Molecular ecology - Knowledge

627: 100: 818: 439:

One method is the comparison of differences between nuclear and mitochondrial markers among populations. Markers showing higher levels of differentiation indicate the more philopatric sex; that is, the more a sex remains at natal grounds, the more their markers will take on a unique I.D, due to lack of gene flow with respect to that marker. Researchers can also quantify male-male and female-female pair relatedness within populations to understand which sex is more likely to disperse. Pairs with values consistently lower in one sex indicate the dispersing sex. This is because there is more gene flow in the dispersing sex and their markers are less similar than individuals of the same sex in the same population, which produces a low relatedness value.

380: 469:) values. If both of these values are similar and Fst is based on neutral markers then it can be assumed that the QTLs were based on neutral markers (markers not under selection or locally adapted) as well. However, in the case of the barn owls the Qst value was much higher than the Fst value. This means that high gene flow was present allowing the neutral markers to be similar, indicated by the low Fst value. But, local adaptation due to selection was present as well, in the form of varying plumage coloration since the Qst value was high, indicating differences in these non-neutral loci. In other words, this cline of plumage coloration has some sort of adaptive value to the birds. 814:

which describes a species as the smallest identifiable monophyletic group of organisms within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent. This concept defines species on the identifiable. It would also suggest that until two identifiable groups actually produce offspring, they remain separate species. In 1999, John Avise and Glenn Johns suggested a standardized method for defining species based on past speciation and measuring biological classifications as time dependent. Their method used temporal banding to make genus, family and order based on how many tens of millions of years ago the speciation event that resulted in each species took place.

746: 159: 677:

emphasizes interactions between loci rather than within them. Inbreeding and outbreeding depression can occur at the same time. Risks of outbreeding depression increase with increased distance between populations. The risk of outbreeding depression during genetic rescue often limits the ability to increase a small or fragmented gene pool's genetic diversity. The spawn of an intermediate of two or more adapted traits can render the adaptation less effective than either of the parental adaptations. Three main mechanisms influence outbreeding depression;

355: 689:, and set chromosomal dissimilarities resulting in sterile offspring. If outbreeding is limited and the population is large enough, selective pressure acting on each generation may be able to restore fitness. However, the population is likely to experience a multi-generational decline of overall fitness as selection for traits takes multiple generations. Selection acts on outbred generations using increased diversity to adapt to the environment. This may result in greater fitness among offspring than the original parental type. 237:

data. Currently, there is no consensus on preferred methods for clustering, and clustering and sequence processing methods can significantly affect results, especially for the variable-length ITS region. In addition, fungal species vary in intra-specific sequence similarity of the ITS region. Recent research has been devoted to the development of flexible clustering protocols that allow sequence similarity thresholds to vary by taxonomic groups, which are supported by well-annotated sequences in public sequence databases.

444:

number of individuals of a certain sex dispersing to other populations. A more mathematical approach to quantifying sex-biased dispersal on the molecular level is the use of spatial autocorrelation. This correlation analyzes the relationship between geographic distance and spatial distance. A correlation coefficient, or r value, is calculated and the plot of r against distance provides an indication of individuals more related to or less related to one another than expected.

376:

regions. Another drawback to using molecular clocks is that they ideally need to be calibrated from an independent source of data other than the molecular data. This poses a problem for taxa that don't fossilize/preserve easily, making it almost impossible to calibrate their molecular clock. Despite these inconveniences, the molecular clock hypothesis is still used today. The molecular clock has been successful in dating events happening up to 65 million years ago.

825: 342:, and deplete genetic variation. However, dispersal between populations in the metapopulation can reverse or halt these processes over the long term. Therefore, in order for individual sub-populations to remain healthy, they must either have a large population size or have a relatively high rate of dispersal with other subpopulations. Molecular ecology focuses on using tests to determine the rates of dispersal between populations and can use 800:

and composition of a community. There are three primary approaches to integrating phylogenetic information into studies of community organizations. The first approach focuses on examining the phylogenetic structure of community assemblages. The second approach focuses on exploring the phylogenetic basis of community niche structures. The final way zones in on adding a community context to studies of trait evolution and biogeography.

282:(IBD), like reproductive isolation, is the effect of physical barriers to populations that limit migration and lower gene flow. The shorter the distance between populations the more likely individuals are to disperse and mate and thus, increase gene flow. The use of molecular data, specifically allele frequencies of individuals among populations in relation to their geographic distance help to explain concepts such as, sex-biased 371:

lineages studied diverged. The sources usually used to calibrate the molecular clocks are fossils or known geological events in the past. After calibrating the clock the next step is to calculate divergence time by dividing the estimated time since the sequences diverged by the amount of sequence divergence. The resulting number is the estimated rate at which

849:

travel from point A to point B. Least cost path analysis uses geographic data to determine the most efficient path from one point to another. Circuit scape analysis predicts all the possible paths and the probability of each path's use between point A and point B. These analyses are used to determine the route a dispersing individual is likely to travel.

653:. The rate of inbreeding is based on decreased heterozygosity. In other words, the rate at which heterozygosity is lost from a population due to genetic drift is equal to the rate of accumulating inbreeding in a population. In the absence of migration, inbreeding will accumulate at a rate that is inversely proportional to the size of the population. 257:

have found that males will adjust their parental care in response to changes in their paternity. Other studies have shown that in socially monogamous species, some individuals will employ an alternative strategy to be reproductively successful since a social bond does not always equal reproductive success.

456:(QTL) refers to a suite of genes that controls a quantitative trait. A quantitative trait is one that is influenced by several different genes as opposed to just one or two. QTLs are analyzed using Qst. Qst looks at the relatedness of the traits in focus. In the case of QTLs, clines are analyzed by Qst. A 852:

Landscape genetics is becoming an increasingly important tool in wildlife conservation efforts. It is being used to determine how habitat loss and fragmentation affects the movement of species. It is also used to determine which species need to be managed and whether to manage subpopulations the same

256:

While most bird species are socially monogamous, molecular data has revealed that less than 25% of these species are genetically monogamous. EPFs complicate matters, especially for male individuals, because it does not make sense for an individual to care for offspring that are not their own. Studies

232:

sequencing technologies. Porras-Alfaro et al. showed that the accuracy of classification of either ITS or D1-D3 region sequences was largely based on the sequence composition and quality of databases used for comparison, and poor-quality sequences and sequence misidentification in public databases is

813:

which defines a species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups (Mayr, 1942). This concept is not always useful, particularly when it comes to hybrids. Other species concepts include phylogenetic species concept

326:

changes in population sizes which may lead to extinction at the population level. Once this has occurred, dispersing individuals from other populations will immigrate and "rescue" the population at that site. Other metapopulation models include the source-sink model (island-mainland model) where one

840:

is a rapidly emerging interdisciplinary field within molecular ecology. Landscape genetics relates genetics to landscape characteristics, such as land-cover use (forests, agriculture, roads, etc.), presence of barriers, and corridors, rivers, elevation, etc. Landscape genetics answers how landscape

438:

Studying these hypotheses can be arduous since it is nearly impossible to keep track of every individual and their whereabouts within and between populations. To combat this time-consuming method, scientists have recruited several molecular ecology techniques in order to study sex-biased dispersal.

848:

Geographic data used for landscape genetics can include data collected by radars in planes, land satellite data, marine data collected by NOAA, as well as any other ecological data. In landscape genetics researchers often use different analyses to attempt to determine the best way for a species to

808:

Species concepts are the subject of debate in the field of molecular ecology. Since the beginning of taxonomy, scientists have wanted to standardize and perfect the way species are defined. There are many species concepts that dictate how ecologists determine a good species. The most commonly used

799:

emerged from natural history and population biology. Not only does it include the study of the interactions between species, but it also focuses on ecological concepts such as mutualism, predation, and competition within communities. It is used to explicate properties such as diversity, dominance,

788:

Phylogenies confer important historical processes that shape current distributions of genes and species. When two species become isolated from each other they retain some of the same ancestral alleles also known as allele sharing. Alleles can be shared because of lineage sorting and hybridization.

407:

the females will search out for the most suitable males and re-mate until they have found the best sperm to fertilize their eggs. Genetic compatibility is where mates are choosing their partner based on the compatibility of their genotypes. The mate which is doing the selecting must know their own

370:

hypothesis states that DNA sequences roughly evolve at the same rate and because of this the dissimilarity between two sequences can be used to tell how long ago they diverged from one another. The first step in using a molecular clock is it must be calibrated based on the approximate time the two

844:

Barriers are any landscape features that prevents dispersal. Barriers for terrestrial species can include mountains, rivers, roads, and unsuitable terrain, such as agriculture fields. Barriers for aquatic species can include islands or dams. Barriers are species specific; for example a river is a

741:

were given evolutionary significance based on the differences in genetic sequences found among different populations. This detection of evolutionary significance can allow each population of salmon to receive customized conservation and protection based on their adaptive uniqueness in response to

460:

is a change in allele frequency across a geographical distance. This change in allele frequency causes a series of intermediate varying phenotypes that when associated with certain environmental conditions can indicate selection. This selection causes local adaptation, but high gene flow is still

443:

are also used to understand dispersing behaviors by calculating an FST value for each sex. The sex that disperses more displays a lower FST value, which measures levels of inbreeding between the subpopulation and the total population. Additionally, assignment tests can be utilized to quantify the

236:

Next-generation sequencing technologies generate large amounts of data, and analysis of fungal marker-gene data is an active area of research. Two primary areas of concern are methods for clustering sequences into operational taxonomic units by sequence similarity and quality control of sequence

464:

For example, barn owls in Europe exhibit a cline in reference to their plumage coloration. Their feathers range in coloration from white to reddish-brown across the geological range of the southwest to the northeast. This study sought to find if this phenotypic variation was due to selection by

95:

sequences. This approach has been enhanced over a number of years to allow researchers to sequence thousands of genes from a small amount of starting DNA. Allele sizes are another way researchers are able to compare individuals and populations which allows them to quantify the genetic diversity

375:

is occurring. The most widely cited molecular clock is a ‘universal’ mtDNA clock of approximately two percent sequence divergence every million years. Although referred to as a universal clock, this idea of the "universal" clock is not possible considering rates of evolution differ within DNA

321:

theory dictates that a metapopulation consists of spatially distinct populations that interact with one another on some level and move through a cycle of extinctions and recolonizations (i.e. through dispersal). The most common metapopulation model is the extinction-recolonization model which

768:

is a tree that shows evolutionary relationships between different species based on similarities/differences among genetic or physical traits. Community ecology is based on knowledge of evolutionary relationships among coexisting species. Phylogenies embrace aspects of both time (evolutionary

656:

There are two ways in which inbreeding depression can occur. The first of these is through dominance, where beneficial alleles are usually dominant and harmful alleles are usually recessive. The increased homozygosity resulting from inbreeding means that harmful alleles are more likely to be

676:

Outbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in the offspring of distantly related parents. The decline in fitness due to outbreeding is attributed to a breakup of coadapted gene complexes or favorable epistatic relationships. Unlike inbreeding depression, outbreeding depression

574:

is the expected heterozygosity of a sub-populations. Both measures of heterozygosity are measured at one loci. In the equation, heterozygosity values expected from the total population are compared to observed heterozygosity values of the sub-populations within this total population. Larger

430:

sex (the sex more likely to remain at its natal grounds) benefits during reproduction simply by having familiarity with natal ground resources. A second proposal for sex-biased dispersal is the local mate competition hypothesis, which introduces the idea that individuals encounter less mate

425:

Sex-biased dispersal, or the tendency of one sex to disperse between populations more frequently than the other, is a common behavior studied by researchers. Three major hypotheses currently exist to help explain sex-biased dispersal. The resource-competition hypothesis infers that the more

297:

is an assessment that compares genetic distance with geographic distance and is most appropriate because it doesn't assume that the comparisons are independent of each other. There are three main factors that influence the chances of finding a correlation of IBD, which include sample size,

728:

and time since reproductive isolation within and among species and populations, while using non-neutral markers can provide more accurate estimations of adaptive evolutionary divergence, which can help determine the potential for a conservation unit to adapt within a certain habitat.

465:

calculating the Qst values across the owl populations. Because high gene flow was still anticipated along this cline, selection was only expected to act upon the QTLs that incur locally adaptive phenotypic traits. This can be determined by comparing the Qst values to Fst (

346:

to determine when historic bottlenecks occurred. As habitat becomes more fragmented, dispersal between populations will become increasingly rare. Therefore, subpopulations that may have historically been preserved by a metapopulation structure may start to decline. Using

769:

relationships) and space (geographic distribution). Typically phylogeny trees include tips, which represent groups of descendent species, and nodes, which represent the common ancestors of those descendants. If two descendants split from the same node, they are called

264:) extra-pair males had significantly longer tarsi than within-pair males, and all of the extra-pair offspring were males, supporting the prediction that females will bias their clutch towards males when they mate with an "attractive" male. In house wrens ( 732:

Because of conservation units, populations and species that have high or differing levels of genetic variation can be distinguished in order to manage each individually, which can ultimately differ based on a number of factors. In one instance,

845:

barrier to a field mouse, while a hawk can fly over a river. Corridors are areas over which dispersal is possible. Corridors are stretches of suitable habitat and can also be man-made, such as overpasses over roads and fish ladders on dams.

215:

genes due to its utility in identifying fungi to genus or species taxonomic levels, and its high representation in public sequence databases. A second widely used locus (e.g. Amend et al. 2010, Weber et al. 2013), the D1-D3 region of

180:

community since the first publication of their use in the field in 2009. Similar to the exploration of bacterial diversity, these techniques have allowed high-resolution studies of fundamental questions in fungal ecology such as

1978:

Conrad KF, Johnston PV, Crossman C, Kempenaers B, Robertson RJ, Wheelwright NT, Boag PT (May 2001). "High levels of extra-pair paternity in an isolated, low-density, island population of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor)".

591:

can also be viewed as a way of comparing the amount of inbreeding within sub-populations to the amount of inbreeding for the total population and is sometimes referred to as an inbreeding coefficient. In these cases, higher

138:

leads to a mix of genetic material, requiring sorting before sequencing and identification. The classic technique to achieve this is through cloning, which involves incorporating the amplified DNA fragments into bacterial

412:

in mammals, because of complex genetic interactions. This behavior is potentially seen in humans. A study looking at women's choice in men based on body odors concluded that the scent of the odors were influenced by the

661:, or heterozygote advantage. Individuals that are heterozygous at a particular locus have a higher fitness than homozygotes at that locus. Inbreeding leads to decreased heterozygosity, and therefore decreased fitness. 723:

Conservation units are often identified using both neutral and non-neutral genetic markers, with each having its own advantages. Using neutral markers during unit identification can provide unbiased assumptions of

327:(or multiple) large central population(s) produces disperses to smaller satellite populations that have a population growth rate of less than one and could not persist without the influx from the main population. 253:. These are mating events that occur outside of a social bond, like monogamy and are hard to observe. Molecular data has been key to understanding the prevalence of and the individuals participating in EPFs. 249:, the study of animal behavior in relation to its ecology and evolutionary history. One behavior that molecular data has helped scientists better understand is extra-pair fertilizations (EPFs), also known as 705:, and molecular ecology in order to separate and group different species or populations based on genetic variance and significance for protection. Two of the most common types of conservation units are: 3315:

Vandersteen Tymchuk W, O'Reilly P, Bittman J, Macdonald D, Schulte P (May 2010). "Conservation genomics of Atlantic salmon: variation in gene expression between and within regions of the Bay of Fundy".

789:

Lineage sorting is driven by genetic drift and must occur before alleles become species specific. Some of these alleles over time will simply be lost, or they may proliferate. Hybridization leads to

641:

is the reduced fitness and survival of offspring from closely related parents. Inbreeding is commonly seen in small populations because of the greater chance of mating with a relative due to limited

351:

or nuclear markers to monitor dispersal coupled with population Fst values and allelic richness can provide insight into how well a population is performing and how it will perform into the future.

626: 557: 1892:

Hunt J, Simmons LW (2002-09-01). "Confidence of paternity and paternal care: covariation revealed through the experimental manipulation of the mating system in the beetle Onthophagus taurus".

91:

Molecular ecology uses molecular genetic data to answer ecological question related to biogeography, genomics, conservation genetics, and behavioral ecology. Studies mostly use data based on

579:

values imply that the level of genetic differentiation between sub-populations within a total population is more significant. The level of differentiation is the result of a balance between

57:, and others. These fields are united in their attempt to study genetic-based questions "out in the field" as opposed to the laboratory. Molecular ecology is related to the fields of 41:

techniques to ecological questions (e.g., population structure, phylogeography, conservation, speciation, hybridization, biodiversity). It is virtually synonymous with the field of "

2030:

Kempenaers B, Everding S, Bishop C, Boag P, Robertson RJ (2001-01-18). "Extra-pair paternity and the reproductive role of male floaters in the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor)".

408:

genotype as well as the genotypes of potential mates in order to select the appropriate partner. Genetic compatibility in most instances is limited to specific traits, such as the

657:

expressed as homozygotes, and the deleterious effects cannot be masked by the beneficial dominant allele. The second method through which inbreeding depression occurs is through

2856:

Antoniazza S, Burri R, Fumagalli L, Goudet J, Roulin A (July 2010). "Local adaptation maintains clinal variation in melanin-based coloration of European barn owls (Tyto alba)".

998:

Větrovský T, Baldrian P (2013). "Analysis of soil fungal communities by amplicon pyrosequencing: current approaches to data analysis and the introduction of the pipeline SEED".

330:

Metapopulation structure and the repeated extinctions and recolonizations can significantly affect a population's genetic structure. Recolonization by a few dispersers leads to

395:

explains how organisms select their mates based on two main methods; The Good Genes Hypothesis and Genetic Compatibility. The Good Genes Hypothesis, also referred to as the

155:

platforms, has allowed exploration of bacterial ecology concerning continental-scale environmental gradients such as pH that was not feasible with traditional technology.

233:

a major concern. The construction of sequence databases that have broad representation across fungi, and that are curated by taxonomic experts is a critical next step.

1685: 587:

within these sub-populations (increasing differentiation); however, some molecular ecologists note that it cannot be assumed that these factors are at equilibrium. F

1802:"Intraspecific ITS variability in the kingdom fungi as expressed in the international sequence databases and its implications for molecular species identification" 1461:"From genus to phylum: large-subunit and internal transcribed spacer rRNA operon regions show similar classification accuracies influenced by database composition" 403:. Therefore, the mates that are more 'attractive" are more likely to be chosen for mating and pass on their genes to the next generation. In species which exhibit 2115:

Schwarzová L, Šimek J, Coppack T, Tryjanowski P (2008-06-01). "Male-Biased Sex of Extra Pair Young in the Socially Monogamous Red-Backed Shrike Lanius collurio".

176:

has also benefited from next-generation DNA sequencing technologies. The use of high-throughput sequencing techniques has been widely adopted by the fungal

3730: 3488: 719:(ESU): Evolutionarily significant units are populations that show enough genetic differentiation to warrant their management as distinct units. 207:(e.g. Baldrian et al. 2012). The locus of choice for a description of the taxonomic structure of fungal communities has traditionally been the 1849:

Griffith SC, Owens IP, Thuman KA (November 2002). "Extra pair paternity in birds: a review of interspecific variation and adaptive function".

3721: 3196:

Fenster CB, Galloway LF (2000-10-18). "Inbreeding and Outbreeding Depression in Natural Populations of Chamaecrista fasciculata (Fabaceae)".

668:. As homozygosity increases, less fit individuals will be selected against and thus those harmful alleles will be lost from the population. 2717:"Genetic variation in nuclear and mitochondrial markers supports a large sex difference in lifetime reproductive skew in a lekking species" 596:

values typically imply higher amounts of inbreeding within the sub-populations. Other factors such as selection pressures may also affect F

271:

Without molecular ecology, identifying individuals that participate in EPFs and the offspring that result from EPFs would be impossible.

1348:"Changes in Fungal Community Composition in Response to Elevated Atmospheric CO2 and Nitrogen Fertilization Varies with Soil Horizon" 147:, allow for a faster result. More recently, the advent of relatively low-cost, next-generation DNA sequencing technologies, such as 144: 3296: 3256: 2902: 2099: 916: 2325: 934:"Pyrosequencing-based assessment of soil pH as a predictor of soil bacterial community structure at the continental scale" 490: 399:, suggests that the females will choose a male that produce an offspring that will have increased fitness advantages and 99: 1151:"Active and total microbial communities in forest soil are largely different and highly stratified during decomposition" 817: 3714: 2297:

Levins R (1969). "Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity for biological control".

1654:"Five simple guidelines for establishing basic authenticity and reliability of newly generated fungal ITS sequences" 123:

in the laboratory, which would allow for identification and characterization. It also stems from the development of

2894:

Insect Movement: Mechanisms and Consequences : Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society's 20th Symposium

480:

are used when determining the level of genetic differentiation between sub-populations within a total population. F

409: 3989: 716: 220:

genes, may not allow the low taxonomic level classification of the ITS, but demonstrates superior performance in

192:

The majority of fungal ecology research leveraging next-generation sequencing approaches involves sequencing of

3453:

Harrison, Larson, Richard, Erica (2014). "Hybridization, introgression, and the nature of species boundaries".

1048:"Indoor fungal composition is geographically patterned and more diverse in temperate zones than in the tropics" 379: 88:

as a result of changes in environmental conditions or different responses by differently adapted individuals.

4116: 2443:

Yasui Y (March 1997). "A "Good-Sperm" model can explain the evolution of costly multiple mating by females".

3689: 3707: 1399:"Limits of nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences as species barcodes for Fungi" 203:

in the fungal community in question, though more recent research has focused on sequencing functional gene

3161:

Turcek FJ, Hickey JJ (January 1951). "Effect of Introductions on Two Game Populations in Czechoslovakia".

1521:"UNITE: a database providing web-based methods for the molecular identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi" 745: 208: 20: 4121: 4111: 2986:"An Introduction to Restoration Genetics: How is Genetic Diversity Distributed in Natural Populations?" 810: 135: 185:, fungal diversity in forest soils, stratification of fungal communities in soil horizons, and fungal 2513:

Wedekind C, Seebeck T, Bettens F, Paepke AJ (June 1995). "MHC-dependent mate preferences in humans".

1149:

Baldrian P, Kolařík M, Stursová M, Kopecký J, Valášková V, Větrovský T, et al. (February 2012).

335: 193: 124: 69: 1519:

Kõljalg U, Larsson KH, Abarenkov K, Nilsson RH, Alexander IJ, Eberhardt U, et al. (June 2005).

245:

In recent years, molecular data and analyses have been able to supplement traditional approaches of

781:, which is a group of organisms that include an ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor. The 453: 3370:

Webb CO, Ackerly DD, McPeek MA, Donoghue MJ (November 2002). "Phylogenies and Community Ecology".

2158:

Johnson LS, Thompson CF, Sakaluk SK, Neuhäuser M, Johnson BG, Soukup SS, et al. (June 2009).

1684:

Kõljalg U, Nilsson RH, Abarenkov K, Tedersoo L, Taylor AF, Bahram M, et al. (November 2013).

260:

It appears that EPFs in some species is driven by the good genes hypothesis, In red-back shrikes (

4022: 3789: 2936: 225: 1751:

Lindahl BD, Nilsson RH, Tedersoo L, Abarenkov K, Carlsen T, Kjøller R, et al. (July 2013).

80:, which allows for the simultaneous analysis of the expression of thousands of different genes. 76:

between populations. The development of molecular ecology is also closely related to the use of

4032: 3435: 2918: 2258:"A meta-analysis of isolation by distance: relic or reference standard for landscape genetics?" 1652:

Nilsson RH, Tedersoo L, Abarenkov K, Ryberg M, Kristiansson E, Hartmann M, et al. (2012).

331: 2478:

Puurtinen M, Ketola T, Kotiaho JS (April 2005). "Genetic compatibility and sexual selection".

1753:"Fungal community analysis by high-throughput sequencing of amplified markers--a user's guide" 3587:"Proposal for a standardized temporal scheme of biological classification for extant species" 3482: 3383: 774: 702: 682: 638: 279: 250: 199:

of conserved regions of DNA (i.e. marker genes) to identify and describe the distribution of

186: 62: 46: 4027: 3954: 3751: 3598: 3539: 3325: 3205: 3117: 2951: 2785: 2728: 2673: 2661: 2577: 2522: 2401: 2340: 2269: 1988: 1936: 1858: 1700: 1573: 1472: 1410: 1310: 1219: 1162: 1059: 1007: 945: 698: 645:. Inbreeding, especially in small populations, is more likely to result in higher rates of 432: 283: 2622: 1927:

Neff BD (April 2003). "Decisions about parental care in response to perceived paternity".

1107:"454 Pyrosequencing analyses of forest soils reveal an unexpectedly high fungal diversity" 649:, which leads to higher rates of homozygosity at all loci in the population and decreased 158: 8: 4073: 4063: 4009: 3756: 3104:

Frankham R, Ballou JD, Eldridge MD, Lacy RC, Ralls K, Dudash MR, Fenster CB (June 2011).

2985: 2564:

Végvári Z, Katona G, Vági B, Freckleton RP, Gaillard JM, Székely T, Liker A (July 2018).

862: 796: 664:

Deleterious alleles can be scrubbed by natural selection from inbred populations through

396: 372: 58: 42: 3602: 3543: 3329: 3209: 3121: 2955: 2789: 2732: 2677: 2581: 2526: 2405: 2344: 2273: 1992: 1940: 1862: 1704: 1577: 1476: 1414: 1314: 1223: 1166: 1063: 1011: 949: 908: 4058: 3964: 3929: 3830: 3808: 3562: 3527: 3395: 3349: 3229: 3178: 3143: 3083: 3028: 2806: 2773: 2749: 2716: 2697: 2598: 2565: 2546: 2460: 2425: 2374: 2256:

Jenkins DG, Carey M, Czerniewska J, Fletcher J, Hether T, Jones A, et al. (2010).

2233: 2208: 2184: 2159: 2140: 2055: 2012: 1960: 1909: 1826: 1801: 1777: 1752: 1594: 1561: 1493: 1460: 1433: 1398: 1374: 1347: 1240: 1207: 1183: 1150: 1082: 1047: 1023: 966: 933: 837: 431:

competition with relatives the farther from their natal grounds they disperse. And the

268:, extra-pair offspring were also found to be male-biased compared to within-offspring. 246: 229: 221: 200: 152: 38: 4037: 3974: 3842: 3818: 3813: 3626: 3621: 3586: 3567: 3470: 3387: 3341: 3337: 3292: 3262: 3252: 3221: 3217: 3135: 3130: 3105: 3075: 3067: 3020: 2967: 2898: 2873: 2869: 2829: 2811: 2754: 2689: 2642: 2603: 2538: 2495: 2429: 2417: 2366: 2282: 2257: 2238: 2189: 2132: 2095: 2047: 2004: 2000: 1952: 1905: 1874: 1870: 1831: 1782: 1726: 1634: 1630: 1599: 1542: 1537: 1520: 1498: 1438: 1379: 1328: 1323: 1298: 1279: 1275: 1245: 1188: 1128: 1123: 1106: 1087: 971: 912: 782: 765: 709:

Management Units (MU): Management units are populations that have very low levels of

400: 348: 217: 148: 3502: 3233: 3147: 3003:

Charlesworth D, Willis JH (November 2009). "The genetics of inbreeding depression".

2701: 2623:"Sex allocation in response to local resource competition over breeding territories" 2550: 2464: 2378: 2144: 2059: 2016: 1913: 1027: 354: 3934: 3906: 3667: 3657: 3616: 3606: 3557: 3547: 3462: 3379: 3353: 3333: 3213: 3170: 3125: 3059: 3012: 2959: 2865: 2801: 2793: 2744: 2736: 2681: 2634: 2593: 2585: 2530: 2487: 2452: 2409: 2392:

Kumar S, Hedges SB (April 1998). "A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution".

2356: 2348: 2306: 2277: 2228: 2220: 2179: 2171: 2124: 2039: 1996: 1964: 1944: 1901: 1866: 1821: 1813: 1772: 1764: 1718: 1708: 1661: 1626: 1589: 1581: 1532: 1488: 1480: 1428: 1418: 1369: 1359: 1318: 1271: 1235: 1227: 1178: 1170: 1118: 1077: 1067: 1015: 961: 953: 904: 343: 120: 81: 73: 3399: 3087: 3032: 1208:"Fungal community on decomposing leaf litter undergoes rapid successional changes" 4085: 4068: 4042: 3999: 3994: 3969: 3939: 2892: 2685: 1299:"The molecular revolution in ectomycorrhizal ecology: peeking into the black-box" 734: 665: 457: 367: 85: 2224: 1105:

Buée M, Reich M, Murat C, Morin E, Nilsson RH, Uroz S, Martin F (October 2009).

3896: 3891: 3884: 3852: 3746: 3591:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3532:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3528:"Community ecology in a changing environment: Perspectives from the Quaternary" 3314: 2963: 2491: 1403:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1052:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

761: 650: 567: 477: 466: 440: 318: 182: 116: 54: 2160:"Extra-pair young in house wren broods are more likely to be male than female" 1019: 4105: 3949: 3944: 3921: 3911: 3879: 3871: 3857: 3847: 3766: 3391: 3266: 3225: 3071: 2774:"Genetic diversity and sex-bias dispersal of plateau pika in Tibetan plateau" 2646: 2136: 2128: 2051: 1562:"Accurate, rapid taxonomic classification of fungal large-subunit rRNA genes" 1364: 790: 770: 757: 725: 678: 658: 646: 584: 339: 299: 212: 30: 3611: 3552: 3466: 2638: 2621:

Hjernquist MB, Thuman Hjernquist KA, Forsman JT, Gustafsson L (2009-03-01).

2620: 2310: 1666: 1653: 1423: 1072: 4090: 3984: 3959: 3901: 3779: 3774: 3630: 3571: 3474: 3345: 3139: 3079: 3024: 2971: 2877: 2815: 2758: 2693: 2607: 2566:"Sex-biased breeding dispersal is predicted by social environment in birds" 2534: 2499: 2242: 2193: 2175: 2008: 1956: 1878: 1835: 1800:

Nilsson RH, Kristiansson E, Ryberg M, Hallenberg N, Larsson KH (May 2008).

1786: 1730: 1638: 1603: 1546: 1502: 1442: 1383: 1332: 1283: 1249: 1231: 1192: 1132: 1091: 975: 738: 615:, etc.). These additional measures are interpreted in a similar manner to F 3047: 2542: 2421: 2370: 2043: 1617:

Vilgalys R (2003). "Taxonomic misidentification in public DNA databases".

1174: 4017: 3738: 2361: 1585: 1484: 957: 785:

tree is the simplest tree that has the minimum number of steps possible.

642: 414: 392: 294: 3291:. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 332–333. 1948: 1722: 3803: 3798: 3182: 2352: 1686:"Towards a unified paradigm for sequence-based identification of fungi" 713:

and can therefore be genetically differentiated from other populations.

686: 427: 323: 287: 228:. Also, the D1-D3 region may be a better candidate for sequencing with 77: 50: 3699: 3672: 2797: 2740: 2715:

Verkuil YI, Juillet C, Lank DB, Widemo F, Piersma T (September 2014).

2589: 2326:"Mitochondrial DNA sequences of primates: tempo and mode of evolution" 1768: 1713: 824: 1817: 710: 580: 404: 307: 303: 204: 196: 3662: 3645: 3174: 3063: 3016: 1560:

Liu KL, Porras-Alfaro A, Kuske CR, Eichorst SA, Xie G (March 2012).

619:

values; however, they are adjusted to accompany other factors that F

96:

within a population and the genetic similarities among populations.

4080: 2456: 1799: 484:

is the script used to represent this index when using the formula:

3442:. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 22 August 2008. 2413: 1266:

Seifert KA (May 2009). "Progress towards DNA barcoding of fungi".

2114: 322:

explains systems in which spatially distinct populations undergo

177: 172: 140: 34: 1977: 127:, which allows for the rapid amplification of genetic material. 2255: 2157: 1750: 1683: 778: 777:, a species outside of the group of interest. The trees depict 2855: 1651: 1518: 1148: 3867: 3834: 3424:(2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. 3246: 1559: 2512: 2094:. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 295. 2029: 3251:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2772:

Zhang L, Qu J, Li K, Li W, Yang M, Zhang Y (October 2017).

2563: 760:

are the evolutionary history of an organism, also known as

134:

from environmental samples using general or group-specific

3694: 3103: 1459:

Porras-Alfaro A, Liu KL, Kuske CR, Xie G (February 2014).

417:

and that they influence mate choice in human populations.

3369: 583:

amongst sub-populations (decreasing differentiation) and

131: 92: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3046:

Charlesworth, Deborah; Willis, John H. (November 2009).

2714: 1458: 1046:

Amend AS, Seifert KA, Samson R, Bruns TD (August 2010).

931: 3503:"Community ecology - Latest research and news | Nature" 3247:

Frankham R, Ballou JD, Briscoe DA, McInness KH (2010).

1045: 932:

Lauber CL, Hamady M, Knight R, Fierer N (August 2009).

3106:"Predicting the probability of outbreeding depression" 2477: 435:

suggests individuals disperse to decrease inbreeding.

3406: 2937:"Background selection and population differentiation" 2890: 2858:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

2323: 697:

Conservation units are classifications often used in

607:

values are accompanied by several analog equations (F

493: 3419: 3286: 2089: 752: 3099: 3097: 1848: 1104: 552:{\displaystyle F_{ST}={\frac {H_{T}-H_{S}}{H_{T}}}} 3045: 3002: 1345: 885:. Alpha Science International Limited. p. 36. 551: 111:Molecular ecological techniques are used to study 3643: 1205: 997: 298:metabolism, and taxa. For example, based on the 4103: 3452: 3094: 2299:Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America 2085: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 3195: 2324:Brown WM, Prager EM, Wang A, Wilson AC (1982). 894: 892: 623:may not, such as accounting for multiple loci. 3715: 2066: 853:or differently according to their gene flow. 361: 3525: 3487:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3160: 889: 240: 2771: 2391: 1891: 1679: 1677: 1296: 3722: 3708: 3584: 2891:Woiwood I, Reynolds DR, Thomas CD (2001). 1746: 1744: 1742: 1740: 447: 3671: 3661: 3620: 3610: 3561: 3551: 3129: 2805: 2748: 2597: 2360: 2281: 2232: 2183: 1825: 1776: 1712: 1665: 1593: 1536: 1492: 1432: 1422: 1373: 1363: 1322: 1239: 1182: 1122: 1081: 1071: 965: 899:Freeland JR (2014). "Molecular Ecology". 671: 386: 3384:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150448 3372:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1674: 1645: 1616: 898: 823: 816: 793:of alleles from one species to another. 744: 633: 625: 461:expected to be present along the cline. 378: 353: 313: 274: 157: 145:temperature gradient gel electrophoresis 115:questions of bacterial diversity. Many 98: 3729: 3644:Holderegger R, Wagner HH (2008-03-01). 3420:Freeland J, Petersen S, Kirk H (2011). 3287:Freeland J, Kirk H, Petersen S (2011). 3048:"The genetics of inbreeding depression" 2090:Freeland J, Kirk H, Petersen S (2011). 1793: 1737: 1454: 1452: 1346:Weber CF, Vilgalys R, Kuske CR (2013). 1265: 880: 420: 4104: 2296: 2206: 1610: 1566:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1553: 1514: 1512: 1465:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1206:Voříšková J, Baldrian P (March 2013). 1144: 1142: 938:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 119:are not easily obtainable as cultured 106: 3703: 3365: 3363: 3310: 3308: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3249:Introduction to conservation genetics 2919:"Inbreeding and Population Structure" 2851: 2849: 2830:"Spatial autocorrelation — R Spatial" 2659: 2442: 1390: 1290: 1261: 1259: 1041: 1039: 1037: 993: 991: 989: 987: 985: 832: 692: 2934: 1926: 1449: 1396: 1098: 3526:Jackson ST, Blois JL (April 2015). 2662:"Sex ratio adjustment in fig wasps" 2032:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 1509: 1297:Horton TR, Bruns TD (August 2001). 1199: 1139: 909:10.1002/9780470015902.a0003268.pub2 803: 472: 165: 13: 3360: 3305: 3273: 3163:The Journal of Wildlife Management 2846: 1806:Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online 1256: 1034: 982: 14: 4133: 3683: 2480:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1409:(27): E1811, author reply E1812. 841:affects dispersal and gene flow. 753:Phylogenies and community Ecology 68:Methods frequently include using 3585:Avise JC, Johns GC (June 1999). 3338:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04596.x 3218:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99234.x 3131:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01662.x 2870:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.00969.x 2515:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 2283:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06285.x 2164:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 2001:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01263.x 1906:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00442.x 1871:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01613.x 1631:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00894.x 1538:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01376.x 1324:10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01333.x 1276:10.1111/j.1755-0998.2009.02635.x 1124:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03003.x 883:Essentials of Molecular Genetics 717:Evolutionarily significant units 410:major histocompatibility complex 170:Exploration of fungal diversity 37:that is concerned with applying 19:For the scientific journal, see 3695:WILEY Molecular Ecology Journal 3637: 3578: 3519: 3495: 3446: 3436:"Reading trees: A quick review" 3428: 3240: 3189: 3154: 3039: 2996: 2978: 2928: 2911: 2884: 2822: 2765: 2708: 2653: 2614: 2557: 2506: 2471: 2436: 2385: 2317: 2290: 2249: 2200: 2151: 2108: 2023: 1971: 1920: 1894:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 1885: 1842: 1339: 433:inbreeding avoidance hypothesis 2944:Journal of Theoretical Biology 2333:Journal of Molecular Evolution 1000:Biology and Fertility of Soils 925: 903:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 874: 1: 868: 570:of the total population and H 251:extra-pair copulations (EPCs) 189:on decomposing plant litter. 2686:10.1126/science.228.4701.896 84:may also be used to analyze 7: 1268:Molecular Ecology Resources 856: 773:. They also may include an 209:internal transcribed spacer 72:to determine gene flow and 21:Molecular Ecology (journal) 10: 4138: 2964:10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.01.004 2492:10.1016/j.tree.2005.02.005 811:biological species concept 362:Molecular clock hypothesis 290:, and landscape genetics. 18: 4051: 4008: 3920: 3866: 3829: 3788: 3765: 3737: 2935:Hu XS, He F (July 2005). 2225:10.1093/genetics/28.2.114 1352:Frontiers in Microbiology 1020:10.1007/s00374-013-0801-y 336:effective population size 241:Extra-pair fertilizations 3005:Nature Reviews. Genetics 2924:. University of Vermont. 2129:10.3161/000164508X395379 1365:10.3389/fmicb.2013.00078 683:population bottlenecking 566:represents the expected 454:quantitative trait locus 310:to display greater IBD. 16:Subdiscipline of ecology 4023:Ecological anthropology 3612:10.1073/pnas.96.13.7358 3553:10.1073/pnas.1403664111 3440:Understanding Evolution 3052:Nature Reviews Genetics 2445:The American Naturalist 2209:"Isolation by Distance" 2207:Wright S (March 1943). 1667:10.3897/mycokeys.4.3606 1424:10.1073/pnas.1207508109 1073:10.1073/pnas.1000454107 448:Quantitative trait loci 4033:Ecological engineering 2535:10.1098/rspb.1995.0087 2176:10.1098/rspb.2009.0283 1232:10.1038/ismej.2012.116 829: 821: 749: 672:Outbreeding depression 630: 553: 387:Mate choice hypotheses 383: 358: 334:which will reduce the 332:population bottlenecks 162: 103: 3690:Molecular Ecology UK 3467:10.1093/jhered/esu033 2778:Ecology and Evolution 2721:Ecology and Evolution 2660:Herre EA (May 1985). 2639:10.1093/beheco/arp002 2570:Ecology and Evolution 2311:10.1093/besa/15.3.237 2044:10.1007/s002650000305 1175:10.1038/ismej.2011.95 828:Habitat Fragmentation 827: 820: 748: 742:geographic location. 703:conservation genetics 685:, differentiation of 639:Inbreeding depression 634:Inbreeding depression 629: 554: 382: 357: 314:Metapopulation theory 306:are more likely than 280:Isolation by distance 275:Isolation by distance 161: 143:. Techniques such as 130:The amplification of 102: 63:conservation genetics 47:Theodosius Dobzhansky 4117:Subfields of ecology 4028:Ecological economics 3955:Evolutionary ecology 3922:Ecological phenomena 3752:Quantitative ecology 3646:"Landscape Genetics" 3198:Conservation Biology 3110:Conservation Biology 1586:10.1128/aem.06826-11 1485:10.1128/AEM.02894-13 1397:Kiss L (July 2012). 1270:. 9 Suppl s1: 83–9. 958:10.1128/AEM.00335-09 699:conservation biology 491: 421:Sex-biased dispersal 4074:Restoration ecology 4064:Glossary of ecology 4010:Interdisciplinarity 3757:Theoretical ecology 3731:Branches of ecology 3603:1999PNAS...96.7358A 3544:2015PNAS..112.4915J 3455:Journal of Heredity 3330:2010MolEc..19.1842V 3210:2000ConBi..14.1406F 3122:2011ConBi..25..465F 2956:2005JThBi.235..207H 2790:2017EcoEv...7.7708Z 2733:2014EcoEv...4.3626V 2678:1985Sci...228..896H 2582:2018EcoEv...8.6483V 2527:1995RSPSB.260..245W 2406:1998Natur.392..917K 2345:1982JMolE..18..225B 2274:2010Ecogr..33..315J 1993:2001MolEc..10.1301C 1949:10.1038/nature01528 1941:2003Natur.422..716N 1863:2002MolEc..11.2195G 1757:The New Phytologist 1705:2013MolEc..22.5271K 1578:2012ApEnM..78.1523L 1525:The New Phytologist 1477:2014ApEnM..80..829P 1415:2012PNAS..109E1812S 1315:2001MolEc..10.1855H 1224:2013ISMEJ...7..477V 1167:2012ISMEJ...6..248B 1111:The New Phytologist 1064:2010PNAS..10713748A 1012:2013BioFS..49.1027V 950:2009ApEnM..75.5111L 863:Ecological genetics 737:located within the 562:In this equation, H 397:sexy son hypothesis 373:molecular evolution 107:Bacterial diversity 59:population genetics 43:Ecological Genetics 4059:History of ecology 3965:Functional ecology 3930:Behavioral ecology 3809:Population ecology 2627:Behavioral Ecology 2353:10.1007/bf01734101 2117:Acta Ornithologica 838:Landscape genetics 833:Landscape genetics 830: 822: 750: 693:Conservation units 631: 549: 384: 359: 266:Troglodytes aedon) 247:behavioral ecology 222:sequence alignment 163: 104: 45:" as pioneered by 4122:Molecular biology 4112:Molecular ecology 4099: 4098: 4038:Political ecology 3980:Molecular ecology 3975:Landscape ecology 3843:Microbial ecology 3819:Ecosystem ecology 3814:Community ecology 3422:Molecular Ecology 3318:Molecular Ecology 3298:978-0-470-74833-6 3289:Molecular Ecology 3258:978-0-521-87847-0 2904:978-0-85199-781-0 2798:10.1002/ece3.3289 2784:(19): 7708–7718. 2741:10.1002/ece3.1188 2590:10.1002/ece3.4095 2576:(13): 6483–6491. 2101:978-1-119-99308-7 2092:Molecular Ecology 1981:Molecular Ecology 1851:Molecular Ecology 1769:10.1111/nph.12243 1714:10.1111/mec.12481 1693:Molecular Ecology 1303:Molecular Ecology 918:978-0-470-01590-2 797:Community ecology 783:maximum parsimony 766:phylogenetic tree 547: 401:genetic viability 338:(Ne), accelerate 218:28S ribosomal RNA 55:Godfrey M. Hewitt 39:molecular genetic 27:Molecular ecology 4129: 3935:Chemical ecology 3907:Tropical ecology 3724: 3717: 3710: 3701: 3700: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3665: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3624: 3614: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3565: 3555: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3513: 3499: 3493: 3492: 3486: 3478: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3417: 3404: 3403: 3367: 3358: 3357: 3312: 3303: 3302: 3284: 3271: 3270: 3244: 3238: 3237: 3204:(5): 1406–1412. 3193: 3187: 3186: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3133: 3101: 3092: 3091: 3043: 3037: 3036: 3000: 2994: 2993: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2941: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2923: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2853: 2844: 2843: 2841: 2840: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2809: 2769: 2763: 2762: 2752: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2618: 2612: 2611: 2601: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2475: 2469: 2468: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2400:(6679): 917–20. 2389: 2383: 2382: 2364: 2330: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2285: 2253: 2247: 2246: 2236: 2204: 2198: 2197: 2187: 2170:(1665): 2285–9. 2155: 2149: 2148: 2112: 2106: 2105: 2087: 2064: 2063: 2027: 2021: 2020: 1975: 1969: 1968: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1889: 1883: 1882: 1857:(11): 2195–212. 1846: 1840: 1839: 1829: 1818:10.4137/EBO.S653 1797: 1791: 1790: 1780: 1748: 1735: 1734: 1716: 1690: 1681: 1672: 1671: 1669: 1649: 1643: 1642: 1614: 1608: 1607: 1597: 1557: 1551: 1550: 1540: 1516: 1507: 1506: 1496: 1456: 1447: 1446: 1436: 1426: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1377: 1367: 1343: 1337: 1336: 1326: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1263: 1254: 1253: 1243: 1212:The ISME Journal 1203: 1197: 1196: 1186: 1155:The ISME Journal 1146: 1137: 1136: 1126: 1102: 1096: 1095: 1085: 1075: 1058:(31): 13748–53. 1043: 1032: 1031: 1006:(8): 1027–1037. 995: 980: 979: 969: 929: 923: 922: 896: 887: 886: 881:Miglani (2015). 878: 804:Species concepts 558: 556: 555: 550: 548: 546: 545: 536: 535: 534: 522: 521: 511: 506: 505: 478:Fixation indices 473:Fixation indices 344:molecular clocks 211:(ITS) region of 201:taxonomic groups 166:Fungal diversity 82:Quantitative PCR 4137: 4136: 4132: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4127: 4126: 4102: 4101: 4100: 4095: 4086:Natural history 4069:Applied ecology 4047: 4043:Systems ecology 4004: 4000:Thermal ecology 3995:Spatial ecology 3970:Genetic ecology 3940:Disease ecology 3916: 3872:biogeographical 3862: 3825: 3784: 3761: 3733: 3728: 3686: 3681: 3663:10.1641/B580306 3642: 3638: 3597:(13): 7358–63. 3583: 3579: 3538:(16): 4915–21. 3524: 3520: 3511: 3509: 3501: 3500: 3496: 3480: 3479: 3451: 3447: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3418: 3407: 3368: 3361: 3313: 3306: 3299: 3285: 3274: 3259: 3245: 3241: 3194: 3190: 3175:10.2307/3796784 3159: 3155: 3102: 3095: 3064:10.1038/nrg2664 3058:(11): 783–796. 3044: 3040: 3017:10.1038/nrg2664 3001: 2997: 2984: 2983: 2979: 2939: 2933: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2889: 2885: 2854: 2847: 2838: 2836: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2770: 2766: 2727:(18): 3626–32. 2713: 2709: 2672:(4701): 896–8. 2658: 2654: 2619: 2615: 2562: 2558: 2521:(1359): 245–9. 2511: 2507: 2476: 2472: 2441: 2437: 2390: 2386: 2328: 2322: 2318: 2295: 2291: 2254: 2250: 2205: 2201: 2156: 2152: 2113: 2109: 2102: 2088: 2067: 2028: 2024: 1976: 1972: 1935:(6933): 716–9. 1925: 1921: 1890: 1886: 1847: 1843: 1798: 1794: 1749: 1738: 1688: 1682: 1675: 1650: 1646: 1615: 1611: 1558: 1554: 1517: 1510: 1457: 1450: 1395: 1391: 1344: 1340: 1295: 1291: 1264: 1257: 1204: 1200: 1147: 1140: 1103: 1099: 1044: 1035: 996: 983: 944:(15): 5111–20. 930: 926: 919: 897: 890: 879: 875: 871: 859: 835: 809:concept is the 806: 755: 735:Atlantic salmon 695: 674: 666:genetic purging 636: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 599: 595: 590: 578: 573: 565: 541: 537: 530: 526: 517: 513: 512: 510: 498: 494: 492: 489: 488: 483: 475: 458:cline (biology) 450: 423: 391:The concept of 389: 368:molecular clock 364: 316: 277: 262:Lanius collurio 243: 168: 109: 86:gene expression 78:DNA microarrays 70:microsatellites 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4135: 4125: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4077: 4076: 4066: 4061: 4055: 4053: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4014: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3990:Social ecology 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3926: 3924: 3918: 3917: 3915: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3897:Forest ecology 3894: 3892:Desert ecology 3889: 3888: 3887: 3885:Arctic ecology 3876: 3874: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3853:Insect ecology 3850: 3845: 3839: 3837: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3823: 3822: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3801: 3795: 3793: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3782: 3777: 3771: 3769: 3763: 3762: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3743: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3727: 3726: 3719: 3712: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3692: 3685: 3684:External links 3682: 3680: 3679: 3656:(3): 199–207. 3636: 3577: 3518: 3507:www.nature.com 3494: 3445: 3427: 3405: 3378:(1): 475–505. 3359: 3324:(9): 1842–59. 3304: 3297: 3272: 3257: 3239: 3188: 3153: 3093: 3038: 3011:(11): 783–96. 2995: 2977: 2927: 2910: 2903: 2883: 2864:(7): 1944–54. 2845: 2821: 2764: 2707: 2652: 2633:(2): 335–339. 2613: 2556: 2505: 2470: 2457:10.1086/286006 2451:(3): 573–584. 2435: 2384: 2316: 2305:(3): 237–240. 2289: 2268:(2): 315–320. 2248: 2199: 2150: 2123:(2): 235–239. 2107: 2100: 2065: 2038:(4): 251–259. 2022: 1970: 1919: 1900:(5): 784–795. 1884: 1841: 1792: 1736: 1699:(21): 5271–7. 1673: 1644: 1609: 1572:(5): 1523–33. 1552: 1508: 1448: 1389: 1338: 1309:(8): 1855–71. 1289: 1255: 1198: 1138: 1097: 1033: 981: 924: 917: 888: 872: 870: 867: 866: 865: 858: 855: 834: 831: 805: 802: 762:phylogeography 754: 751: 721: 720: 714: 694: 691: 673: 670: 651:heterozygosity 635: 632: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 597: 593: 588: 576: 571: 568:heterozygosity 563: 560: 559: 544: 540: 533: 529: 525: 520: 516: 509: 504: 501: 497: 481: 474: 471: 467:fixation index 449: 446: 422: 419: 388: 385: 363: 360: 319:Metapopulation 315: 312: 276: 273: 242: 239: 183:phylogeography 167: 164: 117:microorganisms 108: 105: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4134: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4050: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4015: 4013: 4011: 4007: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3950:Ecotoxicology 3948: 3946: 3945:Ecophysiology 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3919: 3913: 3912:Urban ecology 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3886: 3883: 3882: 3881: 3880:Polar ecology 3878: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3859: 3858:Human ecology 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3848:Plant ecology 3846: 3844: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3806: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3787: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3767:Spatial scale 3764: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3747:Field ecology 3745: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3725: 3720: 3718: 3713: 3711: 3706: 3705: 3702: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3687: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3508: 3504: 3498: 3490: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3423: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3364: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3311: 3309: 3300: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3250: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3116:(3): 465–75. 3115: 3111: 3107: 3100: 3098: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3042: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2991: 2987: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2950:(2): 207–19. 2949: 2945: 2938: 2931: 2920: 2914: 2906: 2900: 2896: 2895: 2887: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2852: 2850: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2817: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2711: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2656: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2617: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2560: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2414:10.1038/31927 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2388: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2362:2027.42/48036 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2339:(4): 225–39. 2338: 2334: 2327: 2320: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2293: 2284: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2252: 2244: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2219:(2): 114–38. 2218: 2214: 2210: 2203: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2154: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2111: 2103: 2097: 2093: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1987:(5): 1301–8. 1986: 1982: 1974: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1923: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1845: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1796: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1763:(1): 288–99. 1762: 1758: 1754: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1687: 1680: 1678: 1668: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1648: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1613: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1556: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1531:(3): 1063–8. 1530: 1526: 1522: 1515: 1513: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1471:(3): 829–40. 1470: 1466: 1462: 1455: 1453: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1393: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1342: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1293: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1262: 1260: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1218:(3): 477–86. 1217: 1213: 1209: 1202: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1161:(2): 248–58. 1160: 1156: 1152: 1145: 1143: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1117:(2): 449–56. 1116: 1112: 1108: 1101: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1042: 1040: 1038: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 994: 992: 990: 988: 986: 977: 973: 968: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 928: 920: 914: 910: 906: 902: 895: 893: 884: 877: 873: 864: 861: 860: 854: 850: 846: 842: 839: 826: 819: 815: 812: 801: 798: 794: 792: 791:introgression 786: 784: 780: 776: 772: 771:sister groups 767: 763: 759: 747: 743: 740: 736: 730: 727: 726:genetic drift 718: 715: 712: 708: 707: 706: 704: 700: 690: 688: 684: 680: 679:genetic drift 669: 667: 662: 660: 659:overdominance 654: 652: 648: 647:genetic drift 644: 640: 628: 624: 601: 586: 585:genetic drift 582: 569: 542: 538: 531: 527: 523: 518: 514: 507: 502: 499: 495: 487: 486: 485: 479: 470: 468: 462: 459: 455: 445: 442: 436: 434: 429: 418: 416: 411: 406: 402: 398: 394: 381: 377: 374: 369: 356: 352: 350: 349:mitochondrial 345: 341: 340:genetic drift 337: 333: 328: 325: 320: 311: 309: 305: 301: 300:meta-analysis 296: 291: 289: 285: 281: 272: 269: 267: 263: 258: 254: 252: 248: 238: 234: 231: 227: 226:phylogenetics 223: 219: 214: 213:ribosomal RNA 210: 206: 202: 198: 195: 190: 188: 184: 179: 175: 174: 160: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 137: 133: 128: 126: 125:PCR technique 122: 118: 114: 101: 97: 94: 89: 87: 83: 79: 75: 74:hybridization 71: 66: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 31:subdiscipline 28: 22: 4091:Biogeography 3985:Paleoecology 3979: 3960:Fire ecology 3902:Soil ecology 3790:Organisation 3780:Macroecology 3775:Microecology 3653: 3649: 3639: 3594: 3590: 3580: 3535: 3531: 3521: 3510:. Retrieved 3506: 3497: 3483:cite journal 3458: 3454: 3448: 3439: 3430: 3421: 3375: 3371: 3321: 3317: 3288: 3248: 3242: 3201: 3197: 3191: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3113: 3109: 3055: 3051: 3041: 3008: 3004: 2998: 2989: 2980: 2947: 2943: 2930: 2913: 2893: 2886: 2861: 2857: 2837:. Retrieved 2834:rspatial.org 2833: 2824: 2781: 2777: 2767: 2724: 2720: 2710: 2669: 2665: 2655: 2630: 2626: 2616: 2573: 2569: 2559: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2486:(4): 157–8. 2483: 2479: 2473: 2448: 2444: 2438: 2397: 2393: 2387: 2336: 2332: 2319: 2302: 2298: 2292: 2265: 2261: 2251: 2216: 2212: 2202: 2167: 2163: 2153: 2120: 2116: 2110: 2091: 2035: 2031: 2025: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1932: 1928: 1922: 1897: 1893: 1887: 1854: 1850: 1844: 1809: 1805: 1795: 1760: 1756: 1723:10261/130958 1696: 1692: 1660:(4): 37–63. 1657: 1647: 1622: 1618: 1612: 1569: 1565: 1555: 1528: 1524: 1468: 1464: 1406: 1402: 1392: 1355: 1351: 1341: 1306: 1302: 1292: 1267: 1215: 1211: 1201: 1158: 1154: 1114: 1110: 1100: 1055: 1051: 1003: 999: 941: 937: 927: 900: 882: 876: 851: 847: 843: 836: 807: 795: 787: 756: 739:Bay of Fundy 731: 722: 696: 675: 663: 655: 637: 602: 561: 476: 463: 451: 437: 424: 390: 365: 329: 317: 292: 278: 270: 265: 261: 259: 255: 244: 235: 191: 171: 169: 129: 112: 110: 90: 67: 26: 25: 4018:Agroecology 3739:Methodology 3461:: 795–809. 2990:www.nps.gov 1812:: 193–201. 758:Phylogenies 687:adaptations 643:mate choice 428:philopatric 393:mate choice 295:Mantel test 4106:Categories 3804:Synecology 3799:Autecology 3673:1807/75562 3650:BioScience 3512:2020-03-07 3169:(1): 113. 2839:2020-04-03 1625:(1): 4–5. 1619:New Phytol 869:References 441:FST values 324:stochastic 308:endotherms 304:ectotherms 288:speciation 187:succession 51:E. B. Ford 3392:0066-4162 3267:268793768 3226:0888-8892 3072:1471-0064 2647:1045-2249 2430:205001573 2262:Ecography 2137:0001-6454 2052:0340-5443 711:gene flow 581:gene flow 524:− 405:polyandry 284:dispersal 205:amplicons 197:amplicons 4081:Ecosophy 3831:Taxonomy 3792:or scope 3631:10377419 3572:25901314 3475:25149255 3346:20529070 3234:16051555 3148:14824257 3140:21486369 3080:19834483 3025:19834483 2972:15862590 2897:. CABI. 2878:20148951 2816:29043027 2759:25478153 2702:20780348 2694:17815055 2608:30038750 2551:34971350 2500:16701361 2465:84991216 2379:10908431 2243:17247074 2213:Genetics 2194:19324727 2145:84293669 2060:25483760 2017:23317236 2009:11380885 1957:12700761 1914:83253330 1879:12406233 1836:19204817 1787:23534863 1731:24112409 1658:MycoKeys 1639:33873532 1604:22194300 1547:15869663 1503:24242255 1443:22715287 1384:23641237 1333:11555231 1284:21564968 1250:23051693 1193:21776033 1133:19703112 1092:20616017 1028:14072170 976:19502440 857:See also 775:outgroup 600:values. 230:Illumina 153:Illumina 141:plasmids 3599:Bibcode 3563:4413336 3540:Bibcode 3354:8951115 3326:Bibcode 3206:Bibcode 3183:3796784 3118:Bibcode 2952:Bibcode 2807:5632614 2786:Bibcode 2750:4224536 2729:Bibcode 2674:Bibcode 2666:Science 2599:6053579 2578:Bibcode 2543:7630893 2523:Bibcode 2422:9582070 2402:Bibcode 2371:6284948 2341:Bibcode 2270:Bibcode 2234:1209196 2185:2677618 1989:Bibcode 1965:3861679 1937:Bibcode 1859:Bibcode 1827:2614188 1778:3712477 1701:Bibcode 1595:3294464 1574:Bibcode 1494:3911224 1473:Bibcode 1434:3390861 1411:Bibcode 1375:3621283 1311:Bibcode 1241:3578564 1220:Bibcode 1184:3260513 1163:Bibcode 1083:2922287 1060:Bibcode 1008:Bibcode 967:2725504 946:Bibcode 178:ecology 173:in situ 136:primers 121:strains 113:in situ 35:ecology 3629: 3619: 3570: 3560: 3473: 3400:535590 3398: 3390: 3352: 3344: 3295: 3265: 3255: 3232: 3224: 3181: 3146: 3138: 3088:771357 3086: 3078: 3070: 3033:771357 3031: 3023: 2970: 2901: 2876: 2814: 2804: 2757: 2747: 2700: 2692: 2645: 2606: 2596: 2549: 2541: 2498: 2463: 2428: 2420: 2394:Nature 2377: 2369: 2241: 2231: 2192: 2182: 2143: 2135: 2098: 2058: 2050: 2015: 2007: 1963: 1955: 1929:Nature 1912: 1877: 1834: 1824: 1785: 1775: 1729: 1637: 1602: 1592: 1545: 1501: 1491: 1441: 1431: 1382: 1372: 1358:: 78. 1331: 1282: 1248: 1238: 1191: 1181: 1131: 1090: 1080: 1026: 974: 964: 915: 779:clades 4052:Other 3868:Biome 3835:taxon 3622:22090 3396:S2CID 3350:S2CID 3230:S2CID 3179:JSTOR 3144:S2CID 3084:S2CID 3029:S2CID 2940:(PDF) 2922:(PDF) 2698:S2CID 2547:S2CID 2461:S2CID 2426:S2CID 2375:S2CID 2329:(PDF) 2141:S2CID 2056:S2CID 2013:S2CID 1961:S2CID 1910:S2CID 1689:(PDF) 1024:S2CID 29:is a 3627:PMID 3568:PMID 3489:link 3471:PMID 3388:ISSN 3342:PMID 3293:ISBN 3263:OCLC 3253:ISBN 3222:ISSN 3136:PMID 3076:PMID 3068:ISSN 3021:PMID 2968:PMID 2899:ISBN 2874:PMID 2812:PMID 2755:PMID 2690:PMID 2643:ISSN 2604:PMID 2539:PMID 2496:PMID 2418:PMID 2367:PMID 2239:PMID 2190:PMID 2133:ISSN 2096:ISBN 2048:ISSN 2005:PMID 1953:PMID 1875:PMID 1832:PMID 1783:PMID 1727:PMID 1635:PMID 1600:PMID 1543:PMID 1499:PMID 1439:PMID 1380:PMID 1329:PMID 1280:PMID 1246:PMID 1189:PMID 1129:PMID 1088:PMID 972:PMID 913:ISBN 764:. A 366:The 293:The 224:and 151:and 61:and 3870:or 3833:or 3668:hdl 3658:doi 3617:PMC 3607:doi 3558:PMC 3548:doi 3536:112 3463:doi 3459:105 3380:doi 3334:doi 3214:doi 3171:doi 3126:doi 3060:doi 3013:doi 2960:doi 2948:235 2866:doi 2802:PMC 2794:doi 2745:PMC 2737:doi 2682:doi 2670:228 2635:doi 2594:PMC 2586:doi 2531:doi 2519:260 2488:doi 2453:doi 2449:149 2410:doi 2398:392 2357:hdl 2349:doi 2307:doi 2278:doi 2229:PMC 2221:doi 2180:PMC 2172:doi 2168:276 2125:doi 2040:doi 1997:doi 1945:doi 1933:422 1902:doi 1867:doi 1822:PMC 1814:doi 1773:PMC 1765:doi 1761:199 1719:hdl 1709:doi 1662:doi 1627:doi 1623:160 1590:PMC 1582:doi 1533:doi 1529:166 1489:PMC 1481:doi 1429:PMC 1419:doi 1407:109 1370:PMC 1360:doi 1319:doi 1272:doi 1236:PMC 1228:doi 1179:PMC 1171:doi 1119:doi 1115:184 1078:PMC 1068:doi 1056:107 1016:doi 962:PMC 954:doi 905:doi 901:eLS 611:, G 415:MHC 194:PCR 149:454 132:DNA 93:DNA 33:of 4108:: 3666:. 3654:58 3652:. 3648:. 3625:. 3615:. 3605:. 3595:96 3593:. 3589:. 3566:. 3556:. 3546:. 3534:. 3530:. 3505:. 3485:}} 3481:{{ 3469:. 3457:. 3438:. 3408:^ 3394:. 3386:. 3376:33 3374:. 3362:^ 3348:. 3340:. 3332:. 3322:19 3320:. 3307:^ 3275:^ 3261:. 3228:. 3220:. 3212:. 3202:14 3200:. 3177:. 3167:15 3165:. 3142:. 3134:. 3124:. 3114:25 3112:. 3108:. 3096:^ 3082:. 3074:. 3066:. 3056:10 3054:. 3050:. 3027:. 3019:. 3009:10 3007:. 2988:. 2966:. 2958:. 2946:. 2942:. 2872:. 2862:64 2860:. 2848:^ 2832:. 2810:. 2800:. 2792:. 2780:. 2776:. 2753:. 2743:. 2735:. 2723:. 2719:. 2696:. 2688:. 2680:. 2668:. 2664:. 2641:. 2631:20 2629:. 2625:. 2602:. 2592:. 2584:. 2572:. 2568:. 2545:. 2537:. 2529:. 2517:. 2494:. 2484:20 2482:. 2459:. 2447:. 2424:. 2416:. 2408:. 2396:. 2373:. 2365:. 2355:. 2347:. 2337:18 2335:. 2331:. 2303:15 2301:. 2276:. 2266:33 2264:. 2260:. 2237:. 2227:. 2217:28 2215:. 2211:. 2188:. 2178:. 2166:. 2162:. 2139:. 2131:. 2121:43 2119:. 2068:^ 2054:. 2046:. 2036:49 2034:. 2011:. 2003:. 1995:. 1985:10 1983:. 1959:. 1951:. 1943:. 1931:. 1908:. 1898:15 1896:. 1873:. 1865:. 1855:11 1853:. 1830:. 1820:. 1808:. 1804:. 1781:. 1771:. 1759:. 1755:. 1739:^ 1725:. 1717:. 1707:. 1697:22 1695:. 1691:. 1676:^ 1656:. 1633:. 1621:. 1598:. 1588:. 1580:. 1570:78 1568:. 1564:. 1541:. 1527:. 1523:. 1511:^ 1497:. 1487:. 1479:. 1469:80 1467:. 1463:. 1451:^ 1437:. 1427:. 1417:. 1405:. 1401:. 1378:. 1368:. 1354:. 1350:. 1327:. 1317:. 1307:10 1305:. 1301:. 1278:. 1258:^ 1244:. 1234:. 1226:. 1214:. 1210:. 1187:. 1177:. 1169:. 1157:. 1153:. 1141:^ 1127:. 1113:. 1109:. 1086:. 1076:. 1066:. 1054:. 1050:. 1036:^ 1022:. 1014:. 1004:49 1002:. 984:^ 970:. 960:. 952:. 942:75 940:. 936:. 911:. 891:^ 701:, 681:, 621:ST 617:ST 613:ST 609:IS 605:ST 598:ST 594:ST 589:ST 577:ST 482:ST 452:A 302:, 286:, 65:. 53:, 49:, 3723:e 3716:t 3709:v 3676:. 3670:: 3660:: 3633:. 3609:: 3601:: 3574:. 3550:: 3542:: 3515:. 3491:) 3477:. 3465:: 3402:. 3382:: 3356:. 3336:: 3328:: 3301:. 3269:. 3236:. 3216:: 3208:: 3185:. 3173:: 3150:. 3128:: 3120:: 3090:. 3062:: 3035:. 3015:: 2992:. 2974:. 2962:: 2954:: 2907:. 2880:. 2868:: 2842:. 2818:. 2796:: 2788:: 2782:7 2761:. 2739:: 2731:: 2725:4 2704:. 2684:: 2676:: 2649:. 2637:: 2610:. 2588:: 2580:: 2574:8 2553:. 2533:: 2525:: 2502:. 2490:: 2467:. 2455:: 2432:. 2412:: 2404:: 2381:. 2359:: 2351:: 2343:: 2313:. 2309:: 2286:. 2280:: 2272:: 2245:. 2223:: 2196:. 2174:: 2147:. 2127:: 2104:. 2062:. 2042:: 2019:. 1999:: 1991:: 1967:. 1947:: 1939:: 1916:. 1904:: 1881:. 1869:: 1861:: 1838:. 1816:: 1810:4 1789:. 1767:: 1733:. 1721:: 1711:: 1703:: 1670:. 1664:: 1641:. 1629:: 1606:. 1584:: 1576:: 1549:. 1535:: 1505:. 1483:: 1475:: 1445:. 1421:: 1413:: 1386:. 1362:: 1356:4 1335:. 1321:: 1313:: 1286:. 1274:: 1252:. 1230:: 1222:: 1216:7 1195:. 1173:: 1165:: 1159:6 1135:. 1121:: 1094:. 1070:: 1062:: 1030:. 1018:: 1010:: 978:. 956:: 948:: 921:. 907:: 603:F 592:F 575:F 572:S 564:T 543:T 539:H 532:S 528:H 519:T 515:H 508:= 503:T 500:S 496:F 23:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index