News
2216:accessed 1 February 2008
2077:Futrell, Alison (2006).
1962:Auguet, Roland (1994).
1129:
116:) and a shoulder guard (
49:, c. 2nd–3rd century CE.
2235:Emperors and Gladiators
1745:Auguet 73 mentions the
1586:Connolly and Dodge 214.
583:National Museum, KrakĂłw
561:In this scene from the
1922:Quoted in Futrell 152.
1629:Braund 159 calls it a
1005:
830:
825:Kalendio captures the
585:
574:
478:
451:
442:
386:
232:
50:
2112:Gladiators at Pompeii
2036:Duncan, Anne (2006).
1966:. London: Routledge.
1424:Quaestiones naturales
1246:Junkelmann 51, 59–60.
991:
816:
754:in later years, some
632:). (Technically, the
580:
560:
456:
446:
437:
399:Quaestiones naturales
378:
223:
145:grab hold of it, the
30:
21:Further information:
2127:Familia Gladiatoris:
1977:Baker, Alan (2002).
1314:Edwards 93, note 47.
1098:In some contests, a
752:Eastern Roman Empire
565:(c. CE 200), a
2012:Retiarius Tunicatus
1008:In most bouts, the
598:), shoulder guard (
496:retiarius tunicatus
333:in place of a net.
196:suggest that those
2282:Zoll, Amy (2002).
2212:2014-11-18 at the
2169:2008-05-11 at the
2158:2010-08-19 at the
2018:, Vol. 110, No. 4.
1006:
831:
665:Although the net (
586:
575:
531:Villa dei Quintili
479:
394:Seneca the Younger
329:but fought with a
233:
51:
2231:Wiedemann, Thomas
2053:Roman Sexualities
1981:. Da Capo Press.
1940:Junkelmann 60–61.
1829:Junkelmann 59–60.
1811:Junkelmann 61–63.
805:fought barefoot.
799:8 kilograms (15.4
662:, second rank").
370:retiarii tunicati
301:man-versus-nature
263:versus the scaly
202:retiarii tunicati
2328:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1923:
1920:
1914:
1911:
1902:
1899:
1893:
1890:
1884:
1881:
1875:
1872:
1866:
1863:
1857:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1830:
1827:
1821:
1818:
1812:
1809:
1803:
1800:
1791:
1788:
1775:
1772:
1766:
1763:
1754:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1725:
1722:
1709:
1706:
1700:
1697:
1668:
1665:
1654:
1651:
1638:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1612:
1611:Jacobelli 13–14.
1609:
1603:
1600:
1587:
1584:
1575:
1572:
1566:
1545:
1539:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1474:tunicati fuscina
1463:
1457:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1427:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1405:
1396:turpi iunguntur
1383:
1377:
1374:
1363:
1360:
1351:
1348:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1324:
1321:
1315:
1312:
1306:
1303:
1292:
1289:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1247:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1195:
1192:
1163:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1142:
1139:
975:artistic licence
800:
650:and the head of
475:Jean-LĂ©on GĂ©rĂ´me
473:, a painting by
241:fell into stock
216:History and role
2336:
2335:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2316:Gladiator types
2306:
2305:
2302:
2297:
2214:Wayback Machine
2171:Wayback Machine
2160:Wayback Machine
2079:The Roman Games
1958:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1926:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1794:
1789:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1757:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1723:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1671:
1666:
1657:
1652:
1641:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1590:
1585:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1430:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1366:
1361:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1295:
1290:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1198:
1193:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1120:
996:, Austria, the
888:, of which the
811:
798:
765:instead of the
555:
553:Arms and armour
433:Gracchus family
218:
25:
19:
12:
11:
5:
2334:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2301:
2300:External links
2298:
2296:
2295:
2280:
2265:
2246:
2228:
2217:
2207:Online version
2196:
2181:
2174:
2142:
2123:
2108:
2093:Grant, Michael
2090:
2075:
2064:
2049:
2034:
2019:
2008:
1990:
1975:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1949:Junkelmann 66.
1942:
1933:
1924:
1915:
1903:
1894:
1885:
1883:Junkelmann 63.
1876:
1867:
1858:
1849:
1840:
1831:
1822:
1813:
1804:
1802:Junkelmann 51.
1792:
1776:
1767:
1755:
1738:
1726:
1710:
1701:
1699:Junkelmann 60.
1669:
1655:
1639:
1622:
1613:
1604:
1588:
1576:
1574:Valsecchi 1–2.
1567:
1540:
1531:
1522:
1510:
1501:
1492:
1483:
1458:
1449:
1440:
1438:Suetonius XXX.
1428:
1415:
1406:
1378:
1364:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1325:
1323:Junkelmann 68.
1316:
1307:
1293:
1269:
1260:
1248:
1239:
1230:
1228:, "Gladiators"
1218:
1216:Junkelmann 61.
1196:
1194:Junkelmann 59.
1164:
1155:
1143:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1119:
1116:
864:contraretiarii
810:
809:Fighting style
807:
771:Western Empire
554:
551:
217:
214:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2333:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2304:
2293:
2292:0-425-18610-5
2289:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:1-84176-299-7
2274:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2262:1-4051-1042-2
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2243:0-415-12164-7
2240:
2236:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2193:0-7524-3442-X
2190:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2139:0-520-22798-0
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2120:88-8265-249-1
2117:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2105:1-56619-958-1
2102:
2098:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2087:1-4051-1568-8
2084:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2062:
2061:0-691-01178-8
2058:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2046:0-521-85282-X
2043:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2031:0-19-521582-6
2028:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2005:0-521-35667-9
2002:
1998:
1996:
1991:
1988:
1987:0-306-81185-5
1984:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1972:0-415-10452-1
1969:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1946:
1937:
1928:
1919:
1910:
1908:
1901:Shadrake 178.
1898:
1892:Auguet 73–74.
1889:
1880:
1871:
1862:
1853:
1844:
1835:
1826:
1817:
1808:
1799:
1797:
1787:
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1783:
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1771:
1762:
1760:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1733:
1731:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1708:Jacobelli 13.
1705:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1620:Wisdom 31–32.
1617:
1608:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1583:
1581:
1571:
1564:
1560:
1557:
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1471:
1469:
1462:
1453:
1444:
1435:
1433:
1425:
1419:
1410:
1403:
1402:nudus pugnare
1399:
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1389:
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1371:
1369:
1359:
1357:
1347:
1338:
1329:
1320:
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1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1264:
1255:
1253:
1243:
1237:Jacobelli 48.
1234:
1227:
1222:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1191:
1189:
1187:
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948:
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928:
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901:
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621:
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597:
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591:
584:
579:
572:
568:
564:
563:Zliten mosaic
559:
550:
548:
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524:
520:
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497:
492:
488:
484:
476:
472:
471:
470:Pollice Verso
466:
462:
461:
455:
450:
445:
441:
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429:
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421:
417:
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409:
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179:
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167:
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161:
157:
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144:
140:
139:
134:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
114:
109:
105:
104:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
72:
68:
64:
63:
58:
57:
48:
44:
40:
39:
34:
29:
24:
16:
2303:
2283:
2268:
2253:
2249:
2234:
2224:
2202:
2184:
2177:
2148:
2130:
2126:
2111:
2096:
2078:
2072:Times Online
2071:
2052:
2037:
2022:
2015:
2011:
1993:
1978:
1963:
1945:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1897:
1888:
1879:
1870:
1861:
1852:
1843:
1834:
1825:
1816:
1807:
1770:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1704:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1616:
1607:
1570:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1534:
1525:
1504:
1495:
1486:
1478:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1452:
1443:
1423:
1418:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1350:Grant 60–61.
1346:
1341:Baker 55–56.
1337:
1328:
1319:
1310:
1263:
1242:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1158:
1137:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1007:
1001:
997:
982:
978:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
940:
934:
930:
922:
917:
912:
904:
902:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
850:
844:
838:
834:
832:
826:
822:
802:
794:
786:subligaculum
785:
780:wore only a
777:
775:
766:
762:
755:
749:
743:
739:
732:
728:
726:
713:
709:
705:
703:
694:
693:or, rarely,
690:
686:
682:
680:
675:
670:
666:
664:
659:
655:
637:
633:
627:
619:
615:
607:
599:
593:
589:
587:
570:
566:
546:
542:
534:
526:
522:
518:
515:early Empire
510:
508:
503:
499:
495:
486:
482:
480:
469:
464:
458:
447:
443:
438:
430:
424:
415:
411:
403:
397:
389:
387:
381:
379:
376:wrote that:
369:
367:
358:
354:
346:
341:
335:
326:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
295:
291:
279:
274:
268:
264:
260:
259:period; the
248:
242:
234:
229:
225:
209:
205:
201:
197:
177:
169:
168:
163:
159:
155:
150:
146:
142:
136:
132:
130:
122:subligaculum
121:
117:
111:
107:
101:
93:
89:
81:
78:weighted net
61:
60:
55:
54:
52:
36:
32:
15:
1838:Futrell 98.
1479:retia misit
1305:Braund 159.
1258:Duncan 206.
1141:Duncan 204.
909:Rheinzabern
270:murmillones
182:stigmatised
35:stabs at a
2310:Categories
2187:. Tempus.
2097:Gladiators
1956:References
1931:Auguet 44.
1913:Auguet 58.
1874:Follain 1.
1865:Auguet 56.
1856:Auguet 74.
1847:Wisdom 31.
1820:Baker 189.
1790:Auguet 72.
1765:Baker 186.
1736:Wisdom 62.
1667:Follain 2.
1653:Auguet 57.
1602:Wisdom 32.
1332:Auguet 49.
1267:Auguet 78.
1102:faced two
656:RET/SECUND
338:effeminacy
322:laquearius
244:categories
239:gladiators
162:faced two
2250:Gladiator
2199:Suetonius
2164:Satire VI
2153:Satire II
1774:Baker 55.
1747:retiarius
1724:Zoll 118.
1563:Wiedemann
1538:Zoll 119.
1529:Zoll 117.
1465:Juvenal,
1385:Juvenal,
1362:Grant 61.
1291:Grant 60.
1153:Baker 53.
1108:secutores
1104:secutores
1100:retiarius
1093:retiarius
1089:retiarius
1081:retiarius
1073:retiarius
1068:retiarius
1061:Scissores
1056:scissores
1052:retiarius
1043:retiarius
1035:retiarius
1014:retiarius
1010:retiarius
1002:retiarius
994:Carnuntum
979:retiarius
971:retiarius
967:retiarius
959:retiarius
947:retiarius
931:retiarius
923:retiarius
918:retiarius
913:retiarius
905:retiarius
894:retiarius
860:retiarius
851:retiarius
835:retiarius
823:retiarius
803:retiarius
795:retiarius
782:loincloth
778:retiarius
760:chainmail
744:retiarius
729:retiarius
710:retiarius
683:retiarius
660:retiarius
634:retiarius
590:retiarius
567:retiarius
547:retiarius
535:retiarius
523:retiarius
519:retiarius
483:retiarius
465:retiarius
416:secutores
408:Suetonius
355:retiarius
347:retiarius
342:retiarius
327:retiarius
313:retiarius
305:retiarius
296:secutores
275:secutores
261:retiarius
253:fisherman
249:retiarius
230:retiarius
194:Suetonius
178:retiarius
164:secutores
160:retiarius
156:retiarius
151:retiarius
147:retiarius
133:retiarius
108:retiarius
96:), and a
74:gladiator
56:retiarius
41:with his
33:retiarius
2321:Tridents
2233:(1995).
2210:Archived
2167:Archived
2156:Archived
2095:(1995).
1997:: Book I
1751:murmillo
1551:," and "
1422:Seneca,
1162:Ward 39.
1118:See also
1085:retiarii
1019:retiarii
1004:(right).
983:retiarii
886:murmillo
846:murmillo
756:retiarii
714:quadrens
652:Hercules
539:Commodus
533:shows a
527:retiarii
511:retiarii
504:murmillo
460:murmillo
425:retiarii
420:Caligula
412:retiarii
404:retiarii
390:retiarii
382:retiarii
363:Samnites
359:retiarii
351:Claudius
292:retiarii
280:retiarii
257:Imperial
210:retiarii
206:retiarii
198:retiarii
170:Retiarii
69:) was a
62:retiarii
59:(plural
2145:Juvenal
1995:Satires
1635:fuscina
1631:fascina
1559:medicus
1468:Satires
1398:tunicae
1388:Satires
1077:secutor
1048:scissor
1039:secutor
1031:secutor
1027:secutor
1023:secutor
998:scissor
963:secutor
955:secutor
951:secutor
943:secutor
935:secutor
898:secutor
890:secutor
882:secutor
878:galerus
868:secutor
856:secutor
840:secutor
827:secutor
767:galerus
758:wore a
750:In the
740:galerus
699:Ephesus
695:tridens
691:fascina
687:fuscina
676:iaculum
639:gladius
622:), and
620:tridens
616:fuscina
612:trident
600:galerus
571:secutor
543:secutor
500:secutor
477:(1872).
396:in his
374:Juvenal
317:secutor
309:secutor
288:Pompeii
265:secutor
226:secutor
186:Juvenal
143:secutor
138:secutor
118:galerus
106:). The
94:tridens
90:fuscina
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43:trident
38:secutor
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821:, the
763:manica
734:manica
648:cupids
624:dagger
595:manica
311:. The
284:Chieti
192:, and
190:Seneca
113:manica
98:dagger
47:Nennig
1394:retia
1130:Notes
790:tunic
722:femur
718:guard
706:pugio
629:pugio
487:spira
331:lasso
236:Roman
126:tunic
103:pugio
71:Roman
67:Latin
2288:ISBN
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2189:ISBN
2162:and
2135:ISBN
2116:ISBN
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1983:ISBN
1968:ISBN
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1066:The
833:The
727:The
681:The
671:rete
667:rete
608:rete
588:The
491:Mars
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286:and
228:and
131:The
82:rete
2223:",
2070:",
618:or
610:),
604:net
602:),
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467:in
92:or
2312::
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1642:^
1591:^
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1513:^
1470:II
1431:^
1390:VI
1367:^
1355:^
1296:^
1272:^
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1199:^
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