Gracchi brothers - Knowledge

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agrarian reforms likely did little more than grant the agrarian commission – of which he was still a member – the necessary jurisdiction stripped in 129 BC. He was, however, sufficiently visionary to see that further land exactions from Rome's allies would seriously damage their interests (and be politically infeasible). This led him, "one of the first to realise that the amount of land in Italy was insufficient to provide for all inhabitants of the peninsula", to pursue extra-Italian colonisation. This change in scope proved long-lasting and by the time of Caesar, it would be standard policy to establish citizen colonies outside the Italian peninsula, which "would in time prove the only adequate method of finding enough land" for Italy's growing populations.

985:, which created a subsidised grain supply at around what he considered to be a "normal" price, set up an influential model for welfare in Rome. It was a reaction to corn disruptions in recent times that likely developed from army service, but his idea to have the Roman state smooth much of the variability of agriculture put the population less at the mercy of speculators and less dependent on magisterial largesse. The lowered incentives for magistrates giving food away for popularity at home had the added effect of reducing their proclivity to extort corn from provincials. These provisions continued in force after the death of Gaius, suggesting an emerging consensus at Rome that there was a "right of the people to enjoy the rewards of the empire 435: 542:. There were largely three grounds for opposition: first, the dispossession would harm the ruling classes of both Rome and the Italian allies; second, the law unfairly dispossessed people who had put money into the improvement of the land; third, that dispossession also would unsettle dowries pledged against the land and inheritances made under the assumption tenure was secure. When the vote arrived and Octavius interposed his tribunician veto, the matter was brought before the senate, but no settlement was reached. Unwilling to back down, Tiberius – unprecedentedly – had the assembly depose Octavius from office and vote the legislation through. 193: 687: 1119:. In these narratives, the Gracchi are painted as seditious tribunes who inaugurated the use of force and intimidation which then required the Roman state to use violence to re-establish order. The confluence of these traditions was common in late republican politics. For example, Cicero modulated his opinions on the Gracchi brothers to meet his audience. Before the senate, he spoke of them negatively and focused on their alleged attempts to take over the republic; before the people, he instead praised their good faith, moral virtues, and quality as orators (especially in comparison to the 812:. Doing so further extended to Italians, via Latin rights, the right to vote if present in Rome during elections. This proposal died: the specifics are not entirely clear, it may have been vetoed or otherwise simply withdrawn; recent scholarship now trends towards a veto from Livius Drusus. Gaius, after taking some leave to set up a colony near Carthage, attempted to stand for a third tribunate, but was unsuccessful. It is said that he had sufficient popular support to have been elected, but was not returned because the ten tribunician offices had already been filled. 1096:, are largely based on Gaius Gracchus and his supporters' narratives; in this, most of what is known of Tiberius is filtered through his brother's self-presentation. Plutarch's narrative, guided by his literary agenda, "drastically simplifies the history of this period". On the whole, Appian's narrative is more reliable, but is still marred with significant anachronisms, clear inaccuracies, and schematic features – that the agrarian reform eventually fails and that Tiberius and Gaius pursued the same objectives – which emerge from Appian's historiographical agenda. 40: 1057: 415: 866:

extent to which the Roman yeoman farmers were in fact in decline. Tiberius' reform law was not revolutionary, but his tactics in pursuit of it were, especially when they mobilised the assemblies which gave some genuine expression of the popular will. Those tactics threatened "to break the oligarchic stranglehold on Rome's political system, thus leading to his demise". This was exacerbated by Tiberius' use of social justice rhetoric, which further set him aside from his aristocratic brethren.

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Gracchan narrative of rural population decline through 133 BC – "long since... shown to be false" – likely emerged not from a general and actual decline in rural free-holding, but rather, generalisation from a local decline in coastal Etruria where commercial slave plantations were dominant. And while Gracchan observations of rural poverty were likely true; this, however, was not a result of slave-dominated plantations crowding out poor farmers, but overpopulation under

94:, reassert state claims to it, and redistribute it to poor rural farmers. These reforms were a reaction to a perceived decline in Italy's rural population. A decade later, Gaius Gracchus' reforms, among other things, attempted to buttress Tiberius' land commission and start Roman colonisation outside of Italy. They also were far more broad, touching on many topics such as assignment of provincial commands, composition of juries for the permanent courts, and letting of state 106:, as the reforms were a reassertion of Roman claims on public land that had been for decades largely occupied without title by Rome's Italian allies. Gracchan claims of Italian rural depopulation also are contradicted by archaeological evidence. The impact of the violent reaction to the two brothers, however, is of substantial import: it set a dangerous precedent that violence was an acceptable tool against political enemies. 138:

moreover, "has to be rejected". The main driver for this reevaluation is archaeological evidence of Italian settlement patterns from the 1980s onwards: "impressive methodological advances that have been achieved in survey archaeology have ... done much to undermine the credibility of earlier claims concerning the spread of slave-staffed estates and the survival or otherwise of subsistence-oriented smallholders".

1104:). Second, the stress on friendship and betrayal in these last hours is seen as replacing a more anodyne political drama for heightened pathos. Other scholars, however, disagree, arguing that the hypothesis of lost tragedies is too speculative and instead credit Plutarch or his sources with the dramatisation of the narrative. Regardless, in later generations, the death of the Gracchi became a common rhetorical 180:

evidence to show that the temporary labour of free men was very important to large estates" especially around harvest-time. In the years before 133 BC, a pause in construction of large public monuments also reduced demand for urban labour, triggering a prolonged period of poor labour market conditions. This general economic downturn was likely compounded by years of high food prices due to the

956:. While, in the long run, the equestrian jury would prove a political issue for the next half century, these reforms were not meant to set the senate and equites into conflict. Nor were they some kind of programme at true popular oversight, as moving the jury from the senators to the equites "merely reallocated influence from one section of the elite to another". 1171:

Gracchi had deviated from their actual historical policies. First, Babeuf envisioned the nationalisation and communal ownership of lands, which was incompatible with the Gracchan programme of privatising already state-owned lands. Second, Babeuf's choice of name was made under the prevailing assumption at the time that the Gracchi acted to place a limit on

1317:"The Gracchi, especially Tiberius, are still occasionally used as examples of social revolutionaries; works by Marxist ancient historians indeed sometimes take this line. Modern Marxist websites... present Tiberius as a popular champion in the same vein as later Marxist or communist activists, although scholarship does not support this interpretation." 1042:. Opimius was prosecuted in 120 BC for violating Gaius' law against extralegal punishment. The ex-consul, however, was able to successfully defend himself by appealing to the senate's decree and by arguing that Gaius and Flaccus deserved to be treated as seditious enemies rather than citizens. Opimius' acquittal set the precedent that the 4939: 535:, – he may have been put up to pass the proposals by those allied statesmen. He was also successful in rallying large numbers of rural plebs to Rome to vote in favour of the plan. The proposals were likely not appealing to the urban plebs, who would not have had the agricultural skills necessary to capitalise on the programme. 563:

illegal, due to a law which forbade holding the same magistracy within ten years. The sources allege that Tiberius also announced plans for a significantly more broad set of reforms, but these may be retrojections of his brother Gaius' later-consummated proposals. On the day of the election, Tiberius seized the

1320:"In the French revolution they were championed as heroes of the people... François-Noël Babeuf (1760 – 1797) called himself Gracchus Babeuf and represented himself as a champion of the people. His ideas included the abolition of private property... hardly proposals that either Gracchus would have advocated." 1099:

Some modern scholars speculate that these Gracchan narratives were transmitted through the centuries to the imperial authors by plays which dramatised the tragedy of their deaths. Two major themes stand out. First, the specifics of Gaius' death are "a dog's breakfast" of varying details and involve a

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Views of the Gracchi have changed over time. In the ancient world, the two brothers were largely viewed as an organised force acting in concert. During the early modern period, the Gracchan land programme was widely misconstrued as a socialistic restructuring of Roman society where public and private

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The impact of Tiberius' murder started a cycle of increased political violence: "the oligarchy had introduced violence into the political system with the murder of Tiberius Gracchus and over the years the use of violence became increasingly acceptable as various political disputes in Rome led to more

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Gaius positioned himself politically as the inheritor of Tiberius' popularity and political programme. After a quaestorship, he was elected fourth in the tribunician elections of 124 BC; after his election, he cast his brother's death as "a failure by the plebeians to maintain their tradition of

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Because one of the commission's goals was in reasserting Roman claims to land which by that time had long been occupied by the Italian allies, the allies started to complain of unfairness and inaccurate rushed surveying. In 129, those complaints were heard by the senate, who also took the opportunity

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and continues through Roman campaigns in Spain from 151 BC. Roman censuses – which were conducted largely to tally men for conscription – starting in 159 BC also began to note a reduction in the free population of Italy, falling from 328,316 in 159–58 BC down to a low of 317,933 in the

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Even in ancient times, Cicero remarked as much in saying "the death of Tiberius Gracchus, and even before that the whole rationale behind his tribunate, divided a united people into two distinct groups". However, scholars such as Mary Beard also warn that Cicero is exaggerating for rhetorical effect

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as a major contributing factor. Land holdings in Roman-dominated Italy gave the Roman state a latent title to large swaths of land which had never been formally surveyed. While the Gracchan land commission quickly parcelled and redistributed lands in southern Italy that had been confiscated from the

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Gaius' role in land reform is more obscure; the sources are largely unclear on it except in mentioning offhandedly that he brought legislation on the matter. By the time of his tribunate, the census results of 125–24 BC had been published and belief in a depopulation crisis had disappeared. His

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Further legislation also regulated the magistrates and the senate. Even though the ancient sources generally cast these reforms as part of "an elaborate plot against the authority of the senate... he showed no sign of wanting to replace the senate in its normal functions". Nor were his reforms meant

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Gaius also recognised the weakness of Tiberius' coalition, which relied only on the rural plebs, and therefore sought to expand it. To do so, he courted the urban plebs with legislation establishing Roman colonies both in Italy and abroad at Carthage. He also carried legislation to stop deduction of

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It used to be standard view that through the second century BC, the number of free farmers in rural Italy suffered a precipitous decline. This traditional view, transmitted from the ancient sources, "has been much overstated"; the narrative connecting military service to the decline of the yeomanry,

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This second proposal infringed on senatorial prerogatives over foreign policy and public finances. Senators also feared that these financial handouts would give Tiberius substantial personal political power. Tiberius then announced his intention to stand for re-election; according to Livy, this was

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A proud aristocrat, wanted to leave the senate in charge of directing policy and the magistrates in charge of its execution, subject to constitutional checks and removed from financial temptation, with the people sharing in the profits of empire without excessive exploitation of the subjects. The

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Gaius' reforms were broad and covered large portions of the republic's administration. Their main purpose was to advance the quality of Roman government, reducing extortion and corruption among the senatorial governors while acting within the bounds of what his contemporaries would have considered

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survives to the present. Building upon those laws, it abolished the rents that Tiberius' law passed, making the lands fully private and alienable. By 111 BC, most of the lands that could be distributed already had been; what was left over was "mostly pasture or land which had been assigned to

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Tiberius' reforms were focused on the rural peasantry. They were not, however, "so much oppressed as eager (quite justifiably) to share in the increased economic prosperity brought by Roman imperialism". In general, more recent scholarship has stressed that the ancient sources have exaggerated the

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During his first tribunate, he proposed a number of laws. First, he proposed legislation to bar anyone who the people had deposed from office from further office. This was, however, dropped at the instigation of his mother Cornelia. The proposal was likely meant to intimidate the other tribunes so

348:. The circumstances of the reform are no longer known: it was probably presented as an expansion of public liberty and a check against corruption (no longer would those who bribed be able to ensure that recipients voted as instructed). Legislation extending the secret ballot was passed in 137, the 2293:

It appears extremely likely that Nasica and the rest were actually convinced was aiming at demagogic tyranny. These nobles feared that the deterioration predicted by Polybius was upon them ... the murderers genuinely thought they had saved the state by killing a would-be tyrant ... whose actions

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named himself "Gracchus" after the Gracchi brothers, in an attempt to connect his desire for large scale land redistribution with the Gracchan programme for agrarian reform. Babeuf's plans, however, differed substantially from the Gracchan programme in ways that exemplify how the reception of the

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to ensure the state came to no harm and urging him to suppress Gaius and Flaccus on the Aventine. With a force of militia and Cretan archers, Opimius stormed the Aventine, killing Flaccus and his sons; Gaius was either killed or forced to commit suicide. Opimius then presided over drumhead courts

926:, the older lands had been occupied for centuries. Attempts, through to the start of the Social War, to press Roman claims on those lands – which "the allies assumed that they would be able to keep... as long as they did not rebel" – may have greatly undermined allied support for Roman hegemony. 558:

for the land commission. The ancient sources differ on the question of what Attalus' bequest was to be dedicated: Plutarch claims it was to be used to help land recipients purchase farm equipment; Livy, via epitome, claims that it was to be used to purchase more land for distribution after there

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and was unsuccessful; Mancinus and his army lost several skirmishes outside the city before a confused night-time retreat that led them to the site of a camp from a former consular campaign in 153 BC where they were surrounded. Tiberius negotiated a treaty of surrender, aided in part by his

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Some 19th and early 20th century scholarship argued that the Gracchi were to some extent influenced by Greek political philosophy, especially in the extent to which Greek democratic principles could be applied at Rome. These influences are largely attributed to Tiberius' interactions with Stoic

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was a similar policy to reduce senatorial corruption and was "far from being revolutionary": his purpose with the law "was to prevent sitting consuls from using their position to influence provincial assignments improperly (and perhaps to Rome’s detriment)" by requiring provinces to be assigned

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Early in the year 121 BC, attempts were made to repeal portions of Gaius' legislation. The main point of repeal, however, was not agrarian legislation or his subsidised grain bill, but the comparatively minor question of the proposed colony at Carthage. After an attendant was killed in the

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It was largely constitutional issues which impelled the violent reaction, not the agrarian laws. The reaction was motivated in part by Greek constitutional thought which created a narrative of popular mobilisation leading inexorably to popular tyranny. Such beliefs were compounded by the recent

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led to the splitting of previously modest farms into plots too small to support families. Many of these small farms were not economically viable. Coupled with the high price of land near Rome, many of these farmers sold their lands to rich men and engaged instead in wage labour. "There is ample

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More recent scholarship on the Roman economy has viewed the Gracchi agrarian reforms as less impactful than claimed in the ancient sources. It is also clear that the vast majority of their reformist legislation was left intact rather than repealed. Some modern scholars also connect the agrarian

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and the land commission remained in operation until 111 BC. By that point, almost all land available to distribute had already been distributed. In the whole, "the aristocracy's reaction resembled that of a general dealing with a mutiny, who accedes to most of the demands but executes the

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Archaeological evidence of small farms attested all over Italy in the second century and the general need for free labour during harvest time has led scholars to conclude that "there are no good grounds for inferring a general decline of the small independent farmer in the second century". The

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land holdings. Finally, Babeuf's name demonstrated his belief that a comparison was apt, consistent with contemporary beliefs that the Gracchi were revolutionaries. However, "the truth of the matter was otherwise the Gracchi sought to strengthen and uphold the Roman republic; Babeuf wished to

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to divert the interest and support of the urban plebs from the prospect of agrarian reform". After a period of abrogation by Sulla, the dole in the future would expand, however, both in cost and generosity, as later generations of politicians acted with or without senatorial support to do so.

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While substantial acreage was distributed as a whole, more than 3,268 square kilometres in the first few years of operation, there is some debate to the extent to which the Gracchan land allotments were actually economically viable for the families placed atop them. However, there are some

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There was a positive and a negative tradition related to the Gracchi brothers. Many of the ancient sources are late – there is a lack of contemporary sources – and are coloured by the positive tradition: many scholars believe that Plutarch's biographies of the two men, along with Appian's

1149:, which furthered this mistaken notion of large scale land reform rather than redistribution of state-owned lots. This led to the characterisation of the Gracchi as "socialists". Through the later 18th century, the waters became further muddied, until the matter was largely re-cleared by 158:

a reduction in the republic's citizen population through the 130s BC, these population reductions were not at the time connected to unwillingness to serve in Rome's unpopular campaigns in Spain. Because the easiest way to dodge the draft was to avoid registration by the censors, no

606:), which largely name the three commissioners from 133–30 BC. The boundary locations and descriptions imply the distribution over just a few years of some 3,268 square kilometres of land to Roman citizens, concentrated in southern Italy and benefitting some 15,000 households. 247:

was largely located outside of the traditional farmlands close to Rome and instead located in non-Roman Italy closer to the Italian allies. Public land redistribution was therefore necessarily at the expense of the allies, who would be evicted from ancestral lands still occupied.

1995:, p. 72. "More is gained by looking at the Gracchi brothers separately and in their own particular political contexts, rather than treating them as a unit in the way that has become increasingly common and that dates back to the paired biographies written by Plutarch". 300:, another important general and politician. Later Roman historians painted Cornelia as an "archetypical Roman matron", "heavily idealised and inevitably quite distance from the historical Cornelia", which may be a product of her son Gaius' own political presentation. 639:

proposed and received from the senate a decree which assigned the power to determine contested ownership to the consuls. By 129 BC, the commission had over some three years already distributed all the available uncontested land. Archaeological finds of Gracchan

2548:, pp. 241–42. "he sources are rather vague about the agrarian activities of Gaius ... His recorded agrarian activity is quite limited; Appian and Plutarch describe in some detail but for viritane distributions Gaius could simply revive his brother's law". 567:, possibly to intimidate the voters; Tiberius' opponents accused him of having kingly aspirations and attempted to induce the consul in the senate to use force to stop his re-election. The consul refused to act extralegally, but one of the other senators, 405:

and standing after the embarrassing treaty he was forced to negotiate after defeat in Spain. It cannot be doubted that, even if he was a true believer in the need for reform, Tiberius hoped to further his fame and political standing among the elite.

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specific people" through long-term leases or set aside for the purpose of providing money for road maintenance. The continuing increase of the Italian population, however, would trigger later proposals for land redistribution; especially notable is

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in England, for example, led to the formation of a large body of poor urban workers; many of their leaders were likened to the Gracchi and proposed reforms were compared with reference to the Roman land crisis as described in the ancient sources.

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decline in population is necessary to explain censorial reports thereto. The later results of the censuses of 125–24 BC and 115–14 BC, indicate large increases which are incompatible with any actual decline in Italian rural populations.

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and the commission survived his death. Opposition was to Tiberius' methods rather than his policies; it is likely that most senators agreed with the reform programme in principle. Archaeologists have recovered the commission's boundary stones

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defending their tribunes". Unlike his brother, Gaius' proposals largely did not relate to land. Over two years, he proposed broad legislation touching all parts of Roman government, from tax collection to senatorial provincial assignments.

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The introduction of secret ballot was probably one of the necessary conditions for the later Gracchan programme since it insulated the popular assemblies from elite control. For this reason, the historian Harriet Flower, in the 2010 book

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and more bloody discord". The use of force to suppress reform also suggested that the republic itself was temperamentally unsuited for producing the types of economic reforms wanted or needed, as in the Gracchi's framing, by the people.

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to undermine the senate indirectly or establish a democracy. Rather, Gaius was seeking to have the senators act more in the public interest rather than in their own private interests. To that end, with an ally in the tribunate,

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soldier pay for equipment and to establish a minimum age for conscription at 17. In this package, Gaius also introduced the grain subsidy which allowed all citizens to purchase grain at a subsidised price of six and two-thirds

1048:– which was merely advice from the senate: "the senate could pass any decree it liked, it was the magistrate who was responsible for any illegal actions" – was an acceptable ground to vitiate citizen rights extralegally. 151:

census of 136–35 BC. Politicians reacted to these constraints by securing volunteers for service; the reforms of the Gracchi were related to solving this problem and also minimising the impacts of conscription.

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Tiberius was supported in his endeavour by likeminded aristocrats who also viewed the perceived problem of rural depopulation seriously – among those in support of the proposal were the consul of 133 BC,

2082:, p. 100 documents scholarly disagreement as to when a 500 jugera maximum was in fact implemented. Suggested dates range from 300–133 BC, with the last date implying that no such prior law existed. 1145: 478:

The purpose of the reform was to stimulate population growth and expand the number of people who would meet the property qualifications for service in the Roman army. The inclusion of the limit of 500

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Through the conquests of Italy in the fourth and third centuries BC, the Roman state had acquired legal rights to large amounts of land ceded by the subjugated Italian allies. Their former lands, the

1436:, p. 603. "If the census figures of 125/124 and 115/114 are correct, then we must conclude that the theory of a drastic decline in the number of free country-dwellers is completely untenable". 1014:

In terms of periodisation, the death of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC is widely viewed as the start of the "late republic" and the beginning of the republic's eventual collapse. For example, in

241:(enormous slave-staffed plantations owned by the elite) on the public land itself is also largely unattested to by the archaeological evidence in this period. Moreover, evidence indicates that the 670:. This proposal, however, fell through when Flaccus was dispatched to war in Transalpine Gaul; relations with the allies were also not helped by the revolt and destruction of the Latin colony of 2906:, and he had responded to a summons to the Senate by joining his armed followers on the Aventine. This was rebellion, and it would be widely accepted that emergency action was the only answer. 975:

as a new exploiting class, not restrained by a tradition of service or by accountability at law. But this did not become clear for a generation, and he cannot be blamed for not foreseeing it.

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Gaius made an extremely controversial proposal to improve the state of the Latins and the other Italian allies: the Latins would receive full Roman citizenship with the Italians upgraded to

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had served as consul in 125 BC and – according to Appian – proposed a compromise giving the allies Roman citizenship in exchange for acquiescence to Roman reassertion of claims to the

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so to avoid any charges of novelty. Whether the Sextian-Licinian rogations in fact had such a clause is unclear; what mattered to Tiberius and his allies was that they believed it did.

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land ownership would be capped. Modern historians, however, largely view the two brothers' political activities as separate and dismiss their identification as social revolutionaries.

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the dominant body for juries for the permanent court on corruption. After, however, the acquittal of a corrupt consul that year, Gaius, with the support of an allied tribune, made the

2046:, p. 39. "These clauses apparently make it clear that land was distributed only to Roman citizens and not to the Italian allies", also dismissing Appian's claims to the contrary. 1100:

Lucius Vitellius, which was a common name during the republic for traitors (according to legend, the Vitellii were the first to betray the republic to the Tarquins shortly after the

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before the consuls took office. To further insulate such decisions from political meddling, he even made senatorial decisions on consular provinces immune from tribunician veto.

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streets by Gaius' supporters, Gaius and his ally Flaccus were summoned to defend themselves before the senate; they refused and barricaded themselves with armed followers on the

364:, demarcates a political watershed and new phase of the Roman republic at 139 BC. Shortly before Gabinius' law, in 140 BC, agrarian reforms were proposed by the consul 344:

Various reforms had been attempted in the years prior to 133 BC. One of the ones that was successful was the establishment of a secret ballot in 139 BC by the tribune

623:. Tiberius appointed himself to the commission, but after his death, Crassus was elected in his place. After the natural deaths of Appius Claudius and Crassus by 130 BC, 336:

father's positive reputation built during a praetorship in 179–78 BC; Tiberius' treaty, however, was later humiliatingly rejected by the senate after his return to Rome.

446:. It shows that grain distribution was already a hot topic several years before Tiberius' tribunate. He or his brother Tiberius probably replaced Octavius as tribune in 133. 660:

Discontent among the Italian allies had grown between Tiberius' land commission and the later 120s BC. One of the land commissioners elected in the early 120s BC,

571:, found this reply unacceptable and led an impromptu military levy of senators, which included one of Tiberius' colleagues in the plebeian tribunate; with Nasica, who was 226:

to the allies, who had been allowed to continue to work the land which had been confiscated from them". Through Roman conquests, the Italians who were allied to Rome were

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served to allow the land to revert to the state if a citizen walked away from the allotment; reversion would then allow the state to settle someone else on the land. The

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to some 20,000 settlers, albeit on less generous terms. After this, it became increasingly clear that there was simply insufficient land in Italy to accommodate demand.

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However, state difficulties in raising men for war did not mean that there were actual quantitative reductions in the populations of rural Italy. While the census

2134:, p. 66, "Gracchus' proposal brought him enormous public support. A contemporary historian... claimed that he was escorted by not less than 3,000—4,000 men". 395:

Views on Gracchus' motives differ. Favourable ancient sources attribute his reforms to spirited advocacy for the poor. Less favourable ancient sources, such as

368:; but he withdrew his proposals after an invasion (he was assigned as consul to lead the response) and the opposition of the senate, earning him the cognomen 319:. Tiberius, along with Gaius Fannius, was among the first to scale Carthage's walls, serving through to the next year. A decade later, in 137 BC, he was 723:, the consul who had led the commission and was thereby opened to prosecution for violating those rights, immediately left the city for exile in Campania. 75:

of 133 BC and 122–121 BC, respectively. They have been received as well-born and eloquent advocates for social reform who were both killed by a

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rights and retroactively extending them to the sentences of exile which the consular commission in 132 BC had passed against Tiberius' supporters.

381:, viewed the Gracchan reforms and brothers as a single unit. Modern scholars have started to view them separately and in their own political contexts. 793:, which required the senate to assign consular provinces prior to the elections of the consuls and insulated this decision from tribunician veto. 1913: 952:

on provincial corruption with an equestrian jury to check senatorial governors. The law is preserved on a bronze tablet once owned by Cardinal

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contracts from the provinces to Rome, which increased oversight and favoured high-ranking equites in the capital rather than provincial elites.

356:, extending the secret ballot to capital cases after Scipio Aemilianus convinced an opposing tribune to heed the people and withdraw his veto. 577:, reenacting an archaic sacrificial ritual, they then stormed the Capitoline and bludgeoned Tiberius and a number of his supporters to death. 1192:. This is no longer believed, however, as there is little evidence for Tiberius being a Stoic or for Stoicism justfying democratic policies. 4489: 265: 870:

indications that the lands distributed were used for pasture rather than intensive agriculture, even if they were suitable for farming.

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In the end, most of Gaius' reforms were preserved; archaeology has discovered evidence of Gracchan land colonial activities in Africa

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Through the second century, there is documented some difficulty in raising men and some resistance against levies. This starts in the

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in Paris. The brothers lay their hands on a document titled "property", consistent with then-current interpretations of their lives.

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A 1794 engraving of the French agitator and revolutionary, François-Noël "Gracchus" Babeuf. Babeuf also wrote a newspaper called

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By the 17th and 18th centuries, many books on ancient history repeated a false notion that Rome had limited all men to only 500

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continued in operation through their deaths until 111 BC, which again overhauled Roman policy with public lands. Much of

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Violent opposition to Tiberius' agrarian policy did not come to a head until he moved legislation to use the inheritance of

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The Gracchi exerted a substantial influence on later politics. They were viewed alternately as popular martyrs or dangerous

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Uggeri, Giovanni. "Le divisioni agrarie di età graccana: un bilancio". In Alessandrì, Salvarore; Grelle, Francesco (eds.).

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political system; their terms in the tribunate precipitated a series of domestic crises which are viewed as unsettling the

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Map of Gracchan land distributions. In red, distributions are attested to by archaeological finds of the boundary stones (

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and that "the idea there had been a calm consensus at Rome between rich and poor until is at best a nostalgic fiction".

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The death of Gaius as well inaugurated a new tool for the senate in upholding the current order by force: the so-called

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It was Tiberius' assassination that made the year 133 BC a turning point in Roman history and the beginning of the

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contracts. Both brothers were killed during or shortly after the conclusion of their respective tribunician terms.

3917: 3905: 1101: 4317:. Monografie / Centro ricerche e documentazione sull'antichità classica. Vol. 41. L'Erma di Bretschneider. 230:

confirmed in their lands and also gained substantially from the influx of booty and wealth from Roman conquest.

5024: 5009: 3314:'s bills in 78 and 62 BC expanding the grain distributions with senatorial support and little opposition. 2395: 2386: 4828:

Res publica servanda est: la svolta dei Gracchi tra prassi politica e violenza nella riflessione storiografica

747:

He also passed legislation to build roads, which he would oversee, with contracts let out to the equestrians.

1323:"The Gracchi were also (ab)used as examples of popular champions in other parts of Europe, e.g. in Ireland." 4335:

Public land in the Roman Republic : a social and economic history of ager publicus in Italy, 396-89 BC

1023: 493: 787:, he also moved legislation reforming the provincial corruption laws. Also importantly, he passed the 1167: 1154: 1037: 908: 827: 434: 201: 122: 103: 2871: 1179:

During the 19th century, the use of the Gracchi in then-current politics continued. The process of

1071: 720: 324: 210:

was largely intermingled with allied lands and required substantial surveying work to disentangle.

17: 2649:

The bill to establish a colony at Carthage was moved by his ally in the tribunate, Gaius Rubrius.

220:, were not heavily exploited by the Roman state. Rather, the land "had been regarded as a sort of 3787: 585:, which had come to power with a reform programme of cancelling debts and redistributing lands. 517:(old possessors) also would receive security of tenure over their lands, up to the 500 or 1,000 474:

privatise all remaining land by distributing it to poor Roman citizens (Italians were excluded).

4744: 4581:

Garnsey, Peter; Rathbone, Dominic (1985). "The background to the grain law of Gaius Gracchus".

1150: 4830:(in Italian). Sevilla Zaragoza: Universidad de Sevilla Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. 4501: 233:

The traditional narratives in the ancient sources which described the emergence of commercial

5014: 686: 365: 351: 192: 3987:

Lintott, Andrew (1994a). "The Roman empire and its problems in the late second century". In

505:(rent). Alienation was prohibited to prevent recipients from simply reselling the land. The 204:, some thirty years after the death of Gaius Gracchus. The anachronism notwithstanding, the 4311:"The "tyranny" of the Gracchi and the concordia of the optimates: an ideological construct" 3120: 884: 176: 147: 72: 8: 4845:

Rich, J W (1983). "The supposed Roman manpower shortage of the later second century BC".

2692:, p. 20, noting also that the claim that the grain was provided for nothing at App. 454:

establish a commission to investigate, survey, and catalogue the land owned by the state,

1226: 48: 5029: 5019: 4979: 4971: 4899: 4862: 4805: 4797: 4692: 4684: 4643: 4614: 4606: 4569: 4399: 4391: 4295: 4287: 4246: 3722: 3663: 3655: 3608: 2804: 2375: 2367: 2284: 1907: 1667: 1464: 4315:

Costruire la memoria: uso e abuso della storia fra tarda repubblica e primo Principato

694:

on the obverse and the corn-ears on the reverse refer to his ancestor Manius Marcius,

4983: 4963: 4926: 4916: 4891: 4854: 4831: 4809: 4789: 4717: 4696: 4676: 4635: 4618: 4598: 4561: 4540: 4505: 4465: 4428: 4418: 4403: 4383: 4349: 4339: 4318: 4299: 4279: 4210: 4200: 4183: 4173: 4152: 4135: 4125: 4108: 4098: 4050: 4033: 4023: 3975: 3965: 3964:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3946: 3936: 3893: 3883: 3795: 3714: 3667: 3647: 3600: 3458: 3434: 3367: 3357: 3188: 3135: 2891: 2796: 2696:, 1.21, is incorrect and contradicted by Livy and a surviving commentary on Cicero's 2379: 2359: 2276: 1895: 1885: 1700: 1690: 1659: 1468: 1448: 1189: 1163: 947: 636: 390: 328: 312: 297: 181: 118: 64: 31: 4955: 4883: 4781: 4756: 4713: 4668: 4590: 4532: 4497: 4375: 4310: 4271: 4238: 3758:

Tiberius Gracchus is often described as the one of the first socialists in history.

3639: 3592: 3450: 3311: 3187:. BICS Supplement 70. London: Institute of Classical Studies. pp. 148 et seq. 2883: 2351: 2268: 1460: 1116: 1075: 923: 573: 308: 289: 285: 184:

in Sicily, an island from which substantial amounts of grain were shipped to Rome.

114: 113:

through the late republic. They were also portrayed as social revolutionaries and

4333: 4167: 4017: 3959: 3930: 3817: 3129: 1056: 805:

to make it more democratic. However, this claim is dubious and largely rejected.

705: 695: 582: 564: 539: 316: 39: 3643: 2355: 796:

Some ancient sources claim that Gaius wanted to change voting procedures in the

4222: 1111:

The negative tradition, however, is transmitted through other sources, such as

832: 655: 80: 68: 60: 4379: 4275: 4064:

Brennan, T Corey. "Power and process under the republican "constitution"". In

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Gargola, Daniel J (1997). "Appian and the aftermath of the Gracchan reform".

4544: 4387: 4353: 4283: 4242: 4187: 4139: 4112: 4037: 3950: 3897: 3743:"Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus - the earliest 'socialists' in recorded history" 3718: 3651: 3604: 3490:, p. 72. "More is gained by looking at the Gracchi brothers separately". 3462: 3371: 2895: 2800: 2715: 2363: 2280: 1704: 1663: 1472: 1146:

Considerations on the causes of the greatness of the Romans and their decline

1139:

of land. The incorrect understanding emerged in 1734 with the publication of

889: 822: 713:

they would not exercise their vetoes. He then passed legislation reaffirming

332: 277: 216: 169: 91: 4760: 4440:

de Ligt, Luuk. "The economy: agrarian change during the second century". In

4432: 121:

and afterwards; in that vein, they motivated social revolutionaries such as

4930: 3788:"Heroes or villains: the Gracchi, reform, and the nineteenth-century press" 3628:"Traditional political culture and the people's role in the Roman republic" 957: 953: 809: 499:

Land distributed was likely done so with a prohibition on alienation and a

345: 304: 273: 269: 4536: 3979: 2420: 457:

limit the amount of public land any one possessor could hold to about 500

4874:

Rowland, Robert J (1969). "The development of opposition to C Gracchus".

3454: 3148: 3018: 1140: 784: 741: 551: 487: 236: 95: 87: 76: 4647: 4395: 3659: 3627: 2371: 2335: 1671: 4903: 4866: 4573: 4250: 3726: 3612: 3580: 2887: 2808: 2784: 2563: 768: 715: 110: 4975: 4801: 4745:"A survey of recent scholarship on the age of the Gracchi (1985-2005)" 4688: 4610: 4291: 2288: 2256: 129:

in Britain. Scholars today view these socialist comparisons as unapt.

102:

reforms to degrading Rome's relations with its Italian allies and the

3585:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

2121: 1286: 1180: 671: 126: 4887: 3596: 3356:(1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 129. 2591: 4959: 4785: 4672: 4594: 3763: 3402: 2272: 919: 836:

investigating and executing many of Gaius and Flaccus' supporters.

732: 555: 378: 320: 4726: 3390: 2496: 2311: 3996:

Lintott, Andrew (1994b). "Political history, 146–95 BC". In

3705:

Katz, Solomon (1942). "The Gracchi: an essay in interpretation".

3273: 2182:, p. 239, siding, in this instance, with Plutarch's account. 727: 460: 438:

Denarius of Gaius Minucius Augurinus, 135 BC, depicting the

4214: 3536: 3524: 3134:. Vol. 1. Institute of Classical Studies. pp. 113–80. 1687:

From the Gracchi to Nero: a history of Rome from 133 BC to AD 68

730:, especially those who served as Rome's public contractors (the 4082:

von Ungern-Sternberg, Jurgen. "The crisis of the republic". In

4019:

Commanders & command in the Roman republic and early empire

2900:

own case, two years later, was quite different. He was himself

1449:"Hannibal's legacy: the effects of the Hannibalic war on Italy" 1403: 1112: 396: 303:

Tiberius' military career started in 147 BC, serving as a

3261: 43:

Depiction of the two brothers made during the 19th century by

3838: 3498: 3496: 3290: 3288: 2410: 2408: 1825: 538:

He was opposed in the assembly by one of the other tribunes,

450:

The main goal of Tiberius' agrarian proposal was three-fold:

59:

were two brothers who lived during the beginning of the late

3225: 3213: 2049: 4521:"The theatricality of the deaths of C Gracchus and friends" 3924:. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association. 3912:. Vol. 1. New York: American Philological Association. 3469: 3164: 3101: 3077: 2928: 2619: 1959: 30:

For the branch of gens Sempronia from which they came, see

3850: 3826: 3548: 3493: 3285: 2957: 2955: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2851: 2827: 2815: 2517: 2515: 2460: 2405: 2190: 2188: 2027: 2025: 2010: 1849: 1547: 1523: 929: 726:

Gaius also moved legislation which would benefit the rich

399:, instead attribute his actions to an attempt to win back 3249: 3006: 1937: 1935: 1801: 1789: 1513: 1511: 898:

during his consulship in 59 BC, which gave away the

704:, who made a distribution of grain at a cheap price of 1 4727:"Babeuf and the Gracchi: A Comparison of Means and Ends" 3201: 3089: 3065: 2972: 2970: 2940: 2747: 2735: 2448: 2436: 1813: 1735: 1723: 1711: 1631: 1595: 1328: 175:

In rural areas closer to Rome, expanding population and

4450: 4441: 4412: 3560: 3414: 3333: 3321: 2952: 2911: 2839: 2673: 2671: 2656: 2579: 2551: 2512: 2472: 2224: 2185: 2161: 2149: 2137: 2097: 2085: 2061: 2022: 1976: 1974: 1619: 1607: 1583: 1571: 1559: 1535: 1348: 1240: 1238: 484:

was for the purpose of painting the law as a return to

4005:

Nicolet, C. "Economy and society, 133–43 BC". In

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Denarius of Marcus Marcius minted in 134 BC. The

4464:(in German). Vol. 1. Passau: Verlag Karl Stutz. 4122:

In the name of Rome: the men who won the Roman Empire

3378: 3237: 2967: 1861: 1837: 1777: 1773:. J. B. Paravia. p. 103 – via Attalus.org. 1274: 1262: 1250: 969:

ultimate result of his legislation was to set up the

27:

Ancient Roman brothers known for their social reforms

4081: 3408: 2668: 2631: 2607: 2484: 2236: 2109: 1971: 1947: 1650:

Astin, A.E. (1958). "The Lex Annalis before Sulla".

1496: 1235: 4496:(4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 4022:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 3437:Gracchus Babeuf: the first revolutionary communist 3882:(1st ed.). New York: WW Norton and Company. 2294:were bound to result in the ruin of the republic. 1307: 1305: 5001: 4199:. Profili (in Italian). Rome: Salerno Editrice. 3792:Classics in the modern world: a democratic turn? 3790:. In Hardwick, Lorna; Harrison, Stephen (eds.). 315:during his campaign to take Carthage during the 260:163 BC. His younger brother Gaius was born 4580: 4413:Rosenstein, NS; Morstein-Marx, R, eds. (2006). 3279: 3267: 2689: 1689:(4th ed.). London: Routledge. p. 27. 1176:overthrow and radicalise the French republic". 1051: 938:One of the elements best attested to is Gaius' 825:. Their refusal was tantamount to rebellion. A 280:twice in 178 and 175 BC. Their mother was 4313:. In Cristofoli, Roberto; et al. (eds.). 3354:Ancient Rome: a military and political history 1453:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 1302: 615:largely name Tiberius' younger brother Gaius, 442:, which itself showed a grain distribution by 141: 4767: 4518: 4073:Potter, David. "The Roman army and navy". In 4047:The Cambridge companion to the Roman republic 3961:The last age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 BC 3822:. Sidgwick & Jackson Limited. p. 86. 3542: 3530: 3231: 3219: 1016:The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic 740:Gaius changed the bidding location of public 4772:and the political ideas of Gaius Gracchus". 4492:. In Hornblower, Simon; et al. (eds.). 4049:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3794:. Oxford University Press. pp. 300–18. 1882:Spare no one: mass violence in Roman warfare 1061: 251: 4119: 2901: 1855: 1134: 1120: 1043: 1035: 996: 986: 980: 970: 945: 939: 912: 899: 893: 878: 857: 800: 788: 772: 757: 751: 665: 641: 635:to limit the agrarian commission's powers. 610: 601: 594: 518: 512: 506: 500: 485: 479: 466: 458: 425: 419: 400: 369: 349: 242: 234: 221: 205: 4742: 3856: 3832: 3554: 3514: 3502: 3294: 3158: 3062:, 60.8; Vell. Pat., 2.6.2; Flor. 2.3.15.2. 2833: 1912:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1807: 1478: 855: 4847:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 4825: 4448: 4308: 4172:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4165: 4151:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4097:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 3916: 3904: 3632:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 3566: 3315: 3255: 3182: 3128:Crawford, Michael (1996). "Lex agraria". 2789:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 2766: 2650: 2601: 2573: 2454: 2442: 2430: 2344:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 1831: 1819: 1766: 1741: 1729: 1717: 1637: 1601: 1481:, p. 475: " is surely off the mark". 1228:The appreciation of sculpture: a handbook 90:which established a commission to survey 4990: 4910: 4703: 4625: 4449:Patterson, John R. "Rome and Italy". In 4331: 3995: 3986: 3928: 3625: 3432: 3207: 3170: 3154: 3127: 3107: 3095: 3083: 3071: 3055: 2961: 2946: 2934: 2922: 2857: 2845: 2821: 2729: 2709: 2557: 2545: 2533: 2506: 2478: 2466: 2426: 2414: 2336:"References to Gracchan activity in the 2333: 2321: 2305: 2257:"Tiberius Gracchus: the opposition view" 2218: 2206: 2194: 2179: 2143: 2131: 2127: 2103: 2091: 2079: 2067: 2055: 2031: 2016: 2004: 1941: 1926: 1684: 1625: 1613: 1589: 1577: 1565: 1553: 1541: 1490: 1409: 1397: 1373: 1311: 1292: 1256: 1055: 790:lex Sempronia de provinciis consularibus 685: 674:when Flaccus' proposals were withdrawn. 559:turned out to be little land available. 433: 413: 191: 38: 4873: 4724: 4551: 4502:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5812 4459: 4439: 4362:Launaro, Alessandro (2011). "Review of 4361: 4257: 4194: 4063: 4015: 4004: 3958:Crook, John; et al., eds. (1994). 3844: 3815: 3769: 3518: 3339: 3327: 3028: 3024: 3012: 3000: 2988: 1867: 1843: 1795: 1783: 1754: 1517: 1446: 1433: 1421: 1385: 1361: 1346: 1334: 1280: 1268: 1224: 930:Gaius' urban and administrative reforms 831:was then moved, instructing the consul 569:Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio 533:Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus 284:, the daughter of the renowned general 264:154 BC. They were the sons of the 14: 5002: 4704:Roselaar, Saskia T (15 January 2015). 4654: 4487: 4146: 4092: 4083: 4074: 4072: 4065: 4044: 4006: 3997: 3988: 3957: 3785: 3773: 3740: 3692: 3680: 3578: 3487: 3475: 3396: 3384: 3351: 3043:Dai Gracchi alla fine della Repubblica 2869: 2782: 2753: 2741: 2725: 2721: 2677: 2662: 2637: 2625: 2613: 2597: 2585: 2569: 2521: 2502: 2490: 2317: 2242: 2230: 2167: 2155: 2115: 2043: 1992: 1980: 1965: 1953: 1529: 1502: 1347:Erdkamp, Paul. "Army and society". In 1296: 1244: 1018:, Jürgen von Ungern-Sternberg writes: 256:Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was born 4937: 4451:Rosenstein & Morstein-Marx (2006) 4442:Rosenstein & Morstein-Marx (2006) 4221: 3922:The magistrates of the Roman republic 3910:The magistrates of the Roman republic 3877: 3420: 3243: 2976: 2254: 1879: 1649: 1349:Rosenstein & Morstein-Marx (2006) 1005: 911:have also trended toward viewing the 847:ringleaders to preserve discipline". 581:example of tyranny in Sparta, led by 4844: 4519:Beness, J Lea; Hillard, T W (2001). 4124:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 3704: 2769:, pp. 517–18, citing Ps.-Sall. 1086: 4338:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4258:Lintott, Andrew (1994). "Review of 4149:The breakdown of the Roman republic 1753:For ancestry of both brothers, see 1128: 1070:). Babeuf was executed in 1797 for 907:Reassessments of the causes of the 762:the sole class staffing the juries. 409: 377:The ancient historians, especially 24: 4818: 3040: 1465:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1996.tb01916.x 83:and contributing to its collapse. 25: 5046: 4626:Mitchell, T N (1980). "Review of 4415:A companion to the Roman Republic 4364:Public land in the Roman republic 3741:Cassar, Claudine (12 June 2022). 1884:. Lanham, Maryland. p. 179. 1202:Land reform in the Roman republic 196:This map shows Roman lands – the 4768:Sherwin-White, A N (1982). "The 4739:Pages not consistently numbered. 3918:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 3906:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 3808: 3779: 3733: 3698: 3619: 3572: 3508: 3481: 3426: 3345: 3300: 3176: 3113: 3049: 3034: 2863: 2776: 2759: 646:largely stop after 129 BC. 471:for those with two children, and 272:177 and 163 BC as well as 142:Rural conditions, 159–33 BC 3880:SPQR: a history of ancient Rome 3058:, pp. 241–42, citing Livy 2683: 2643: 2539: 2327: 2248: 2173: 2073: 2037: 1986: 1873: 1760: 1747: 1678: 1643: 1439: 1427: 1231:. New York: Baker. p. 146. 1188:egalitarian philosophy through 331:. The campaign was part of the 123:François-Noël "Gracchus" Babeuf 4718:10.1093/OBO/9780195389661-0221 4169:Politics in the Roman republic 4147:Mackay, Christopher S (2009). 3935:. Cambridge University Press. 3786:Butler, Sarah (October 2013). 3352:Mackay, Christopher S (2007). 1340: 1218: 998:lex de provinciis consularibus 187: 13: 1: 4743:Santangelo, Federico (2007). 4659:: myths ancient and modern". 4554:American Journal of Philology 4309:Pina Polo, Francisco (2017). 4120:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2016) . 4045:Flower, Harriet, ed. (2014). 3816:Stobart, John Clarke (1912). 3119:Eg a critical edition of the 2261:American Journal of Philology 1880:Baker, Gabriel David (2021). 1207: 1108:in Roman oratorical schools. 840: 698: 631:were elected in their place. 261: 257: 132: 5035:Crisis of the Roman Republic 4731:Melbourne Historical Journal 4490:"Sempronius Gracchus, Gaius" 3929:Crawford, Michael H (1974). 3626:Yakobson, Alexander (2010). 1212: 1052:Reception and historiography 1024:crisis of the Roman Republic 918:allies that had defected to 850: 681: 266:Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus 7: 4915:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 4826:Gabrielli, Chantal (2022). 4494:Oxford classical dictionary 4480: 4332:Roselaar, Saskia T (2010). 3644:10.25162/historia-2010-0017 3443:Canadian Journal of History 3399:, pp. 61, 13, 62 n. 1. 3280:Garnsey & Rathbone 1985 3268:Garnsey & Rathbone 1985 2785:"From the Gracchi to Sulla" 2690:Garnsey & Rathbone 1985 2356:10.25162/historia-2009-0009 2334:Roselaar, Saskia T (2009). 1195: 962:Oxford Classical Dictionary 384: 10: 5051: 4911:Stockton, David L (1979). 4655:Ridley, Ronald T (2000). " 4231:American Historical Review 4166:Mouritsen, Henrik (2017). 4093:Flower, Harriet I (2010). 3865: 3819:The Grandeur that was Rome 3183:Mouritsen, Henrik (1998). 815: 653: 588: 531:, and Scaevola's brother, 494:Sextian-Licinian rogations 388: 339: 311:under his brother-in-law, 29: 4380:10.1017/S0075435811000141 4276:10.1017/S0009840X00289269 4195:Perelli, Luciano (1993). 3579:Murray, Robert J (1966). 3543:Beness & Hillard 2001 3531:Beness & Hillard 2001 3409:von Ungern-Sternberg 2014 2872:"The Death of Saturninus" 1225:Sturgis, Russell (1904). 1045:senatus consultum ultimum 1038:senatus consultum ultimum 828:senatus consultum ultimum 444:Lucius Minucius Augurinus 252:Early life of the Gracchi 86:Tiberius Gracchus passed 4948:Journal of Roman Studies 4774:Journal of Roman Studies 4583:Journal of Roman Studies 4368:Journal of Roman Studies 3932:Roman Republican coinage 3870: 3581:"Cicero and the Gracchi" 721:Publius Popillius Laenas 649: 621:Publius Licinius Crassus 545: 325:Gaius Hostilius Mancinus 4938:Astin, Alan E. (1981). 4761:10.3406/topoi.2007.2250 4725:Russell, Peter (2008). 4460:Zmeskal, Klaus (2009). 4360:Positively reviewed in 3308:Marcus Aemilius Lepidus 3027:, pp. 92–94, 148; 2255:Boren, Henry C (1961). 1412:, pp. 217, 227–28. 1072:attempting to overthrow 964:, gave the assessment: 785:Manlius Acilius Glabrio 617:Appius Claudius Pulcher 529:Publius Mucius Scaevola 465:, possibly up to 1,000 276:in 169 BC. He had 47:, today located at the 4706:"The Gracchi brothers" 4488:Badian, Ernst (2012). 4243:10.1086/ahr/99.3.877-a 4016:Drogula, Fred (2015). 3517:, p. 486, citing 3433:Sydenham, M J (1979). 2902: 2870:Badian, Ernst (1984). 1685:Scullard, HH (2011) . 1151:Barthold Georg Niebuhr 1135: 1125:tribunes of his day). 1121: 1102:expulsion of the kings 1079: 1062: 1044: 1036: 1028: 997: 987: 981: 977: 971: 946: 940: 913: 900: 894: 879: 858: 801: 789: 773: 758: 752: 709: 666: 662:Marcus Fulvius Flaccus 642: 625:Marcus Fulvius Flaccus 611: 602: 595: 519: 513: 507: 501: 486: 480: 467: 459: 447: 431: 426: 420: 401: 370: 350: 243: 235: 222: 211: 206: 52: 5025:Tribunes of the plebs 5010:2nd-century BC Romans 4710:Oxford Bibliographies 3847:, pp. 52 et seq. 3707:The Classical Journal 2628:, pp. 66, 70–71. 1968:, pp. 72 et seq. 1767:Degrasssi, A (1954). 1447:Cornell, T J (1996). 1068:Tribune of the People 1059: 1020: 966: 944:, which reformed the 689: 654:Further information: 437: 417: 389:Further information: 366:Gaius Laelius Sapiens 296:also was the wife of 195: 71:. They served in the 42: 4264:The Classical Review 3878:Beard, Mary (2015). 3478:, pp. 459, 463. 3455:10.3138/cjh.14.2.303 2058:, pp. 227, 231. 1834:, pp. 464, 468. 1168:François-Noël Babeuf 1166:, the revolutionary 629:Gaius Papirius Carbo 182:ongoing slave revolt 177:partible inheritance 148:Third Macedonian War 4661:Classical Philology 4537:10.1093/cq/51.1.135 4525:Classical Quarterly 4453:, pp. 606–624. 4444:, pp. 590–605. 4225:(1994). "Review of 4009:, pp. 599–643. 3747:Anthropology Review 3739:Less academically, 3312:Marcus Porcius Cato 3185:Italian unification 2783:Badian, E. (1962). 2429:, pp. 240–41; 1532:, p. 77 n. 59. 1063:Le tribun du peuple 514:veteres possessores 73:plebeian tribunates 4086:, pp. 78–100. 4000:, pp. 40–103. 3545:, pp. 137–38. 3533:, pp. 136–37. 3232:Sherwin-White 1982 3220:Sherwin-White 1982 3173:, pp. 286–87. 3110:, pp. 242–43. 3086:, pp. 241–42. 2937:, pp. 85, 87. 2888:10.34780/1497-zt32 2572:, pp. 61–62; 2469:, pp. 240–41. 2417:, pp. 252–54. 2019:, pp. 273–76. 1798:, pp. 246–46. 1757:, pp. 246–48. 1556:, pp. 215–16. 1351:, pp. 289–90. 1337:, pp. 618–19. 1080: 1006:Political violence 844: 119 BC 802:comitia centuriata 710: 702: 440 BC 448: 432: 288:, the hero of the 212: 200:on the eve of the 125:and opposition to 53: 4837:978-84-1340-471-4 4511:978-0-19-938113-5 4471:978-3-88849-304-1 4424:978-1-4051-7203-5 4345:978-0-19-957723-1 4324:978-8-8913-1235-8 4179:978-1-107-03188-3 4158:978-0-521-51819-2 4131:978-0-300-22183-1 4104:978-0-691-14043-8 4077:, pp. 54–77. 4068:, pp. 19–53. 4056:978-1-107-66942-0 4029:978-1-4696-2314-6 3991:, pp. 16–39. 3942:978-0-511-58401-5 3889:978-0-87140-423-7 3801:978-0-1996-7392-6 3423:, pp. 226–7. 3363:978-0-521-71149-4 3282:, pp. 24–25. 3141:978-0-900587-67-2 3045:. pp. 31–60. 3015:, pp. 32–33. 2860:, pp. 83–84. 2824:, pp. 82–83. 2756:, pp. 72–73. 2744:, pp. 71–72. 2665:, pp. 66–67. 2588:, pp. 62–63. 2524:, pp. 59–60. 2233:, pp. 48–49. 2170:, pp. 41–43. 2158:, pp. 40–41. 1891:978-1-5381-1220-5 1696:978-0-203-84478-6 1190:Blossius of Cumae 1164:French Revolution 1087:Ancient reception 960:, writing in the 948:quaestio perpetua 637:Scipio Aemilianus 391:Tiberius Gracchus 329:Hispania Citerior 323:under the consul 313:Scipio Aemilianus 298:Scipio Aemilianus 119:French Revolution 92:Roman public land 65:Tiberius Gracchus 32:Sempronii Gracchi 16:(Redirected from 5042: 4987: 4934: 4907: 4870: 4841: 4813: 4770:lex repetundarum 4764: 4738: 4721: 4700: 4651: 4622: 4577: 4548: 4515: 4475: 4454: 4445: 4436: 4407: 4357: 4328: 4303: 4254: 4218: 4191: 4162: 4143: 4116: 4087: 4078: 4069: 4060: 4041: 4010: 4001: 3992: 3983: 3954: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3783: 3777: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3755: 3753: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3702: 3696: 3690: 3684: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3430: 3424: 3418: 3412: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3382: 3376: 3375: 3349: 3343: 3337: 3331: 3325: 3319: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3283: 3277: 3271: 3265: 3259: 3253: 3247: 3241: 3235: 3229: 3223: 3217: 3211: 3205: 3199: 3198: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3117: 3111: 3105: 3099: 3093: 3087: 3081: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3038: 3032: 3022: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2992: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2965: 2959: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2909: 2908: 2905: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2780: 2774: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2719: 2713: 2707: 2701: 2687: 2681: 2675: 2666: 2660: 2654: 2647: 2641: 2635: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2567: 2561: 2555: 2549: 2543: 2537: 2531: 2525: 2519: 2510: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2424: 2418: 2412: 2403: 2383: 2338:liber coloniarum 2331: 2325: 2315: 2309: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2252: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2192: 2183: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2159: 2153: 2147: 2141: 2135: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2053: 2047: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2020: 2014: 2008: 2002: 1996: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1939: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1911: 1903: 1877: 1871: 1865: 1859: 1856:Goldsworthy 2016 1853: 1847: 1841: 1835: 1829: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1787: 1781: 1775: 1774: 1770:Fasti Capitolini 1764: 1758: 1751: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1727: 1721: 1715: 1709: 1708: 1682: 1676: 1675: 1647: 1641: 1635: 1629: 1623: 1617: 1611: 1605: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1581: 1575: 1569: 1563: 1557: 1551: 1545: 1539: 1533: 1527: 1521: 1515: 1506: 1500: 1494: 1488: 1482: 1476: 1443: 1437: 1431: 1425: 1419: 1413: 1407: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1383: 1377: 1371: 1365: 1359: 1353: 1352: 1344: 1338: 1332: 1326: 1309: 1300: 1290: 1284: 1278: 1272: 1266: 1260: 1254: 1248: 1242: 1233: 1232: 1222: 1138: 1129:Modern reception 1124: 1117:Valerius Maximus 1076:French Directory 1065: 1047: 1041: 1000: 990: 984: 974: 951: 943: 941:lex repetundarum 924:Second Punic War 916: 903: 897: 882: 861: 845: 842: 804: 792: 778: 761: 755: 703: 700: 669: 645: 614: 605: 598: 574:pontifex maximus 522: 516: 510: 504: 491: 483: 470: 464: 430:are very likely. 429: 423: 410:Agrarian reforms 404: 373: 355: 309:military tribune 290:Second Punic War 286:Scipio Africanus 263: 259: 246: 240: 225: 209: 115:proto-socialists 57:Gracchi brothers 45:Eugene Guillaume 21: 5050: 5049: 5045: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4923: 4888:10.2307/1086457 4838: 4821: 4819:Further reading 4816: 4512: 4483: 4478: 4472: 4425: 4346: 4325: 4207: 4180: 4159: 4132: 4105: 4095:Roman republics 4057: 4030: 3972: 3943: 3890: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3857:Santangelo 2007 3855: 3851: 3843: 3839: 3833:Santangelo 2007 3831: 3827: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3784: 3780: 3768: 3764: 3751: 3749: 3738: 3734: 3703: 3699: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3624: 3620: 3597:10.2307/2936013 3577: 3573: 3565: 3561: 3555:Santangelo 2007 3553: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3515:Santangelo 2007 3513: 3509: 3503:Santangelo 2007 3501: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3431: 3427: 3419: 3415: 3407: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3383: 3379: 3364: 3350: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3322: 3305: 3301: 3295:Santangelo 2007 3293: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3266: 3262: 3254: 3250: 3242: 3238: 3230: 3226: 3218: 3214: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3181: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3159:Santangelo 2007 3157:, p. 278; 3153: 3149: 3142: 3118: 3114: 3106: 3102: 3094: 3090: 3082: 3078: 3070: 3066: 3054: 3050: 3039: 3035: 3023: 3019: 3011: 3007: 2999: 2995: 2987: 2983: 2975: 2968: 2960: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2933: 2929: 2921: 2912: 2868: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2844: 2840: 2834:Santangelo 2007 2832: 2828: 2820: 2816: 2781: 2777: 2764: 2760: 2752: 2748: 2740: 2736: 2720: 2716: 2708: 2704: 2688: 2684: 2676: 2669: 2661: 2657: 2648: 2644: 2636: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2596: 2592: 2584: 2580: 2568: 2564: 2556: 2552: 2544: 2540: 2532: 2528: 2520: 2513: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2425: 2421: 2413: 2406: 2332: 2328: 2316: 2312: 2304: 2300: 2253: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2193: 2186: 2178: 2174: 2166: 2162: 2154: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2130:, p. 224; 2126: 2122: 2114: 2110: 2102: 2098: 2090: 2086: 2078: 2074: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2050: 2042: 2038: 2030: 2023: 2015: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1979: 1972: 1964: 1960: 1952: 1948: 1940: 1933: 1925: 1921: 1905: 1904: 1892: 1878: 1874: 1866: 1862: 1854: 1850: 1842: 1838: 1830: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1808:Santangelo 2007 1806: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1778: 1765: 1761: 1752: 1748: 1740: 1736: 1728: 1724: 1716: 1712: 1697: 1683: 1679: 1648: 1644: 1636: 1632: 1624: 1620: 1612: 1608: 1600: 1596: 1588: 1584: 1576: 1572: 1564: 1560: 1552: 1548: 1540: 1536: 1528: 1524: 1516: 1509: 1501: 1497: 1489: 1485: 1479:Santangelo 2007 1444: 1440: 1432: 1428: 1420: 1416: 1408: 1404: 1396: 1392: 1384: 1380: 1372: 1368: 1360: 1356: 1345: 1341: 1333: 1329: 1310: 1303: 1295:, p. 221; 1291: 1287: 1279: 1275: 1267: 1263: 1255: 1251: 1243: 1236: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1198: 1156:History of Rome 1131: 1089: 1054: 1008: 982:lex frumentaria 932: 863: 853: 843: 818: 701: 696:plebeian aedile 684: 658: 652: 591: 565:Capitoline hill 548: 540:Marcus Octavius 440:columna Minucia 412: 393: 387: 362:Roman republics 342: 317:Third Punic War 292:. Their sister 254: 190: 144: 135: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5048: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 4997: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4988: 4960:10.2307/299510 4921: 4908: 4882:(4): 372–379. 4871: 4853:(3): 287–331. 4842: 4836: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4786:10.2307/299113 4765: 4755:(2): 465–510. 4740: 4722: 4701: 4673:10.1086/449512 4667:(4): 459–467. 4657:Leges agrariae 4652: 4634:(129): 83–85. 4623: 4595:10.2307/300649 4578: 4560:(4): 555–581. 4549: 4531:(1): 135–140. 4516: 4510: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4476: 4470: 4457: 4456: 4455: 4446: 4423: 4410: 4409: 4408: 4344: 4329: 4323: 4306: 4305: 4304: 4270:(2): 346–347. 4255: 4223:Gruen, Erich S 4205: 4192: 4178: 4163: 4157: 4144: 4130: 4117: 4103: 4090: 4089: 4088: 4079: 4070: 4055: 4042: 4028: 4013: 4012: 4011: 4002: 3993: 3970: 3955: 3941: 3926: 3914: 3902: 3888: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3861: 3859:, p. 484. 3849: 3837: 3835:, p. 483. 3825: 3807: 3800: 3778: 3776:, p. 459. 3772:, p. 57; 3762: 3732: 3697: 3695:, p. 463. 3685: 3683:, p. 459. 3673: 3638:(3): 282–302. 3618: 3571: 3567:Pina Polo 2017 3559: 3557:, p. 488. 3547: 3535: 3523: 3507: 3505:, p. 486. 3492: 3480: 3468: 3449:(2): 303–305. 3425: 3413: 3401: 3389: 3377: 3362: 3344: 3342:, p. 298. 3332: 3330:, p. 260. 3320: 3318:, p. 113. 3316:Mouritsen 2017 3299: 3297:, p. 480. 3284: 3272: 3260: 3258:, p. 149. 3256:Mouritsen 2017 3248: 3246:, p. 878. 3236: 3224: 3212: 3210:, p. 289. 3200: 3193: 3175: 3163: 3161:, p. 474. 3147: 3140: 3131:Roman Statutes 3112: 3100: 3098:, p. 243. 3088: 3076: 3074:, p. 228. 3064: 3048: 3033: 3017: 3005: 2993: 2981: 2979:, p. 877. 2966: 2951: 2949:, p. 278. 2939: 2927: 2910: 2862: 2850: 2838: 2836:, p. 481. 2826: 2814: 2775: 2767:Broughton 1952 2758: 2746: 2734: 2728:, p. 68; 2714: 2702: 2682: 2667: 2655: 2653:, p. 517. 2651:Broughton 1951 2642: 2630: 2618: 2606: 2604:, p. 514. 2602:Broughton 1951 2600:, p. 65; 2590: 2578: 2576:, p. 513. 2574:Broughton 1951 2562: 2560:, p. 277. 2550: 2538: 2526: 2511: 2505:, p. 59; 2495: 2483: 2481:, p. 241. 2471: 2459: 2457:, p. 503. 2455:Broughton 1951 2447: 2445:, p. 495. 2443:Broughton 1951 2435: 2433:, p. 495. 2431:Broughton 1951 2419: 2404: 2350:(2): 198–214. 2326: 2320:, p. 55; 2310: 2298: 2273:10.2307/292017 2247: 2235: 2223: 2211: 2199: 2197:, p. 240. 2184: 2172: 2160: 2148: 2146:, p. 224. 2136: 2120: 2108: 2106:, p. 236. 2096: 2094:, p. 235. 2084: 2072: 2070:, p. 231. 2060: 2048: 2036: 2034:, p. 230. 2021: 2009: 1997: 1985: 1970: 1958: 1946: 1931: 1919: 1890: 1872: 1860: 1858:, p. 119. 1848: 1836: 1832:Broughton 1951 1824: 1822:, p. 464. 1820:Broughton 1951 1812: 1810:, p. 469. 1800: 1788: 1776: 1759: 1746: 1744:, p. 423. 1742:Broughton 1951 1734: 1732:, p. 440. 1730:Broughton 1951 1722: 1720:, p. 397. 1718:Broughton 1951 1710: 1695: 1677: 1642: 1640:, p. 613. 1638:Patterson 2006 1630: 1628:, p. 202. 1618: 1616:, p. 180. 1606: 1604:, p. 611. 1602:Patterson 2006 1594: 1592:, p. 222. 1582: 1580:, p. 223. 1570: 1568:, p. 216. 1558: 1546: 1544:, p. 215. 1534: 1522: 1520:, p. 603. 1507: 1495: 1483: 1477:Pace Cornell, 1438: 1426: 1424:, p. 602. 1414: 1402: 1390: 1388:, p. 603. 1378: 1366: 1364:, p. 598. 1354: 1339: 1327: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1301: 1285: 1283:, p. 241. 1273: 1271:, p. 240. 1261: 1249: 1247:, p. 466. 1234: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1197: 1194: 1130: 1127: 1088: 1085: 1053: 1050: 1007: 1004: 988:frumentationes 931: 928: 880:leges agrariae 862: 859:leges agrariae 854: 852: 849: 833:Lucius Opimius 817: 814: 764: 763: 748: 745: 683: 680: 656:Gaius Gracchus 651: 648: 590: 587: 547: 544: 476: 475: 472: 455: 424:). In yellow, 411: 408: 386: 383: 346:Aulus Gabinius 341: 338: 253: 250: 198:ager Romanus – 189: 186: 143: 140: 134: 131: 81:Roman Republic 69:Gaius Gracchus 61:Roman Republic 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5047: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5007: 5005: 4992: 4991:Mitchell 1980 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4943: 4936: 4935: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4922:0-19-872104-8 4918: 4914: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4829: 4824: 4823: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4485: 4473: 4467: 4463: 4458: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4438: 4437: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4420: 4417:. Blackwell. 4416: 4411: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4359: 4358: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4337: 4336: 4330: 4326: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4307: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4237:(3): 877–78. 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4219: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4206:8-8840-2119-7 4202: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4175: 4171: 4170: 4164: 4160: 4154: 4150: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4085: 4084:Flower (2014) 4080: 4076: 4075:Flower (2014) 4071: 4067: 4066:Flower (2014) 4062: 4061: 4058: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4025: 4021: 4020: 4014: 4008: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3985: 3984: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3971:0-521-85073-8 3967: 3963: 3962: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3934: 3933: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3875: 3858: 3853: 3846: 3841: 3834: 3829: 3821: 3820: 3811: 3803: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3775: 3771: 3766: 3759: 3748: 3744: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3694: 3689: 3682: 3677: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3622: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3568: 3563: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3532: 3527: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3497: 3489: 3484: 3477: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3439:, by RB Rose" 3438: 3429: 3422: 3417: 3411:, p. 81. 3410: 3405: 3398: 3393: 3387:, p. 84. 3386: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3355: 3348: 3341: 3336: 3329: 3324: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3296: 3291: 3289: 3281: 3276: 3270:, p. 20. 3269: 3264: 3257: 3252: 3245: 3240: 3234:, p. 18. 3233: 3228: 3222:, p. 28. 3221: 3216: 3209: 3208:Roselaar 2010 3204: 3196: 3194:0-9005-8781-4 3190: 3186: 3179: 3172: 3171:Roselaar 2010 3167: 3160: 3156: 3155:Roselaar 2010 3151: 3143: 3137: 3133: 3132: 3125: 3124: 3116: 3109: 3108:Roselaar 2010 3104: 3097: 3096:Roselaar 2010 3092: 3085: 3084:Roselaar 2010 3080: 3073: 3072:Roselaar 2010 3068: 3061: 3057: 3056:Roselaar 2010 3052: 3044: 3037: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3014: 3009: 3003:, p. 28. 3002: 2997: 2991:, p. 21. 2990: 2985: 2978: 2973: 2971: 2964:, p. 85. 2963: 2962:Lintott 1994b 2958: 2956: 2948: 2947:Roselaar 2010 2943: 2936: 2935:Lintott 1994b 2931: 2925:, p. 84. 2924: 2923:Lintott 1994b 2919: 2917: 2915: 2907: 2904: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2866: 2859: 2858:Lintott 1994b 2854: 2848:, p. 83. 2847: 2846:Lintott 1994b 2842: 2835: 2830: 2823: 2822:Lintott 1994b 2818: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2795:(2): 244–45. 2794: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2772: 2771:Ad Caes. sen. 2768: 2762: 2755: 2750: 2743: 2738: 2732:, p. 78. 2731: 2730:Lintott 1994b 2727: 2723: 2718: 2712:, p. 78. 2711: 2710:Lintott 1994b 2706: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2680:, p. 68. 2679: 2674: 2672: 2664: 2659: 2652: 2646: 2640:, p. 66. 2639: 2634: 2627: 2622: 2616:, p. 65. 2615: 2610: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2587: 2582: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2559: 2558:Crawford 1974 2554: 2547: 2546:Roselaar 2010 2542: 2536:, p. 77. 2535: 2534:Lintott 1994b 2530: 2523: 2518: 2516: 2509:, p. 76. 2508: 2507:Lintott 1994b 2504: 2499: 2493:, p. 58. 2492: 2487: 2480: 2479:Roselaar 2010 2475: 2468: 2467:Roselaar 2010 2463: 2456: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2432: 2428: 2427:Roselaar 2010 2423: 2416: 2415:Roselaar 2010 2411: 2409: 2401: 2398: 2397: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2339: 2330: 2324:, p. 73. 2323: 2322:Lintott 1994b 2319: 2314: 2308:, p. 66. 2307: 2306:Lintott 1994b 2302: 2295: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2267:(4): 358–69. 2266: 2262: 2258: 2251: 2245:, p. 50. 2244: 2239: 2232: 2227: 2221:, p. 69. 2220: 2219:Lintott 1994b 2215: 2209:, p. 68. 2208: 2207:Lintott 1994b 2203: 2196: 2195:Roselaar 2010 2191: 2189: 2181: 2180:Roselaar 2010 2176: 2169: 2164: 2157: 2152: 2145: 2144:Roselaar 2010 2140: 2133: 2132:Lintott 1994b 2129: 2128:Roselaar 2010 2124: 2118:, p. 38. 2117: 2112: 2105: 2104:Roselaar 2010 2100: 2093: 2092:Roselaar 2010 2088: 2081: 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