236:
interfering RNA (siRNA), chromatin remodelers, histone variants, and other epigenetic factors. However, TEs play a wide variety of important biological functions. When TEs are introduced into a new host, such as from a virus, they increase genetic diversity. In some cases, host organisms find new functions for the proteins which arise from expressing TEs in an evolutionary process called TE exaptation. Recent research also suggests that TEs serve to maintain higher-order chromatin structure and 3D genome organization. Furthermore, TEs contribute to regulating the expression of other genes by serving as distal
361:
393:
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that can stably incorporate tandem repeats up to 30kb. Expression of repeats is prohibited by the transcriptional terminators in the vector. The second step involves the use of exonuclease III. The enzyme can delete nucleotide at the 3' end which results in the production of a unidirectional deletion of SSR fragments. Finally, this product which has deleted fragments is multiplied and analyzed with colony PCR. The sequence is then built by an ordered sequencing of a set of clones containing different deletions.
117:. Discoveries of deleterious repetitive DNA-related diseases stimulated further interest in this area of study. In the 2000s, the data from full eukaryotic genome sequencing enabled the identification of different promoters, enhancers, and regulatory RNAs which are all coded by repetitive regions. Today, the structural and regulatory roles of repetitive DNA sequences remain an active area of research.
189:
228:) are typically 100-300 base pairs and no longer than 600 base pairs. Long-terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTRs) are a third major class of retrotransposons and are characterized by highly repetitive sequences as the ends of the repeat. When a transposable element does not proceed through RNA as an intermediate, it is called a
235:
Transposable elements are estimated to constitute 45% of the human genome. Since uncontrolled propagation of TEs could wreak havoc on the genome, many regulatory mechanisms have evolved to silence their spread, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including small
152:
are repeated sequences which are directly adjacent to each other in the genome. Tandem repeats may vary in the number of nucleotides comprising the repeated sequence, as well as the number of times the sequence repeats. When the repeating sequence is only 2–10 nucleotides long, the repeat is referred
208:
are identical or similar DNA sequences which are found in different locations throughout the genome. Interspersed repeats are distinguished from tandem repeats in that the repeated sequences are not directly adjacent to each other but instead may be scattered among different chromosomes or far apart
168:
in eukaryotic organisms. Recombination is when two homologous chromosomes align, break, and rejoin to swap pieces. Recombination is important as a source of genetic diversity, as a mechanism for repairing damaged DNA, and a necessary step in the appropriate segregation of chromosomes in meiosis. The
468:
is a disorder that presents as muscle weakness and consists of two main types: DM1 and DM2. Both types of myotonic dystrophy are due to expanded DNA sequences. In DM1 the DNA sequence that is expanded is CTG while in DM2 it is CCTG. These two sequences are found on different genes with the expanded
65:
While some repeated DNA sequences are important for cellular functioning and genome maintenance, other repetitive sequences can be harmful. Many repetitive DNA sequences have been linked to human diseases such as
Huntington's disease and Friedreich's ataxia. Some repetitive elements are neutral and
520:
from short reads simply cannot determine the length of a repetitive part. This issue is particularly serious for microsatellites, which are made of tiny 1-6bp repeat units. Although they are difficult to sequence, these short repeats have great value in DNA fingerprinting and evolutionary studies.
452:
is a type of ataxia that has an expanded repeat sequence GAA in the frataxin gene. The frataxin gene is responsible for producing the frataxin protein, which is a mitochondrial protein involved in energy production and cellular respiration. The expanded GAA sequence results in the silencing of the
91:
at the Cold Spring Harbor
Symposium. McClintock's work set the stage for the discovery of repeated sequences because transposition, centromere structure, and telomere structure are all possible through repetitive elements, yet this was not fully understood at the time. The term "repeated sequence"
524:
Bustos. et al. proposed one method of sequencing long stretches of repetitive DNA. The method combines the use of a linear vector for stabilization and exonuclease III for deletion of continuing simple sequence repeats (SSRs) rich regions. First, SSR-rich fragments are cloned into a linear vector
286:
occur when a nucleotide sequence is repeated in the inverse direction. For example, a direct repeat of "CATCAT" would be another repetition of "CATCAT". In contrast, the inverted repeated would be "ATGATG". When there are no nucleotides separating the inverted repeat, such as "CATCATATGATG", the
96:
and D. E. Kohne in 1968; they found out that more than half of the eukaryotic genomes were repetitive DNA through their experiments on reassociation of DNA. Although the repetitive DNA sequences were conserved and ubiquitous, their biological role was yet unknown. In the 1990s, more research was
389:. In Huntington's disease the expansion of the trinucleotide sequence CAG encodes for a mutant huntingtin protein with an expanded polyglutamine domain. This domain causes the protein to form aggregates in nerve cells preventing normal cellular function and resulting in neurodegeneration.
184:
are the highly compact regions of chromosomes which join sister chromatids together and also allow the mitotic spindle to attach and separate sister chromatids during cell division. Centromeres are composed of a 177 base pair tandem repeat named the α-satellite repeat. Pericentromeric
196:
Some repetitive sequences, such as those with structural roles discussed above, play roles necessary for proper biological functioning. Other tandem repeats have deleterious roles which drive diseases. Many other tandem repeats, however, have unknown or poorly understood functions.
53:
Repeated sequences are categorized into different classes depending on features such as structure, length, location, origin, and mode of multiplication. The disposition of repetitive elements throughout the genome can consist either in directly adjacent arrays called
416:
Because the gene resides on the X chromosome, females who have two X chromosomes are less effected than males who only have on X chromosome and one Y chromosome because the second X chromosome can compensate for the silencing of the gene on the other X chromosome.
213:(TEs), mobile sequences which can be "cut and pasted" or "copied and pasted" into different places in the genome. TEs were originally called "jumping genes" for their ability to move, yet this term is somewhat misleading as not all TEs are discrete genes.
70:
occurs. However, an abundance of neutral repeats can still influence genome evolution as they accumulate over time. Overall, repeated sequences are an important area of focus because they can provide insight into human diseases and genome evolution.
185:
heterochromatin, the DNA which surrounds the centromere and is important for structural maintenance, is composed of a mixture of different satellite subfamilies including the α-, β- and γ-satellites as well as HSATII, HSATIII, and sn5 repeats.
269:
strands. This increase in recombination was attributed to increased intrachromosomal recombinational repair. By this process, mitomycin C damaged DNA in one sequence is repaired using intact information from the other repeated sequence.
477:
gene. The two genes don't encode for proteins unlike other disorders like
Huntington's disease or Fragile X syndrome. It has been shown, however, that there is a link between RNA toxicity and the repeat sequences in DM1 and DM2.
243:
The prevalence of interspersed elements in the genome has garnered attention for more research on their origins and functions. Some specific interspersed elements have been characterized, such as the Alu repeat and LINE1.
351:
response and that repeat expansions may impair specific DNA repair pathways. Faulty repair of DNA damages in repeat sequences may cause further expansion of these sequences, thus setting up a vicious cycle of pathology.
1724:
Lebel EG, Masson J, Bogucki A, Paszkowski J. Stress-induced intrachromosomal recombination in plant somatic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Jan 15;90(2):422-6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.2.422. PMID: 11607349; PMCID:
441:). Similar to Huntington's disease, the polyglutamine tail created due to this trinucleotide expansion causes aggregation of proteins, preventing normal cellular function and causing neurodegeneration.
42:
is repetitive, with over two-thirds of the sequence consisting of repetitive elements in humans. Some of these repeated sequences are necessary for maintaining important genome structures such as
278:
While tandem and interspersed repeats are distinguished based on their location in the genome, direct and inverted repeats are distinguished based on the ordering of the nucleotide bases.
412:
gene on the X chromosome. This gene produces the RNA-binding protein FMRP. In the case of
Fragile X syndrome the repeated sequence makes the gene unstable and therefore silences the gene
220:. Just as tandem repeats are further subcategorized based on the length of the repeating sequence, there are many different types of retrotransposons. Long interspersed nuclear elements (
762:
Britten RJ, Kohne DE (August 1968). "Repeated sequences in DNA. Hundreds of thousands of copies of DNA sequences have been incorporated into the genomes of higher organisms".
3040:
2771:
1735:
Pearson CE, Zorbas H, Price GB, Zannis-Hadjopoulos M (October 1996). "Inverted repeats, stem-loops, and cruciforms: significance for initiation of DNA replication".
1442:
Wicker T, Sabot F, Hua-Van A, Bennetzen JL, Capy P, Chalhoub B, et al. (December 2007). "A unified classification system for eukaryotic transposable elements".
62:. Tandem repeats and interspersed repeats are further categorized into subclasses based on the length of the repeated sequence and/or the mode of multiplication.
2339:"How do C9ORF72 repeat expansions cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia: can we learn from other noncoding repeat expansion disorders?"
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161:. For minisatellites and microsatellites, the number of times the sequence repeats at a single locus can range from twice to hundreds of times.
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Many researchers have historically left out repetitive sequences when analyzing and publishing whole genome data due to technical limitations.
385:). This gene is responsible for encoding the protein huntingtin which plays a role in preventing apoptosis, otherwise known as cell death, and
180:
structures which protect the ends of chromosomal DNA from degradation. Repetitive elements are enriched in the middle of chromosomes as well.
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In addition to playing an important role in recombination, tandem repeats also play important structural roles in the genome. For example,
169:
presence of repeated sequence DNA makes it easier for areas of homology to align, thereby controlling when and where recombination occurs.
2539:
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sequence is called a palindromic repeat. Inverted repeats can play structural roles in DNA and RNA by forming stem loops and cruciforms.
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Tandem repeats have a wide variety of biological functions in the genome. For example, minisatellites are often hotspots of meiotic
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1748:
2843:
2748:
1890:
Cattaneo E, Zuccato C, Tartari M (December 2005). "Normal huntingtin function: an alternative approach to
Huntington's disease".
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gene leads to issues with mitochondrial functioning as a whole and can present phenotypically in patients as difficulty walking.
216:
Transposable elements that are transcribed into RNA, reverse-transcribed into DNA, then reintegrated into the genome are called
2868:
232:. Other classification systems refer to retrotransposons as "Class I" and DNA transposons as "Class II" transposable elements.
295:
For humans, some repeated DNA sequences are associated with diseases. Specifically, tandem repeat sequences, underlie several
545:
2050:
Hagerman RJ, Berry-Kravis E, Hazlett HC, Bailey DB, Moine H, Kooy RF, et al. (September 2017). "Fragile X syndrome".
2098:"DNA repair and neurological disease: From molecular understanding to the development of diagnostics and model organisms"
1496:"The Evolutionary Volte-Face of Transposable Elements: From Harmful Jumping Genes to Major Drivers of Genetic Innovation"
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2712:
225:
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2735:
2241:"Frataxin gene editing rescues Friedreich's ataxia pathology in dorsal root ganglia organoid-derived sensory neurons"
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221:
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1593:"Role of transposable elements in genomic rearrangement, evolution, gene regulation and epigenetics in primates"
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3289:
1683:"Epigenetic regulation of transcription and possible functions of mammalian short interspersed elements, SINEs"
1333:
Miga KH (September 2015). "Completing the human genome: the progress and challenge of satellite DNA assembly".
1290:
Miga KH (September 2015). "Completing the human genome: the progress and challenge of satellite DNA assembly".
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320:
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1108:"Meiotic recombination hotspots: shaping the genome and insights into hypervariable minisatellite DNA change"
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is a neurodegenerative disorder which is due to the expansion of repeated trinucleotide sequence CAG in
2883:
2525:
1976:"The biological function of the Huntingtin protein and its relevance to Huntington's Disease pathology"
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occur when there is an absence of selection for specific sequences depending on how transposition or
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Not all diseases caused by repeated DNA sequences are trinucleotide repeat diseases. The diseases
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491:
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134:
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Padeken J, Zeller P, Gasser SM (April 2015). "Repeat DNA in genome organization and stability".
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2935:
2015:
Penagarikano O, Mulle JG, Warren ST (2007-09-01). "The pathophysiology of fragile x syndrome".
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438:
426:
308:
1634:"New insights into the functional role of retrotransposon dynamics in mammalian somatic cells"
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Shapiro JA, von
Sternberg R (May 2005). "Why repetitive DNA is essential to genome function".
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3534:
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Mazzara PG, Muggeo S, Luoni M, Massimino L, Zaghi M, Valverde PT, et al. (August 2020).
969:
Joly-Lopez Z, Bureau TE (April 2018). "Exaptation of transposable element coding sequences".
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first intron resulting in loss of function in the frataxin protein. The loss of a functional
67:
3137:
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Abugable AA, Morris JL, Palminha NM, Zaksauskaite R, Ray S, El-Khamisy SF (September 2019).
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containing pathogenic CAG repeats often encode proteins that themselves have a role in the
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over successive generations can lead to increasingly severe manifestations of the disease.
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157:. When the repeating sequence is 10–60 nucleotides long, the repeat is referred to as a
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are composed mainly of tandem TTAGGG repeats. These repeats fold into highly organized
114:
80:
3018:
1935:"Huntingtin is a scaffolding protein in the ATM oxidative DNA damage response complex"
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109:. DNA-dispersed repeats were increasingly recognized as a potential source of genetic
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trinucleotide repeat sequences that underlie several types of spinocerebellar ataxias
316:
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110:
106:
1919:
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1471:
1319:
1200:
1030:"Short Tandem Repeat Expansions and RNA-Mediated Pathogenesis in Myotonic Dystrophy"
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93:
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936:
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102:
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1933:
Maiuri T, Mocle AJ, Hung CL, Xia J, van Roon-Mom WM, Truant R (January 2017).
1389:
1303:
982:
810:
224:) are typically 3-7 kilobases in length. Short interspersed nuclear elements (
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3774:
3617:
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3578:
3211:
3204:
2940:
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279:
158:
149:
98:
55:
16:
Patterns of nucleic acids that occur in multiple copies throughout the genome
481:
125:
Many repeat sequences are likely to be non-functional, decaying remnants of
3796:
3639:
3599:
3566:
3338:
3324:
3222:
2952:
2485:
2434:
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2001:
1960:
1911:
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1708:
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1618:
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1463:
1397:
1354:
1311:
1252:
1192:
1065:
990:
955:
818:
748:
727:
McCLINTOCK B (1951-01-01). "Chromosome organization and genic expression".
689:
633:
396:
Fragile X repeated CCG DNA sequence in comparison to a normal X chromosome.
282:
occur when a nucleotide sequence is repeated with the same directionality.
177:
1764:
1512:
1346:
1151:
896:
853:
783:
670:
34:) are short or long patterns that occur in multiple copies throughout the
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3634:
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2947:
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2720:
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1951:
1934:
1609:
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1234:
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262:
39:
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3111:
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2776:
2337:
van
Blitterswijk M, DeJesus-Hernandez M, Rademakers R (December 2012).
1858:
1412:"Interspersed repetitive sequences - Latest research and news | Nature"
386:
377:
340:
181:
138:
84:
47:
2415:
1749:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4644(199610)63:1<1::AID-JCB1>3.0.CO;2-3
1699:
1682:
598:"Repetitive elements may comprise over two-thirds of the human genome"
596:
de Koning AP, Gu W, Castoe TA, Batzer MA, Pollock DD (December 2011).
83:
first observed DNA transposition and illustrated the functions of the
3733:
3718:
3705:
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888:
1903:
1734:
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3556:
3551:
3442:
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3359:
3261:
3066:
3002:
2888:
2652:
2548:
1791:"Repeat instability during DNA repair: Insights from model systems"
324:
173:
130:
88:
43:
2095:
1843:"The central role of DNA damage and repair in CAG repeat diseases"
3746:
3624:
3408:
3393:
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1631:
496:
3837:
3815:
3512:
3435:
3430:
3195:
3086:
3081:
2997:
2502:
867:
Orgel LE, Crick FH, Sapienza C (December 1980). "Selfish DNA".
540:
105:
repeats because of their importance in DNA-based forensics and
35:
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652:
Lower SE, Dion-Côté AM, Clark AG, Barbash DA (November 2019).
3319:
3311:
3129:
3091:
2743:
1632:
Mangiavacchi A, Liu P, Della Valle F, Orlando V (July 2021).
1219:"Covalent ligation studies on the human telomere quadruplex"
500:
gene, causing RNA toxicity that leads to neurodegeneration.
494:
are caused by hexanucleotide GGGGCC repeat sequences in the
3825:
3517:
3058:
2238:
1441:
535:
372:
364:
Image of the repeated DNA sequence in
Huntington's disease.
344:
255:
between chromosomal repeated sequences in somatic cells of
2139:"Genetic and molecular aspects of spinocerebellar ataxias"
651:
408:
is caused by the expansion of the DNA sequence CCG in the
799:
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482:
2190:"Friedreich Ataxia: current status and future prospects"
3048:
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2388:
1889:
1795:
Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
1789:
Usdin K, House NC, Freudenreich CH (22 January 2015).
1788:
290:
209:
on the same chromosome. Most interspersed repeats are
137:" DNA. Nevertheless, occasionally some repeats may be
299:, particularly trinucleotide repeat diseases such as
58:
or in repeats dispersed throughout the genome called
1590:
1165:
Janssen A, Colmenares SU, Karpen GH (October 2018).
796:
97:
conducted to elucidate the evolutionary dynamics of
1375:
840:Ohno S (1972). "So much "junk" DNA in our genome".
729:
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology
473:gene and the expanded sequence in DM1 found on the
38:. In many organisms, a significant fraction of the
2389:De Bustos A, Cuadrado A, Jouve N (November 2016).
1932:
1494:Nicolau M, Picault N, Moissiard G (October 2021).
866:
1547:
247:
3850:
2391:"Sequencing of long stretches of repetitive DNA"
1973:
968:
2091:
2089:
1784:
1782:
1171:Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology
1027:
2450:"The case for not masking away repetitive DNA"
2295:
917:
273:
3034:
2533:
1836:
1834:
1378:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
971:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
2086:
2017:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
1779:
1720:
1718:
761:
566:Polymorphic simple sequence repeats database
2136:
1840:
1548:Kramerov DA, Vassetzky NS (2011). "SINEs".
1034:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
3041:
3027:
2540:
2526:
1831:
1680:
726:
420:
2510:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
2475:
2465:
2424:
2414:
2362:
2313:
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2215:
2205:
2164:
2154:
2113:
1991:
1950:
1866:
1814:
1715:
1698:
1657:
1608:
1591:Lee HE, Ayarpadikannan S, Kim HS (2015).
1521:
1511:
1242:
1182:
1167:"Heterochromatin: Guardian of the Genome"
1141:
1055:
1045:
945:
935:
679:
669:
654:"Special Issue: Repetitive DNA Sequences"
623:
613:
261:was found to be increased by exposure to
1974:Schulte J, Littleton JT (January 2011).
1216:
391:
359:
240:and transcription factor binding sites.
187:
2447:
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355:
265:, a bifunctional alkylating agent that
200:
3851:
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2296:Hahn C, Salajegheh MK (January 2016).
2143:Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment
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444:
120:
3022:
2521:
2384:
2382:
2029:10.1146/annurev.genom.8.080706.092249
1543:
1541:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
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1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1212:
1210:
1184:10.1146/annurev-cellbio-100617-062653
1105:
1101:
1099:
1028:Sznajder ŁJ, Swanson MS (July 2019).
460:
400:
329:These trinucleotide repeat expansions
153:to as a short tandem repeat (STR) or
2187:
1638:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
1550:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. RNA
1332:
1289:
839:
647:
645:
643:
546:Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure
439:SCA2; SCA3; SCA6; SCA7; SCA12; SCA17
1841:Massey TH, Jones L (January 2018).
918:Palazzo AF, Gregory TR (May 2014).
469:sequence in DM2 being found on the
291:Repeated sequences in human disease
13:
2609:Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite
2379:
1538:
1478:
1428:
1207:
1096:
343:synthesis. It has been noted that
14:
3870:
2496:
640:
144:
1737:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
503:
2441:
2330:
2289:
2232:
2181:
2137:Honti V, Vécsei L (June 2005).
2130:
2052:Nature Reviews. Disease Primers
2043:
2008:
1967:
1926:
1883:
1847:Disease Models & Mechanisms
1728:
1674:
1625:
1584:
1404:
1369:
1326:
1283:
1259:
1158:
1072:
1021:
997:
962:
321:Trinucleotide repeat expansions
3695:Last universal common ancestor
3290:Defective interfering particle
2613:Trinucleotide repeat disorders
1217:Qi J, Shafer RH (2005-06-02).
911:
860:
842:Brookhaven Symposia in Biology
833:
790:
755:
720:
696:
589:
387:repair of oxidative DNA damage
248:Intrachromosomal recombination
192:Tandem and interspersed repeat
1:
3831:Clonally transmissible cancer
3267:Satellite-like nucleic acids
2600:Variable number tandem repeat
1124:10.1016/s0070-2153(08)60171-4
582:
488:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
2355:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32835a3efb
2343:Current Opinion in Neurology
2302:Iranian Journal of Neurology
2115:10.1016/j.dnarep.2019.102669
1892:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1807:10.3109/10409238.2014.999192
937:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004351
776:10.1126/science.161.3841.529
615:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002384
129:, these have been labelled "
7:
1980:Current Trends in Neurology
1687:Genes & Genetic Systems
1597:Genes & Genetic Systems
741:10.1101/sqb.1951.016.01.004
528:
274:Direct and inverted repeats
10:
3875:
3387:Class II or DNA transposon
3382:Class I or retrotransposon
2503:Function of Repetitive DNA
2265:10.1038/s41467-020-17954-3
2156:10.2147/nedt.1.2.125.61044
1650:10.1007/s00018-021-03851-5
514:next-generation sequencing
508:Repetitive DNA is hard to
74:
3757:
3700:Earliest known life forms
3685:
3598:
3574:Repeated sequences in DNA
3466:
3348:
3337:
3310:
3282:
3232:
3221:
3194:
3183:
3128:
3057:
2968:
2921:
2789:
2757:
2734:
2711:
2702:
2693:
2668:
2628:
2585:
2576:
2567:
2467:10.1186/s13100-018-0120-9
2448:Slotkin RK (1 May 2018).
2207:10.1186/s40673-017-0062-x
1390:10.1016/j.gde.2015.03.009
1304:10.1007/s10577-015-9488-2
983:10.1016/j.gde.2018.02.011
811:10.1017/s1464793104006657
3859:Repetitive DNA sequences
3547:Endogenous viral element
3365:Horizontal gene transfer
2512:Medical Subject Headings
2194:Cerebellum & Ataxias
1939:Human Molecular Genetics
1444:Nature Reviews. Genetics
297:human disease conditions
253:Homologous recombination
166:homologous recombination
3244:dsDNA satellite virus (
920:"The case for junk DNA"
492:frontotemporal dementia
427:spinocerebellar ataxias
421:Spinocerebellar ataxias
309:spinocerebellar ataxias
3802:Helper dependent virus
3118:Biological dark matter
3008:Protein tandem repeats
2936:Tandemly arrayed genes
2508:DNA+Repetitious+Region
1223:Nucleic Acids Research
397:
365:
193:
3562:Endogenous retrovirus
3535:Origin of replication
3251:ssDNA satellite virus
3241:ssRNA satellite virus
2245:Nature Communications
1681:Ichiyanagi K (2013).
1513:10.3390/cells10112952
1347:10.1007/s004390050508
708:www.sciencedirect.com
671:10.3390/genes10110896
395:
363:
211:transposable elements
191:
141:for other functions.
127:Transposable elements
3506:Secondary chromosome
3501:Extrachromosomal DNA
3377:Transposable element
2981:Pathogenicity island
2064:10.1038/nrdp.2017.65
1610:10.1266/ggs.15-00016
1047:10.3390/ijms20133365
369:Huntington's disease
356:Huntington's disease
301:Huntington's disease
206:Interspersed repeats
201:Interspersed repeats
60:interspersed repeats
3742:Model lipid bilayer
3584:Interspersed repeat
2407:2016NatSR...636665D
2257:2020NatCo..11.4178M
1335:Chromosome Research
1292:Chromosome Research
881:1980Natur.288..645O
516:techniques because
450:Friedreich's ataxia
445:Friedreich's Ataxia
317:Friedreich's ataxia
121:Types and functions
24:repetitive elements
3052:organic structures
2931:Gene amplification
2395:Scientific Reports
1952:10.1093/hmg/ddw395
1859:10.1242/dmm.031930
1235:10.1093/nar/gki632
466:Myotonic dystrophy
461:Myotonic dystrophy
406:Fragile X syndrome
401:Fragile X syndrome
398:
366:
331:may occur through
313:myotonic dystrophy
305:fragile X syndrome
194:
92:was first used by
81:Barbara McClintock
20:Repeated sequences
3846:
3845:
3787:Non-cellular life
3594:
3593:
3333:
3332:
3306:
3305:
3260:ssRNA satellite (
3016:
3015:
2917:
2916:
2785:
2784:
2689:
2688:
2578:Repeated sequence
2553:repeated sequence
2416:10.1038/srep36665
1700:10.1266/ggs.88.19
1644:(13): 5245–5256.
1229:(10): 3185–3192.
1106:Wahls WP (1998).
1084:meshb.nlm.nih.gov
875:(5792): 645–646.
770:(3841): 529–540.
556:Intergenic region
518:sequence assembly
258:Nicotiana tabacum
107:molecular ecology
3866:
3523:Gene duplication
3346:
3345:
3342:self-replication
3230:
3229:
3192:
3191:
3050:Self-replicating
3043:
3036:
3029:
3020:
3019:
2993:Low copy repeats
2986:Symbiosis island
2923:Gene duplication
2709:
2708:
2700:
2699:
2583:
2582:
2561:gene duplication
2542:
2535:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2490:
2489:
2479:
2469:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2428:
2418:
2386:
2377:
2376:
2366:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2317:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2276:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2219:
2209:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2168:
2158:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2117:
2093:
2084:
2083:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1995:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1870:
1853:(1): dmm031930.
1838:
1829:
1828:
1818:
1786:
1777:
1776:
1732:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1712:
1702:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1661:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1612:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1545:
1536:
1535:
1525:
1515:
1491:
1476:
1475:
1439:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1246:
1214:
1205:
1204:
1186:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1145:
1103:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1059:
1049:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1015:
1001:
995:
994:
966:
960:
959:
949:
939:
915:
909:
908:
889:10.1038/288645a0
864:
858:
857:
837:
831:
830:
794:
788:
787:
759:
753:
752:
724:
718:
717:
715:
714:
700:
694:
693:
683:
673:
649:
638:
637:
627:
617:
608:(12): e1002384.
593:
284:Inverted repeats
218:retrotransposons
94:Roy John Britten
3874:
3873:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3865:
3864:
3863:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3792:Synthetic virus
3780:Artificial cell
3753:
3681:
3590:
3479:RNA replication
3474:DNA replication
3462:
3453:Group II intron
3351:
3341:
3329:
3320:Mammalian prion
3302:
3278:
3257:dsRNA satellite
3254:ssDNA satellite
3224:
3217:
3186:
3179:
3124:
3053:
3047:
3017:
3012:
2964:
2913:
2781:
2753:
2730:
2704:Retrotransposon
2685:
2676:Inverted repeat
2664:
2649:DNA transposon
2645:Retrotransposon
2640:Gene conversion
2631:
2624:
2621:
2572:
2563:
2546:
2499:
2494:
2493:
2446:
2442:
2387:
2380:
2335:
2331:
2294:
2290:
2237:
2233:
2188:Bürk K (2017).
2186:
2182:
2135:
2131:
2094:
2087:
2048:
2044:
2013:
2009:
1972:
1968:
1931:
1927:
1904:10.1038/nrn1806
1898:(12): 919–930.
1888:
1884:
1839:
1832:
1787:
1780:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1716:
1679:
1675:
1630:
1626:
1589:
1585:
1562:10.1002/wrna.91
1546:
1539:
1492:
1479:
1456:10.1038/nrg2165
1450:(12): 973–982.
1440:
1429:
1420:
1418:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1374:
1370:
1331:
1327:
1288:
1284:
1275:
1273:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1215:
1208:
1163:
1159:
1134:
1104:
1097:
1088:
1086:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1026:
1022:
1013:
1011:
1005:"Tandem Repeat"
1003:
1002:
998:
967:
963:
930:(5): e1004351.
916:
912:
865:
861:
838:
834:
795:
791:
760:
756:
725:
721:
712:
710:
702:
701:
697:
650:
641:
594:
590:
585:
580:
531:
506:
484:
463:
447:
423:
403:
358:
337:DNA replication
333:strand slippage
293:
276:
250:
203:
147:
123:
77:
28:repeating units
22:(also known as
17:
12:
11:
5:
3872:
3862:
3861:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3835:
3834:
3833:
3828:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3789:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3767:
3761:
3759:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3702:
3697:
3691:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3667:
3659:
3657:Kappa organism
3654:
3653:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3622:
3621:
3620:
3615:
3604:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3532:
3531:
3530:
3528:Non-coding DNA
3525:
3520:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3448:Group I intron
3445:
3440:
3439:
3438:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3414:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3370:Genomic island
3367:
3356:
3354:
3350:Mobile genetic
3343:
3335:
3334:
3331:
3330:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3316:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3271:
3265:
3258:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3242:
3238:
3236:
3227:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3215:
3208:
3200:
3198:
3189:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3175:dsDNA-RT virus
3172:
3170:ssRNA-RT virus
3167:
3165:(−)ssRNA virus
3162:
3160:(+)ssRNA virus
3157:
3152:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3134:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3105:Incertae sedis
3101:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3074:
3069:
3063:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3046:
3045:
3038:
3031:
3023:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2976:Genomic island
2972:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2933:
2927:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2791:DNA transposon
2787:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2763:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2717:
2715:
2706:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2647:
2642:
2636:
2634:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2619:Macrosatellite
2616:
2606:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2587:Tandem repeats
2580:
2574:
2573:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2545:
2544:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2505:
2498:
2497:External links
2495:
2492:
2491:
2440:
2378:
2349:(6): 689–700.
2329:
2288:
2231:
2180:
2149:(2): 125–133.
2129:
2085:
2042:
2023:(1): 109–129.
2007:
1966:
1945:(2): 395–406.
1925:
1882:
1830:
1801:(2): 142–167.
1778:
1727:
1714:
1673:
1624:
1603:(5): 245–257.
1583:
1556:(6): 772–786.
1537:
1477:
1427:
1416:www.nature.com
1403:
1368:
1341:(3): 421–426.
1325:
1298:(3): 421–426.
1282:
1258:
1206:
1177:(1): 265–288.
1157:
1132:
1095:
1080:"MeSH Browser"
1071:
1020:
996:
961:
910:
859:
832:
805:(2): 227–250.
789:
754:
719:
695:
639:
587:
586:
584:
581:
579:
578:
573:
571:Regulator gene
568:
563:
558:
553:
551:Genetic marker
548:
543:
538:
532:
530:
527:
505:
502:
483:
480:
462:
459:
446:
443:
422:
419:
402:
399:
357:
354:
292:
289:
280:Direct repeats
275:
272:
267:crosslinks DNA
249:
246:
230:DNA transposon
202:
199:
155:microsatellite
150:Tandem repeats
146:
145:Tandem repeats
143:
122:
119:
103:microsatellite
79:In the 1950s,
76:
73:
56:tandem repeats
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3871:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3839:
3836:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3813:
3811:
3810:Nanobacterium
3807:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3775:Cell division
3773:
3772:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3756:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3688:
3684:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3623:
3619:
3618:Hydrogenosome
3616:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3608:Mitochondrion
3606:
3605:
3603:
3601:
3600:Endosymbiosis
3597:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3579:Tandem repeat
3577:
3576:
3575:
3572:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3536:
3533:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3484:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3467:Other aspects
3465:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3347:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3281:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3212:Avsunviroidae
3209:
3207:
3206:
3205:Pospiviroidae
3202:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3059:Cellular life
3056:
3051:
3044:
3039:
3037:
3032:
3030:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2987:
2984:
2982:
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2941:Ribosomal DNA
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2681:Direct repeat
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2604:Minisatellite
2601:
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2595:Satellite DNA
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2018:
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924:PLOS Genetics
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602:PLOS Genetics
599:
592:
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576:Satellite DNA
574:
572:
569:
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564:
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561:Noncoding DNA
559:
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504:Biotechnology
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159:minisatellite
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128:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
99:minisatellite
95:
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86:
82:
72:
69:
68:crossing over
63:
61:
57:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3797:Viral vector
3640:Gerontoplast
3573:
3567:Transpoviron
3339:Nucleic acid
3325:Fungal prion
3223:Helper-virus
3210:
3203:
3110:
3103:
2953:Gene cluster
2721:Alu sequence
2630:Interspersed
2577:
2552:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2401:(1): 36665.
2398:
2394:
2346:
2342:
2332:
2308:(1): 46–53.
2305:
2301:
2291:
2248:
2244:
2234:
2197:
2193:
2183:
2146:
2142:
2132:
2105:
2101:
2058:(1): 17065.
2055:
2051:
2045:
2020:
2016:
2010:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1942:
1938:
1928:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1850:
1846:
1798:
1794:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1693:(1): 19–29.
1690:
1686:
1676:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1600:
1596:
1586:
1553:
1549:
1506:(11): 2952.
1503:
1499:
1447:
1443:
1419:. Retrieved
1415:
1406:
1381:
1377:
1371:
1338:
1334:
1328:
1295:
1291:
1285:
1274:. Retrieved
1270:
1267:"Centromere"
1261:
1226:
1222:
1174:
1170:
1160:
1115:
1111:
1087:. Retrieved
1083:
1074:
1040:(13): 3365.
1037:
1033:
1023:
1012:. Retrieved
1008:
999:
974:
970:
964:
927:
923:
913:
872:
868:
862:
845:
841:
835:
802:
798:
792:
767:
763:
757:
732:
728:
722:
711:. Retrieved
707:
698:
661:
657:
605:
601:
591:
523:
507:
495:
485:
474:
470:
464:
454:
448:
425:The disease
424:
413:
409:
404:
382:
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367:
294:
277:
256:
251:
242:
234:
215:
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195:
178:G quadruplex
171:
163:
148:
124:
78:
64:
52:
31:
27:
23:
19:
18:
3821:Cancer cell
3687:Abiogenesis
3635:Chromoplast
3630:Chloroplast
3413:Degradative
3155:dsRNA virus
3150:ssDNA virus
3143:Giant virus
3138:dsDNA virus
2948:Gene family
2859:Tc1/mariner
2814:EnSpm/CACTA
2251:(1): 4178.
1743:(1): 1–22.
848:: 366–370.
664:(11): 896.
263:mitomycin C
182:Centromeres
48:centromeres
40:genomic DNA
3729:Proteinoid
3724:Coacervate
3677:Nitroplast
3670:Trophosome
3665:Bacteriome
3650:Apicoplast
3645:Leucoplast
3486:Chromosome
3404:Resistance
3112:Parakaryon
2960:Pseudogene
2777:retroposon
2695:Transposon
2557:transposon
2454:Mobile DNA
2108:: 102669.
2102:DNA Repair
1421:2022-09-30
1276:2022-09-30
1271:Genome.gov
1089:2022-09-30
1014:2022-09-30
1009:Genome.gov
713:2022-10-04
583:References
378:huntingtin
349:DNA damage
341:DNA repair
339:or during
307:, several
115:regulation
85:centromere
3738:Research
3719:Protocell
3458:Retrozyme
3417:Virulence
3399:Fertility
3246:Virophage
3234:Satellite
3225:dependent
3077:Eukaryota
2879:P element
2829:Harbinger
2570:Repeatome
2460:(1): 15.
1986:: 65–78.
1757:1097-4644
1578:222199613
1384:: 12–19.
1118:: 37–75.
977:: 34–42.
735:: 13–47.
375:1 of the
238:enhancers
174:telomeres
111:variation
44:telomeres
3853:Category
3765:Organism
3758:See also
3734:Sulphobe
3711:Ribozyme
3706:RNA life
3613:Mitosome
3557:Prophage
3552:Provirus
3540:Replicon
3496:Circular
3443:Phagemid
3360:Mobilome
3352:elements
3262:Virusoid
3185:Subviral
3097:Protista
3082:Animalia
3067:Bacteria
3003:Telomere
2969:See also
2909:Zisupton
2889:Polinton
2884:PiggyBac
2839:Helitron
2658:Helitron
2653:Polinton
2549:Genetics
2486:29743957
2435:27819354
2373:23160421
2324:27141276
2283:32826895
2226:28405347
2200:(1): 4.
2175:18568057
2124:31331820
2072:28960184
2037:17477822
2002:22180703
1961:28017939
1920:10119487
1912:16288298
1877:29419417
1825:25608779
1773:22204780
1725:PMC45674
1709:23676707
1668:33990851
1619:26781081
1570:21976282
1532:34831175
1472:32132898
1464:17984973
1398:25917896
1355:26363799
1320:15229421
1312:26363799
1253:15933211
1201:51718804
1193:30044650
1066:31323950
991:29525543
956:24809441
827:18866824
819:15921050
749:14942727
690:31698818
634:22144907
529:See also
510:sequence
429:has CAG
325:germline
89:telomere
3747:Jeewanu
3661:Organs
3625:Plastid
3425:Cryptic
3394:Plasmid
3092:Plantae
3072:Archaea
2899:Transib
2874:Novosib
2854:Kolobok
2824:Ginger2
2819:Ginger1
2804:Crypton
2477:5930866
2426:5098217
2403:Bibcode
2364:3923493
2315:4852070
2274:7442818
2253:Bibcode
2217:5383992
2166:2413192
1993:3237673
1868:5818082
1816:4454471
1765:8891900
1659:8257530
1523:8616336
1244:1142406
1152:9352183
1143:3151733
1057:6651174
947:4014423
905:4370178
897:7453798
877:Bibcode
854:5065367
784:4874239
764:Science
681:6895920
625:3228813
497:C9orf72
335:during
323:in the
139:exapted
135:selfish
75:History
32:repeats
3838:Virome
3816:Nanobe
3513:Genome
3491:Linear
3436:Fosmid
3431:Cosmid
3196:Viroid
3187:agents
2998:CRISPR
2864:Merlin
2849:ISL2EU
2799:Academ
2632:repeat
2514:(MeSH)
2484:
2474:
2433:
2423:
2371:
2361:
2322:
2312:
2281:
2271:
2224:
2214:
2173:
2163:
2122:
2080:583204
2078:
2070:
2035:
2000:
1990:
1959:
1918:
1910:
1875:
1865:
1823:
1813:
1771:
1763:
1755:
1707:
1666:
1656:
1617:
1576:
1568:
1530:
1520:
1470:
1462:
1396:
1363:615040
1361:
1353:
1318:
1310:
1251:
1241:
1199:
1191:
1150:
1140:
1130:
1064:
1054:
989:
954:
944:
903:
895:
869:Nature
852:
825:
817:
782:
747:
688:
678:
632:
622:
541:Genome
512:using
433:(SCAs-
381:gene (
133:" or "
36:genome
3312:Prion
3283:Other
3130:Virus
3087:Fungi
2904:Zator
2844:IS3EU
2749:LINE2
2744:LINE1
2736:LINEs
2713:SINEs
2669:Other
2076:S2CID
1916:S2CID
1769:S2CID
1753:eISSN
1574:S2CID
1500:Cells
1468:S2CID
1359:S2CID
1316:S2CID
1197:S2CID
901:S2CID
823:S2CID
658:Genes
414:FMR1.
345:genes
226:SINEs
222:LINEs
3826:HeLa
3770:Cell
3518:Gene
2894:Sola
2869:MuDR
2809:Dada
2772:MER4
2767:HERV
2759:LTRs
2482:PMID
2431:PMID
2369:PMID
2320:PMID
2279:PMID
2222:PMID
2171:PMID
2120:PMID
2068:PMID
2033:PMID
1998:PMID
1957:PMID
1908:PMID
1873:PMID
1821:PMID
1761:PMID
1705:PMID
1664:PMID
1615:PMID
1566:PMID
1528:PMID
1460:PMID
1394:PMID
1351:PMID
1308:PMID
1249:PMID
1189:PMID
1148:PMID
1128:ISBN
1062:PMID
987:PMID
952:PMID
893:PMID
850:PMID
815:PMID
780:PMID
745:PMID
686:PMID
630:PMID
536:FREP
490:and
475:DMPK
471:ZNF9
435:SCA1
410:FMR1
373:exon
315:and
131:junk
113:and
101:and
87:and
3409:Col
3297:DNA
3294:RNA
3273:DNA
3270:RNA
2834:hAT
2726:MIR
2472:PMC
2462:doi
2421:PMC
2411:doi
2359:PMC
2351:doi
2310:PMC
2269:PMC
2261:doi
2212:PMC
2202:doi
2161:PMC
2151:doi
2110:doi
2060:doi
2025:doi
1988:PMC
1947:doi
1900:doi
1863:PMC
1855:doi
1811:PMC
1803:doi
1745:doi
1695:doi
1654:PMC
1646:doi
1605:doi
1558:doi
1518:PMC
1508:doi
1452:doi
1386:doi
1343:doi
1300:doi
1239:PMC
1231:doi
1179:doi
1138:PMC
1120:doi
1052:PMC
1042:doi
979:doi
942:PMC
932:doi
885:doi
873:288
807:doi
772:doi
768:161
737:doi
676:PMC
666:doi
620:PMC
610:doi
455:FXN
383:HTT
46:or
30:or
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3421:Ti
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