Red supergiant - Knowledge

4432: 844:, are expected to lose most of their outer layers before their cores collapse, hence they evolve back to yellow hypergiants and luminous blue variables. Such stars can explode as type II-L supernovae, still with hydrogen in their spectra but not with sufficient hydrogen to cause an extended brightness plateau in their light curves. Stars with even less hydrogen remaining may produce the uncommon type IIb supernova, where there is so little hydrogen remaining that the hydrogen lines in the initial type II spectrum fade to the appearance of a Type Ib supernova. 730: 681: 5031: 4310: 21: 956: 947:) also contains at least 8. A total of 80 confirmed red supergiants have been identified within a small area of the sky in the direction of these clusters. These four clusters appear to be part of a massive burst of star formation 10–20 million years ago at the near end of the bar at the centre of the galaxy. Similar massive clusters have been found near the far end of the galactic bar, but not such large numbers of red supergiants. 663:

sufficient hydrogen may be lost that helium becomes the most abundant element at the surface. When pre-red supergiant stars leave the main sequence, oxygen is more abundant than carbon at the surface, and nitrogen is less abundant than either, reflecting abundances from the formation of the star. Carbon and oxygen are quickly depleted and nitrogen enhanced as a result of the dredge-up of CNO-processed material from the fusion layers.

758:, evolve along the AGB while burning helium in a shell around a degenerate carbon-oxygen core, then rapidly lose their outer layers to become a white dwarf with a planetary nebula. AGB stars may develop spectra with a supergiant luminosity class as they expand to extreme dimensions relative to their small mass, and they may reach luminosities tens of thousands times the sun's. Intermediate "super-AGB" stars, around 9 707:(AGB) undergoing helium shell burning. Researchers now prefer to categorize these as AGB stars distinct from supergiants because they are less massive, have different chemical compositions at the surface, undergo different types of pulsation and variability, and will evolve differently, usually producing a planetary nebula and white dwarf. Most AGB stars will not become supernovae although there is interest in a class of 5041: 5067: 882: 5091: 5079: 4321: 813:. They will reach late K or M class and become a red supergiant. Helium fusion in the core begins smoothly either while the star is expanding or once it is already a red supergiant, but this produces little immediate change at the surface. Red supergiants develop deep convection zones reaching from the surface over halfway to the core and these cause strong enrichment of 896:, so they are expected to be found mostly near prominent clusters. However they are fairly short-lived compared to other phases in the life of a star and only form from relatively uncommon massive stars, so there will generally only be small numbers of red supergiants in each cluster at any one time. The massive 824:

where they temporarily increase in temperature before returning to the red supergiant state. This depends on the mass, rate of rotation, and chemical makeup of the star. While many red supergiants will not experience a blue loop, some can have several. Temperatures can reach 10,000K at the peak of

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These pre-red supergiant main-sequence stars exhaust the hydrogen in their cores after 5–20 million years. They then start to burn a shell of hydrogen around the now-predominantly helium core, and this causes them to expand and cool into supergiants. Their luminosity increases by a factor of about

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Specific to supergiants, the luminosity class is further divided into normal supergiants of class Ib and brightest supergiants of class Ia. The intermediate class Iab is also used. Exceptionally bright, low surface gravity, stars with strong indications of mass loss may be designated by luminosity

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The "red" part of "red supergiant" refers to the cool temperature. Red supergiants are the coolest supergiants, M-type, and at least some K-type stars although there is no precise cutoff. K-type supergiants are uncommon compared to M-type because they are a short-lived transition stage and somewhat

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Supergiant luminosity classes are easy to determine and apply to large numbers of stars, but they group several very different types of stars into a single category. An evolutionary definition restricts the term supergiant to those massive stars which start core helium fusion without developing a

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All red supergiants will exhaust the helium in their cores within one or two million years and then start to burn carbon. This continues with fusion of heavier elements until an iron core builds up, which then inevitably collapses to produce a supernova. The time from the onset of carbon fusion

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Surface abundances of red supergiants are dominated by hydrogen even though hydrogen at the core has been completely consumed. In the latest stages of mass loss, before a star explodes, surface helium may become enriched to levels comparable with hydrogen. In theoretical extreme mass loss models,

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do not expand and cool to become red supergiants. Red supergiants at the upper end of the possible mass and luminosity range are the largest known. Their low surface gravities and high luminosities cause extreme mass loss, millions of times higher than the Sun, producing observable nebulae

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that occur towards the end of the life of a red supergiant; more common are simultaneous radial mode variations over a few hundred days and probably non-radial mode variations over a few thousand days; only a few stars appear to be truly irregular, with small amplitudes, likely due to

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Ekström, S.; Georgy, C.; Eggenberger, P.; Meynet, G.; Mowlavi, N.; Wyttenbach, A.; Granada, A.; Decressin, T.; Hirschi, R.; Frischknecht, U.; Charbonnel, C.; Maeder, A. (2012). "Grids of stellar models with rotation. I. Models from 0.8 to 120 M⊙ at solar metallicity (Z = 0.014)".

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observations of masers can be used to derive accurate parallaxes and distances to their sources. Currently this has been applied mainly to individual objects, but it may become useful for analysis of galactic structure and discovery of otherwise obscured red supergiant stars.

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and somewhat higher temperatures up to 6,000K. These are a good match for slightly higher mass red supergiants with high mass-loss rates. There are no known supernova progenitors corresponding to the most luminous red supergiants, and it is expected that these evolve to

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surrounding the star. By the end of their lives red supergiants may have lost a substantial fraction of their initial mass. The more massive supergiants lose mass much more rapidly and all red supergiants appear to reach a similar mass of the order of 10

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The luminosity differences between stars are most apparent at low temperatures, where giant stars are much brighter than main-sequence stars. Supergiants have the lowest surface gravities and hence are the largest and brightest at a particular temperature.

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Fok, Thomas K. T.; Nakashima, Jun-Ichi; Yung, Bosco H. K.; Hsia, Chih-Hao; Deguchi, Shuji (2012). "Maser Observations of Westerlund 1 and Comprehensive Considerations on Maser Properties of Red Supergiants Associated with Massive Clusters".

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that do have modest rates of rotation may have acquired it after reaching the red supergiant stage, perhaps through binary interaction. The cores of red supergiants are still rotating and the differential rotation rate can be very large.

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The spectra of red supergiants are similar to other cool stars, dominated by a forest of absorption lines of metals and molecular bands. Some of these features are used to determine the luminosity class, for example certain near-infrared

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Red supergiants are observed to rotate slowly or very slowly. Models indicate that even rapidly rotating main-sequence stars should be braked by their mass loss so that red supergiants hardly rotate at all. Those red supergiants such as

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Statistical analysis of many known variable red supergiants shows a number of likely causes for variation: just a few stars show large amplitudes and strong noise indicating variability at many frequencies, thought to indicate powerful

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the blue loop. The exact reasons for blue loops vary in different stars, but they are always related to the helium core increasing as a proportion of the mass of the star and forcing higher mass-loss rates from the outer layers.

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Meynet, G.; Chomienne, V.; Ekström, S.; Georgy, C.; Granada, A.; Groh, J.; Maeder, A.; Eggenberger, P.; Levesque, E.; Massey, P. (2015). "Impact of mass-loss on the evolution and pre-supernova properties of red supergiants".

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until the core collapse is no more than a few thousand years. In most cases, core-collapse occurs while the star is still a red supergiant, the large remaining hydrogen-rich atmosphere is ejected, and this produces a

713:, those almost massive enough to undergo full carbon fusion, which may produce peculiar supernovae although without ever developing an iron core. One notable group of low mass high luminosity stars are the 1434:; Massey, Philip; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, Bertrand; Josselin, Eric; Maeder, Andre; Meynet, Georges (2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not as Cool as We Thought". 2641:

Levesque, E. M.; Massey, P.; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, B.; Meynet, G.; Maeder, A. (2006). "The Effective Temperatures and Physical Properties of Magellanic Cloud Red Supergiants: The Effects of Metallicity".

861:. This matches the expected parameters of lower mass red supergiants. A small number of progenitors of type II-L and type IIb supernovae have been observed, all having luminosities around 100,000 754:. Higher-mass stars never cool sufficiently to become red supergiants. Lower-mass stars develop a degenerate helium core during a red giant phase, undergo a helium flash before fusing helium on the 2099:

Van Loon, J. Th.; Cioni, M.-R. L.; Zijlstra, A. A.; Loup, C. (2005). "An empirical formula for the mass-loss rates of dust-enshrouded red supergiants and oxygen-rich Asymptotic Giant Branch stars".

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Negueruela, I.; Marco, A.; González-Fernández, C.; Jiménez-Esteban, F.; Clark, J. S.; Garcia, M.; Solano, E. (2012). "Red supergiants around the obscured open cluster Stephenson 2".

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of this ejected hydrogen decreases as it cools and this causes an extended delay to the drop in brightness after the initial supernova peak, the characteristic of a Type II-P supernova.

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Kusuno, K.; Asaki, Y.; Imai, H.; Oyama, T. (2013). "Distance and Proper Motion Measurement of the Red Supergiant, Pz Cas, in Very Long Baseline Interferometry H2O Maser Astrometry".

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spectral classifications are very rarely applied to red supergiants, although the term red hypergiant is sometimes used for the most extended and unstable red supergiants like

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of a star, hence determining its size relative to its mass. Larger stars are more luminous at a given temperature and can now be grouped into bands of differing luminosity.

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Fraser, M.; Maund, J. R.; Smartt, S. J.; Kotak, R.; Lawrence, A.; Bruce, A.; Valenti, S.; Yuan, F.; Benetti, S.; Chen, T.-W.; Gal-Yam, A.; Inserra, C.; Young, D. R. (2013).

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will have temperatures between about 25,000K and 32,000K and spectral types of early B, possibly very late O. They are already very luminous stars of 10,000–100,000

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Heger, A.; Langer, N.; Woosley, S. E. (2000). "Presupernova Evolution of Rotating Massive Stars. I. Numerical Method and Evolution of the Internal Stellar Structure".

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Dorda, Ricardo; Negueruela, Ignacio; González-Fernández, Carlos; Tabernero, Hugo M. (2016). "Spectral type, temperature, and evolutionary stage in cool supergiants".

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O and SiO, but hydroxyl (OH) emission also occurs from narrow regions. In addition to high resolution mapping of the circumstellar material around red supergiants,

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Zhang, B.; Reid, M. J.; Menten, K. M.; Zheng, X. W.; Brunthaler, A. (2012). "The distance and size of the red hypergiant NML Cygni from VLBA and VLA astrometry".

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Achmad, L.; Lamers, H. J. G. L. M.; Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; Van Genderen, A. M. (1992). "A photometric study of the G0-4 Ia(+) hypergiant HD 96918 (V382 Carinae)".

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Chiavassa, A.; Kudritzki, R.; Davies, B.; Freytag, B.; De Mink, S. E. (2022). "Probing red supergiant dynamics through photo-center displacements measured by

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Groenewegen, M. A. T.; Sloan, G. C.; Soszyński, I.; Petersen, E. A. (2009). "Luminosities and mass-loss rates of SMC and LMC AGB stars and red supergiants".

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degenerate helium core and without undergoing a helium flash. They will universally go on to burn heavier elements and undergo core-collapse resulting in a

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Slesnick, Catherine L.; Hillenbrand, Lynne A.; Massey, Philip (2002). "The Star Formation History and Mass Function of the Double Cluster h and χ Persei".

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Although red supergiants are much cooler than the Sun, they are so much larger that they are highly luminous, typically tens or hundreds of thousands

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fusion of hydrogen and they have fully convective cores. In contrast to the Sun, the outer layers of these hot main-sequence stars are not convective.

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Some red supergiants are larger and more luminous, with radii exceeding over a thousand times that of the Sun. These are hence also referred to as red

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Red supergiants are rare stars, but they are visible at great distance and are often variable so there are a number of well-known naked-eye examples:

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Verheyen, L.; Messineo, M.; Menten, K. M. (2012). "SiO maser emission from red supergiants across the Galaxy . I. Targets in massive star clusters".

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Red supergiants are necessarily no more than about 25 million years old and such massive stars are expected to form only in relatively large

4981: 1093:−7 and brighter, around a quarter of a million times more luminous than the Sun, and from about 1,000 times the radius of the Sun upwards. 607:

supergiant variables respectively. Variations are typically slow and of small amplitude, but amplitudes up to four magnitudes are known.

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The observed progenitors of type II-P supernovae all have temperatures between 3,500K and 4,400K and luminosities between 10,000

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Davies, Ben; de la Fuente, Diego; Najarro, Francisco; Hinton, Jim A.; Trombley, Christine; Figer, Donald F.; Puga, Elena (2012).

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class 0 (zero) although this is rarely seen. More often the designation Ia-0 will be used, and more commonly still Ia. These

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by the time their cores collapse. The exact value depends on the initial chemical makeup of the star and its rotation rate.

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Georgy, C. (2012). "Yellow supergiants as supernova progenitors: An indication of strong mass loss for red supergiants?".

620:. Red supergiant photospheres contain a relatively small number of very large convection cells compared to stars like the 4976: 1027:

was historically thought to be a red supergiant star, but is now widely accepted to be an asymptotic giant branch star.

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Less massive stars may develop a supergiant spectral luminosity class at relatively low luminosity, around 1,000

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Red supergiants are cool and large. They have spectral types of K and M, hence surface temperatures below 4,100

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contains three. Until the 21st century the largest number of red supergiants known in a single cluster was five in

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unstable. The K-type stars, especially early or hotter K types, are sometimes described as orange supergiants (e.g.

4761: 2474:"The Lack of Blue Supergiants in NGC 7419, a Red Supergiant-rich Galactic Open Cluster with Rapidly Rotating Stars" 1541:

Smith, Nathan; Humphreys, Roberta M.; Davidson, Kris; Gehrz, Robert D.; Schuster, M. T.; Krautter, Joachim (2001).

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A survey expected to capture virtually all Magellanic Cloud red supergiants detected around a dozen M class stars M

4797: 3880: 25: 1330:"DISTANCE AND KINEMATICS OF THE RED HYPERGIANT VY CMa: VERY LONG BASELINE ARRAY AND VERY LARGE ARRAY ASTROMETRY" 298:(MK) classification system is almost universal. It groups stars into five main luminosity groups designated by 5006: 4738: 4421: 4173: 3810: 3794: 2829: 1231:

Percy, J. R.; Zsoldos, E. (1992). "Photometry of yellow semiregular variables – HR 8752 (= V509 Cassiopeiae)".

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three. The surface abundance of helium is now up to 40% but there is little enrichment of heavier elements.

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Poelarends, A. J. T.; Herwig, F.; Langer, N.; Heger, A. (2008). "The Supernova Channel of Super-AGB Stars".

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emission is common from the circumstellar material around red supergiants. Most commonly this arises from H

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Caron, Genevive; Moffat, Anthony F. J.; St-Louis, Nicole; Wade, Gregg A.; Lester, John B. (2003).

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Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A.; Weaver, T. A. (2002). "The evolution and explosion of massive stars".

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Main-sequence stars, burning hydrogen in their cores, with masses between 10 and 30 or 40

388: 236: 32: 4966: 1647:"Variability in red supergiant stars: Pulsations, long secondary periods and convection noise" 4860: 4807: 4461: 4149: 4119: 4114: 4104: 4032: 3820: 2986: 1122: 960: 395: 264: 240: 3267: 2772: 2721: 2536: 2175: 2122: 2069: 2010: 1957: 1615: 1392: 1298: 1271: 1244: 1209: 545:. There is a theoretical upper limit to the radius of a red supergiant at around 1,500 4619: 4456: 4290: 4188: 4178: 4027: 3995: 3789: 3584: 3569: 2882: 2768: 2717: 2661: 2589: 2532: 2485: 2438: 2385: 2342: 2284: 2227: 2171: 2118: 2065: 2006: 1953: 1900: 1853: 1806: 1758: 1717: 1668: 1611: 1554: 1513: 1453: 1388: 1341: 1294: 1267: 1240: 1205: 1168: 4431: 252: 8: 5116: 5034: 4651: 4641: 4624: 4559: 4488: 4344: 3750: 3733: 3404: 3306: 3129: 643: 3890: 2665: 2593: 2489: 2442: 2389: 2346: 2288: 2231: 1904: 1857: 1810: 1762: 1721: 1672: 1558: 1517: 1457: 1345: 1217: 1172: 5095: 4787: 4696: 4672: 4564: 4524: 4386: 4285: 4246: 4198: 4183: 4097: 4037: 3960: 3870: 3840: 3830: 3774: 3696: 3387: 3023: 2822: 2784: 2758: 2733: 2707: 2677: 2651: 2607: 2579: 2548: 2522: 2454: 2428: 2401: 2358: 2332: 2302: 2274: 2243: 2217: 2187: 2161: 2134: 2108: 2081: 2055: 2022: 1996: 1969: 1943: 1916: 1890: 1822: 1796: 1686: 1658: 1627: 1601: 1503: 1469: 1443: 1404: 1378: 1310: 1102: 733:

A red supergiant ends its life as a type II supernova (bottom left) in a spiral arm of

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variables. They even have their own sub-classes, SRC and LC for slow semi-regular and

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Since 2006, a series of massive clusters have been identified near the base of the

901: 870: 834: 352: 276: 2780: 2729: 2568:"A newly discovered young massive star cluster at the far end of the Galactic Bar" 2544: 2183: 2077: 2018: 1965: 1842:"Maser mapping of small-scale structure in the circumstellar envelope of S Persei" 1623: 1400: 888:, the first of several massive clusters found to contain multiple red supergiants. 740:

Red supergiants develop from main-sequence stars with masses between about 8

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fusion and may produce an electron capture supernova through the collapse of an

680: 509:. They are typically several hundred to over a thousand times the radius of the 4646: 4602: 4576: 4313: 4079: 3918: 3745: 3716: 3691: 3624: 3313: 3067: 2969: 2859: 2849: 2397: 1543:"The Asymmetric Nebula Surrounding the Extreme Red Supergiant Vy Canis Majoris" 1526: 1491: 1431: 994: 984: 525: 514: 299: 263:

are the brightest and best known red supergiants (RSGs), indeed the only first

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Betelgeuse pulsating and showing spectral line profile changes (HST UV images)

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The supergiants continue to cool and most will rapidly pass through the

624:. This causes variations in surface brightness that can lead to visible 556:, stars above this radius would be too unstable and simply do not form. 4945: 4940: 4935: 4915: 4716: 4592: 4554: 4451: 3825: 3522: 3495: 3472: 3452: 3437: 3289: 3193: 3171: 3149: 3144: 3008: 1706:"On the scale of photospheric convection in red giants and supergiants" 1031: 999: 979: 964: 944: 909: 734: 668: 517:

is classified as a giant star with a radius of between 264 to 303

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Stars with a supergiant luminosity class with a spectral type of K or M

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Stars are classified as supergiants on the basis of their spectral

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Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973). "Spectral Classification".

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Henny J. G. L. M. Lamers; Joseph P. Cassinelli (17 June 1999).

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Zhang, B.; Reid, M. J.; Menten, K. M.; Zheng, X. W. (2012).

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contains at least 12 red supergiants, RSGC2 (also known as

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Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters

1492:"Exploring the Mass Loss Histories of the Red Supergiants" 1489: 931:

of the galaxy, each containing multiple red supergiants.

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at the surface, with some enrichment of heavier elements.

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Helmel, G.; Gordon, M.; Humphreys, R.; Jones, T. (2020).

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Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae

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Richards, A. M. S.; Yates, J. A.; Cohen, R. J. (1999).

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Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

2260: 1933: 1157:"Luminosity classification with the Washington system" 908:. Most red supergiants are found singly, for example 573:. Main-sequence stars more massive than about 40 5055: 1285:

De Jager, Cornelis (1998). "The yellow hypergiants".

2263:"On the progenitor of the Type IIP SN 2013ej in M74" 1880: 1785: 1496:

American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #235

1368: 1327: 1114: 2375: 2322: 1839: 1645:Kiss, L. L.; Szabo, G. M.; Bedding, T. R. (2006). 559:Red supergiants have masses between about 10 2572:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 1846:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 1651:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 840:The most luminous red supergiants, at near solar 721:and showing distinctive semi-regular variations. 5103: 1644: 591:Most red supergiants show some degree of visual 943:contains at least 8, and RSGC4 (also known as 4352: 2823: 1703: 1697: 4982:Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey 1230: 1195: 1127:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–. 1198:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 4359: 4345: 2830: 2816: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1578: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1418: 2762: 2711: 2655: 2601: 2583: 2526: 2497: 2432: 2336: 2296: 2278: 2221: 2165: 2112: 2059: 2040: 2038: 2036: 2000: 1947: 1894: 1865: 1800: 1770: 1744: 1729: 1680: 1662: 1605: 1566: 1525: 1507: 1447: 1382: 1353: 1180: 2412: 2318: 2316: 1284: 954: 880: 728: 679: 2369: 2203: 2201: 1575: 1415: 1154: 5104: 2559: 2033: 1986: 1980: 1779: 1148: 383:Temperature scale for red supergiants 4397:Type II (IIP, IIL, IIn, and IIb) 4340: 2811: 2465: 2313: 1738: 1534: 1485: 1483: 717:, AGB or post-AGB stars lying on the 5040: 2198: 1638: 528:is a K2 supergiant of only 185 4977:Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope 1218:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333 13: 2691: 1745:White, N. M.; Wing, R. F. (1978). 1480: 963:region showing the red supergiant 14: 5133: 2796: 1287:Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 1189: 270: 247:, although they are not the most 5089: 5077: 5065: 5039: 5030: 5029: 4762:History of supernova observation 4430: 4319: 4309: 4308: 2603:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19840.x 1867:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02606.x 1682:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10973.x 19: 2634: 2618: 2506: 2254: 2145: 2092: 1927: 1874: 1833: 5007:SuperNova Early Warning System 4422:Common envelope jets supernova 4366: 1704:Schwarzschild, Martin (1975). 1362: 1321: 1278: 1251: 1224: 922:Scorpius–Centaurus association 1: 4221:Timeline of stellar astronomy 1124:Introduction to Stellar Winds 1108: 820:Some red supergiants undergo 675: 377: 4997:Supernova/Acceleration Probe 4972:High-Z Supernova Search Team 4570:pulsational pair-instability 2751:Astronomy & Astrophysics 2700:Astronomy & Astrophysics 2515:Astronomy & Astrophysics 2048:Astronomy & Astrophysics 1989:Astronomy & Astrophysics 1936:Astronomy & Astrophysics 1594:Astronomy & Astrophysics 1371:Astronomy & Astrophysics 724: 243:in the universe in terms of 7: 5002:Supernova Cosmology Project 4510:Fast blue optical transient 3881:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 2781:10.1051/0004-6361/202243568 2730:10.1051/0004-6361/201528024 2545:10.1051/0004-6361/201219540 2184:10.1051/0004-6361/200912678 2078:10.1051/0004-6361/201424671 2019:10.1051/0004-6361/201118372 1966:10.1051/0004-6361/201118265 1913:10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/107 1624:10.1051/0004-6361/201117751 1401:10.1051/0004-6361/201219587 1096: 950: 876: 367:), or even as yellow (e.g. 27:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 10: 5138: 3795:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism 2398:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1015 2154:Astronomy and Astrophysics 2131:10.1051/0004-6361:20042555 2101:Astronomy and Astrophysics 1819:10.1088/0004-637X/760/1/65 1355:10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/23 1260:Astronomy and Astrophysics 1233:Astronomy and Astrophysics 5025: 4954: 4816: 4775: 4749: 4660: 4585: 4497: 4439: 4428: 4374: 4304: 4229: 4078: 3976: 3904: 3803: 3660: 3535: 3413: 3322: 3058: 3049: 2928: 2858: 2845: 2837: 2644:The Astrophysical Journal 2421:The Astrophysical Journal 2378:Reviews of Modern Physics 2325:The Astrophysical Journal 2210:The Astrophysical Journal 1883:The Astrophysical Journal 1789:The Astrophysical Journal 1436:The Astrophysical Journal 1334:The Astrophysical Journal 807:Cepheid instability strip 18: 4987:Nearby Supernova Factory 4174:With multiple exoplanets 2478:The Astronomical Journal 1547:The Astronomical Journal 1527:10.3847/1538-3881/abab15 939:) contains at least 26, 618:photospheric granulation 5012:Supernova Legacy Survey 2960:Asymptotic giant branch 2773:2022A&A...661L...1C 2722:2016A&A...592A..16D 2627:Galaxy v23n06 (1965 08) 2537:2012A&A...547A..15N 2176:2009A&A...506.1277G 2123:2005A&A...438..273V 2070:2015A&A...575A..60M 2011:2012A&A...538L...8G 1958:2012A&A...541A..36V 1616:2012A&A...537A.146E 1393:2012A&A...544A..42Z 1299:1998A&ARv...8..145D 1272:1992A&A...259..600A 1245:1992A&A...263..123P 1210:1973ARA&A..11...29M 705:asymptotic giant branch 636:band strengths and the 5017:Texas Supernova Search 4992:Sloan Supernova Survey 4610:Luminous blue variable 4296:Tidal disruption event 3785:Circumstellar envelope 3019:Luminous blue variable 967: 889: 737: 685: 267:red supergiant stars. 237:stellar classification 4462:Phillips relationship 3821:Effective temperature 2298:10.1093/mnrasl/slt179 1751:Astrophysical Journal 1710:Astrophysical Journal 1307:10.1007/s001590050009 958: 884: 732: 703:when they are on the 683: 628:as the star rotates. 626:brightness variations 239:K or M. They are the 4291:Planet-hosting stars 4169:With resolved images 4140:Historical brightest 4070:Photometric-standard 3996:Solar radio emission 3790:Eddington luminosity 3570:Triple-alpha process 3508:Thorne–Żytkow object 2883:Young stellar object 2803:Red Supergiant Stars 1155:Geisler, D. (1984). 5035:Category:Supernovae 4967:Calán/Tololo Survey 4652:Population III star 4560:Soft gamma repeater 4392:Type Ib and Ic 4115:Highest temperature 3886:Color–color diagram 3751:Protoplanetary disk 3555:Proton–proton chain 3233:Chemically peculiar 2666:2006ApJ...645.1102L 2594:2012MNRAS.419.1860D 2490:2003AJ....126.1415C 2443:2002ApJ...576..880S 2390:2002RvMP...74.1015W 2347:2000ApJ...528..368H 2289:2014MNRAS.439L..56F 2232:2008ApJ...675..614P 1905:2013ApJ...774..107K 1858:1999MNRAS.306..954R 1811:2012ApJ...760...65F 1763:1978ApJ...222..209W 1722:1975ApJ...195..137S 1673:2006MNRAS.372.1721K 1559:2001AJ....121.1111S 1518:2020AAS...23511026H 1458:2005ApJ...628..973L 1346:2012ApJ...744...23Z 1173:1984PASP...96..723G 384: 5112:M-type supergiants 5045:Commons:Supernovae 4697:Stellar black hole 4673:Pulsar wind nebula 4525:Gravitational wave 4120:Lowest temperature 3871:Photometric system 3841:Absolute magnitude 3775:Circumstellar dust 3388:Stellar black hole 3024:Stellar population 2910:Herbig–Haro object 1432:Levesque, Emily M. 1103:List of supernovae 968: 890: 873:before exploding. 811:yellow hypergiants 747:and 30 or 40 738: 715:RV Tauri variables 686: 566:and 30 or 40 382: 228:luminosity class ( 5122:Stellar phenomena 5053: 5052: 4668:Supernova remnant 4535:Luminous red nova 4447:Carbon detonation 4334: 4333: 4237:Substellar object 4216:Planetary nebulae 3635:Luminous red nova 3545:Deuterium burning 3531: 3530: 3014:Instability strip 2994:Wolf-Rayet nebula 2948:Horizontal branch 2893:Pre-main-sequence 1134:978-0-521-59565-0 894:clusters of stars 854:and 300,000 831:type II supernova 756:horizontal branch 719:instability strip 503: 502: 369:yellow hypergiant 5129: 5094: 5093: 5092: 5082: 5081: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5061: 5043: 5042: 5033: 5032: 4896:Remnant G1.9+0.3 4515:Fast radio burst 4434: 4412:Pair-instability 4361: 4354: 4347: 4338: 4337: 4326:Stars portal 4324: 4323: 4312: 4311: 3968:Planetary system 3891:Strömgren sphere 3763:Asteroseismology 3484:Black hole star 3056: 3055: 2982:Planetary nebula 2943:Red-giant branch 2832: 2825: 2818: 2809: 2808: 2792: 2766: 2741: 2715: 2686: 2685: 2659: 2657:astro-ph/0603596 2650:(2): 1102–1117. 2638: 2632: 2631: 2622: 2616: 2615: 2605: 2587: 2578:(3): 1860–1870. 2563: 2557: 2556: 2530: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2501: 2484:(3): 1415–1422. 2469: 2463: 2462: 2436: 2434:astro-ph/0205130 2416: 2410: 2409: 2384:(4): 1015–1071. 2373: 2367: 2366: 2340: 2338:astro-ph/9904132 2320: 2311: 2310: 2300: 2282: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2225: 2205: 2196: 2195: 2169: 2160:(3): 1277–1296. 2149: 2143: 2142: 2116: 2114:Astro-ph/0504379 2096: 2090: 2089: 2063: 2042: 2031: 2030: 2004: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1951: 1931: 1925: 1924: 1898: 1878: 1872: 1871: 1869: 1837: 1831: 1830: 1804: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1774: 1742: 1736: 1735: 1733: 1701: 1695: 1694: 1684: 1666: 1664:astro-ph/0608438 1657:(4): 1721–1734. 1642: 1636: 1635: 1609: 1588: 1573: 1572: 1570: 1553:(2): 1111–1125. 1538: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1511: 1487: 1478: 1477: 1451: 1449:astro-ph/0504337 1428: 1413: 1412: 1386: 1366: 1360: 1359: 1357: 1325: 1319: 1318: 1282: 1276: 1275: 1255: 1249: 1248: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1193: 1187: 1186: 1184: 1152: 1146: 1145: 1143: 1141: 1118: 1069:Westerlund 1 W26 1064:VY Canis Majoris 916:association and 902:Tarantula Nebula 871:Wolf Rayet stars 385: 381: 353:VY Canis Majoris 277:luminosity class 208: 191: 184: 177: 170: 163: 156: 149: 142: 135: 126: 119: 112: 105: 98: 91: 84: 77: 70: 63: 56: 49: 42: 35: 28: 23: 5137: 5136: 5132: 5131: 5130: 5128: 5127: 5126: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5090: 5088: 5076: 5066: 5064: 5056: 5054: 5049: 5021: 4950: 4936:SN 2016aps 4916:SN Refsdal 4812: 4771: 4745: 4656: 4642:Wolf–Rayet star 4581: 4520:Gamma-ray burst 4493: 4467:Nucleosynthesis 4435: 4426: 4370: 4365: 4335: 4330: 4318: 4300: 4225: 4194:Milky Way novae 4130:Smallest volume 4074: 4055:Radial velocity 3978: 3972: 3924:Common envelope 3900: 3799: 3768:Helioseismology 3739:Bipolar outflow 3680:Microturbulence 3675:Convection zone 3656: 3550:Lithium burning 3537:Nucleosynthesis 3527: 3409: 3318: 3045: 2924: 2873:Molecular cloud 2854: 2841: 2836: 2799: 2694: 2692:Further reading 2689: 2639: 2635: 2624: 2623: 2619: 2564: 2560: 2511: 2507: 2470: 2466: 2417: 2413: 2374: 2370: 2321: 2314: 2259: 2255: 2206: 2199: 2150: 2146: 2097: 2093: 2043: 2034: 1985: 1981: 1932: 1928: 1879: 1875: 1838: 1834: 1784: 1780: 1743: 1739: 1702: 1698: 1643: 1639: 1589: 1576: 1539: 1535: 1488: 1481: 1429: 1416: 1367: 1363: 1326: 1322: 1283: 1279: 1256: 1252: 1229: 1225: 1194: 1190: 1153: 1149: 1139: 1137: 1135: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1099: 1092: 953: 929:Crux-Scutum Arm 900:cluster in the 879: 867: 864: 860: 857: 853: 850: 833:spectrum. The 793: 790: 786: 783: 764: 761: 753: 750: 746: 743: 727: 710:super-AGB stars 702: 699: 678: 649: 587: 584: 579: 576: 572: 569: 565: 562: 551: 548: 544: 541: 534: 531: 523: 520: 398: 390: 380: 281:surface gravity 273: 214:Red supergiants 211: 210: 206: 202: 200: 198: 196: 193: 189: 186: 182: 179: 175: 172: 168: 165: 161: 158: 154: 151: 147: 144: 140: 137: 133: 131: 128: 124: 121: 117: 114: 110: 107: 103: 100: 96: 93: 89: 86: 82: 79: 75: 72: 68: 65: 61: 58: 54: 51: 47: 44: 40: 37: 33: 30: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5135: 5125: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5099: 5098: 5086: 5074: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5047: 5037: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4926:SN 2006gy 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4906:SN 2011fe 4903: 4901:SN 2007bi 4898: 4893: 4891:SN 2003fg 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4831: 4826: 4824:Barnard's Loop 4820: 4818: 4814: 4813: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4779: 4777: 4773: 4772: 4770: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4753: 4751: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4739:Orion–Eridanus 4731: 4726: 4721: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4677: 4676: 4675: 4664: 4662: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4647:Super-AGB star 4644: 4639: 4634: 4633: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4612: 4607: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4589: 4587: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4579: 4577:Symbiotic nova 4574: 4573: 4572: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4501: 4499: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4491: 4486: 4485: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4443: 4441: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4378: 4376: 4372: 4371: 4364: 4363: 4356: 4349: 4341: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4328: 4316: 4305: 4302: 4301: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4255: 4254: 4249: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4159: 4158: 4157: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4125:Largest volume 4122: 4117: 4112: 4102: 4101: 4100: 4095: 4084: 4082: 4076: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4009: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3982: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3970: 3965: 3964: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3943: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3910: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3836:Magnetic field 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3807: 3805: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3771: 3770: 3760: 3759: 3758: 3753: 3746:Accretion disk 3743: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3726: 3725: 3724: 3722:Alfvén surface 3719: 3717:Stellar corona 3714: 3709: 3704: 3694: 3692:Radiation zone 3689: 3688: 3687: 3682: 3672: 3666: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3654: 3649: 3648: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3541: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3499: 3498: 3493: 3490: 3482: 3481: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3430: 3425: 3419: 3417: 3411: 3410: 3408: 3407: 3402: 3401: 3400: 3390: 3385: 3384: 3383: 3378: 3377: 3376: 3371: 3361: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3339: 3334: 3328: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3316: 3314:Blue straggler 3311: 3310: 3309: 3299: 3294: 3293: 3292: 3282: 3281: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3230: 3225: 3224: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3203: 3202: 3201: 3191: 3190: 3189: 3184: 3179: 3169: 3164: 3163: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3126: 3125: 3120: 3110: 3109: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3072:Main sequence 3070: 3065: 3059: 3053: 3051:Classification 3047: 3046: 3044: 3043: 3042: 3041: 3036: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2990: 2989: 2987:Protoplanetary 2979: 2974: 2973: 2972: 2967: 2957: 2956: 2955: 2945: 2940: 2934: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2923: 2922: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2906: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2864: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2846: 2843: 2842: 2835: 2834: 2827: 2820: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2798: 2797:External links 2795: 2794: 2793: 2742: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2687: 2674:10.1086/504417 2633: 2617: 2558: 2505: 2499:10.1086/377314 2464: 2451:10.1086/341865 2427:(2): 880–893. 2411: 2368: 2355:10.1086/308158 2331:(1): 368–396. 2312: 2253: 2240:10.1086/520872 2216:(1): 614–625. 2197: 2144: 2107:(1): 273–289. 2091: 2032: 1979: 1926: 1873: 1852:(4): 954–974. 1832: 1778: 1772:10.1086/156136 1737: 1731:10.1086/153313 1696: 1637: 1574: 1568:10.1086/318748 1533: 1479: 1466:10.1086/430901 1442:(2): 973–985. 1414: 1361: 1320: 1293:(3): 145–180. 1277: 1250: 1223: 1188: 1182:10.1086/131411 1147: 1133: 1112: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1098: 1095: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1022: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1002: 997: 995:Lambda Velorum 992: 987: 985:Epsilon Pegasi 982: 977: 952: 949: 878: 875: 865: 862: 858: 855: 851: 848: 791: 788: 784: 781: 765:, can undergo 762: 759: 751: 748: 744: 741: 726: 723: 700: 697: 677: 674: 647: 605:slow irregular 585: 582: 577: 574: 570: 567: 563: 560: 549: 546: 542: 539: 532: 529: 526:Epsilon Pegasi 521: 518: 515:Alpha Herculis 501: 500: 497: 493: 492: 489: 485: 484: 481: 477: 476: 473: 469: 468: 465: 461: 460: 457: 453: 452: 449: 445: 444: 441: 437: 436: 433: 429: 428: 425: 421: 420: 417: 413: 412: 409: 405: 404: 393: 379: 376: 344: 343: 332: 325: 318: 311: 300:roman numerals 272: 271:Classification 269: 204: 194: 187: 183:Red supergiant 180: 173: 166: 159: 152: 145: 138: 129: 122: 115: 108: 101: 94: 87: 80: 73: 66: 59: 52: 45: 38: 31: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5134: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5097: 5087: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5073: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5046: 5038: 5036: 5028: 5027: 5024: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4953: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4911:SN 2014J 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4876:SN 1994D 4874: 4872: 4871:SN 1987A 4869: 4867: 4866:SN 1885A 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4840: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4793:Massive stars 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4774: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4752: 4748: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4682: 4681: 4678: 4674: 4671: 4670: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4594: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4584: 4578: 4575: 4571: 4568: 4567: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4490: 4487: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4469: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4438: 4433: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4407:Superluminous 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4387:Type Iax 4385: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4362: 4357: 4355: 4350: 4348: 4343: 4342: 4339: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4315: 4307: 4306: 4303: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4286:Intergalactic 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4266:Galactic year 4264: 4260: 4257: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4244: 4243: 4240: 4239: 4238: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4228: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4163: 4160: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4145:Most luminous 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4106: 4103: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4089: 4086: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4060:Proper motion 4058: 4056: 4053: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4023:Constellation 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3991:Solar eclipse 3989: 3988: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3977:Earth-centric 3975: 3969: 3966: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3948: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3802: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3769: 3766: 3765: 3764: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3748: 3747: 3744: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3727: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3699: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3677: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3653: 3650: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3622: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3575:Alpha process 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3534: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3497: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3485: 3483: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3396: 3395: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3366: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3355: 3352: 3348: 3347:Helium planet 3345: 3344: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3337:Parker's star 3335: 3333: 3330: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3321: 3315: 3312: 3308: 3305: 3304: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3288: 3287: 3286: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3268:Lambda Boötis 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3235: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3226: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3197: 3196: 3195: 3192: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3174: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3040: 3037: 3035: 3034:Superluminous 3032: 3031: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2992: 2988: 2985: 2984: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2962: 2961: 2958: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2938:Main sequence 2936: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2916: 2915:Hayashi track 2913: 2911: 2908: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2885: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2844: 2840: 2833: 2828: 2826: 2821: 2819: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2804: 2801: 2800: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2696: 2695: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2637: 2629: 2628: 2621: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2562: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2468: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2319: 2317: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2257: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2202: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2148: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2095: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1983: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1930: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1877: 1868: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1836: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1773: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1741: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1700: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1641: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1569: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1537: 1528: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1486: 1484: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1427: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1365: 1356: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1324: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1281: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1254: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1227: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1192: 1183: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1151: 1136: 1130: 1126: 1125: 1117: 1113: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1094: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1033: 1028: 1026: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 972: 971: 966: 962: 957: 948: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 887: 883: 874: 872: 845: 843: 838: 836: 832: 826: 823: 818: 816: 812: 808: 803: 799: 797: 794:due to rapid 778: 776: 772: 768: 757: 736: 731: 722: 720: 716: 712: 711: 706: 694: 692: 682: 673: 670: 664: 660: 657: 653: 645: 641: 639: 638:Ca II triplet 635: 629: 627: 623: 619: 614: 613:stellar winds 608: 606: 602: 598: 594: 589: 557: 555: 554:Hayashi limit 536: 527: 516: 512: 508: 498: 495: 494: 490: 487: 486: 482: 479: 478: 474: 471: 470: 466: 463: 462: 458: 455: 454: 450: 447: 446: 442: 439: 438: 434: 431: 430: 426: 423: 422: 418: 415: 414: 410: 407: 406: 402: 397: 394: 392: 387: 386: 375: 373: 370: 366: 360: 358: 354: 350: 341: 340:main sequence 337: 333: 330: 326: 323: 319: 316: 312: 309: 305: 304: 303: 301: 297: 296:Morgan-Keenan 293: 288: 284: 282: 278: 268: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 241:largest stars 238: 234: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 209: 192: 185: 178: 171: 169:Bright giants 164: 157: 150: 143: 136: 132:Main sequence 127: 120: 113: 106: 99: 92: 85: 78: 71: 64: 57: 50: 43: 36: 34:Spectral type 29: 22: 4921:Vela Remnant 4886:SN 1006 4851:SN 1000+0216 4829:Cassiopeia A 4798:Most distant 4729:Local Bubble 4702:Compact star 4680:Neutron star 4417:Calcium-rich 4382:Type Ia 4189:White dwarfs 4179:Brown dwarfs 4162:Most distant 4110:Most massive 4088:Proper names 4048:Photographic 4001:Solar System 3979:observations 3906:Star systems 3729:Stellar wind 3712:Chromosphere 3685:Oscillations 3565:Helium flash 3415:Hypothetical 3393:X-ray binary 3332:Compact star 3181: 3167:Bright giant 2920:Henyey track 2898:Herbig Ae/Be 2754: 2750: 2746: 2703: 2699: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2626: 2620: 2575: 2571: 2561: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2381: 2377: 2371: 2328: 2324: 2270: 2266: 2256: 2213: 2209: 2157: 2153: 2147: 2104: 2100: 2094: 2051: 2047: 1992: 1988: 1982: 1939: 1935: 1929: 1886: 1882: 1876: 1849: 1845: 1835: 1792: 1788: 1781: 1754: 1750: 1740: 1713: 1709: 1699: 1654: 1650: 1640: 1597: 1593: 1550: 1546: 1536: 1499: 1495: 1439: 1435: 1374: 1370: 1364: 1337: 1333: 1323: 1290: 1286: 1280: 1263: 1259: 1253: 1236: 1232: 1226: 1201: 1197: 1191: 1164: 1160: 1150: 1138:. Retrieved 1123: 1116: 1088: 1029: 1023: 969: 937:Stephenson 2 926: 891: 846: 839: 827: 819: 804: 800: 779: 739: 708: 695: 687: 665: 661: 642: 630: 609: 590: 558: 537: 504: 361: 345: 315:bright giant 295: 291: 289: 285: 274: 232: 230:Yerkes class 217: 213: 212: 181: 111:White dwarfs 104:Brown dwarfs 5096:Outer space 4931:ASASSN-15lh 4881:SN 185 4839:Crab Nebula 4734:Superbubble 4724:Zombie star 4707:electroweak 4637:White dwarf 4586:Progenitors 4550:Pulsar kick 4242:Brown dwarf 4018:Circumpolar 3896:Kraft break 3876:Color index 3851:Metallicity 3811:Designation 3780:Cosmic dust 3702:Photosphere 3468:Dark-energy 3443:Electroweak 3428:Black dwarf 3359:Radio-quiet 3342:White dwarf 3228:White dwarf 2878:Bok globule 2273:: L56–L60. 1716:: 137–144. 1044:VV Cephei A 1032:hypergiants 1014:Psi Aurigae 990:Zeta Cephei 842:metallicity 601:semiregular 593:variability 396:Temperature 365:Zeta Cephei 190:Hypergiants 176:Supergiants 162:Blue giants 5117:Star types 5106:Categories 4946:SN 2022jli 4941:SN 2018cow 4808:In fiction 4783:Candidates 4757:Guest star 4615:Supergiant 4593:Hypergiant 4555:Quark-nova 4457:Near-Earth 4440:Physics of 4368:Supernovae 4204:Candidates 4199:Supernovae 4184:Red dwarfs 4043:Extinction 3831:Kinematics 3826:Luminosity 3804:Properties 3697:Atmosphere 3595:Si burning 3585:Ne burning 3523:White hole 3496:Quasi-star 3423:Blue dwarf 3278:Technetium 3194:Hypergiant 3172:Supergiant 2764:2205.05156 2713:1605.03239 1889:(2): 107. 1509:2008.01108 1502:(3): 145. 1109:References 1000:Eta Persei 980:Betelgeuse 965:Betelgeuse 945:Alicante 8 910:Betelgeuse 822:blue loops 676:Definition 669:Betelgeuse 378:Properties 349:hypergiant 308:supergiant 257:Betelgeuse 226:supergiant 155:Red giants 134:("dwarfs") 118:Red dwarfs 5072:Astronomy 4846:iPTF14hls 4750:Discovery 4540:Micronova 4489:Neutrinos 4482:γ-process 4477:r-process 4472:p-process 4452:Foe/Bethe 4402:Hypernova 4135:Brightest 4033:Magnitude 4013:Pole star 3934:Symbiotic 3929:Eclipsing 3861:Starlight 3662:Structure 3652:Supernova 3645:Micronova 3640:Recurrent 3625:Symbiotic 3610:p-process 3605:r-process 3600:s-process 3590:O burning 3580:C burning 3560:CNO cycle 3503:Gravastar 3039:Hypernova 3029:Supernova 3004:Dredge-up 2977:Blue loop 2970:super-AGB 2953:Red clump 2930:Evolution 2888:Protostar 2868:Accretion 2860:Formation 2789:248316112 2585:1111.2630 2528:1208.3282 2280:1309.4268 2223:0705.4643 2167:0908.3087 2061:1410.8721 2002:1111.7003 1949:1203.4727 1921:118867155 1896:1308.3580 1802:1209.6427 1795:(1): 65. 1607:1110.5049 1384:1207.1850 1340:(1): 23. 1315:189936279 1204:: 29–50. 1140:31 August 1049:NML Cygni 1039:Mu Cephei 1019:119 Tauri 975:Antares A 914:Orion OB1 898:Hodge 301 796:CNO cycle 725:Evolution 691:supernova 597:irregular 552:. In the 357:NML Cygni 265:magnitude 261:Antares A 141:Subgiants 125:Subdwarfs 4955:Research 4861:Kepler's 4803:Remnants 4690:magnetar 4661:Remnants 4565:Imposter 4530:Kilonova 4314:Category 4209:Remnants 4105:Extremes 4065:Parallax 4038:Apparent 4028:Asterism 4006:Sunlight 3956:Globular 3941:Multiple 3866:Variable 3856:Rotation 3816:Dynamics 3707:Starspot 3381:Magnetar 3324:Remnants 3140:Subgiant 3113:Subdwarf 2965:post-AGB 2738:56239945 2612:59405479 2553:53662263 2459:11463246 2406:55932331 2307:53415703 2248:18334243 2192:14560155 2139:16724272 2086:38736311 2027:55001976 1974:55630819 1827:53393926 1632:85458919 1600:: A146. 1474:15109583 1409:55509287 1097:See also 1084:BI Cygni 1079:KY Cygni 1059:UY Scuti 1054:S Persei 1009:32 Cygni 951:Examples 906:NGC 7419 877:Clusters 866:☉ 859:☉ 852:☉ 815:nitrogen 792:☉ 785:☉ 763:☉ 752:☉ 745:☉ 701:☉ 634:cyanogen 586:☉ 578:☉ 571:☉ 564:☉ 550:☉ 543:☉ 533:☉ 522:☉ 389:Spectral 329:subgiant 253:luminous 235:) and a 197:absolute 5058:Portals 4962:ASAS-SN 4856:Tycho's 4834:SN 1054 4817:Notable 4788:Notable 4498:Related 4375:Classes 4281:Gravity 4230:Related 4150:Nearest 4098:Chinese 3946:Cluster 3919:Contact 3756:Proplyd 3630:Remnant 3518:Blitzar 3492:Hawking 3448:Strange 3398:Burster 3354:Neutron 3307:Extreme 3258:He-weak 2903:T Tauri 2769:Bibcode 2718:Bibcode 2706:: A16. 2682:5150686 2662:Bibcode 2590:Bibcode 2533:Bibcode 2521:: A15. 2486:Bibcode 2439:Bibcode 2386:Bibcode 2363:3369610 2343:Bibcode 2285:Bibcode 2228:Bibcode 2172:Bibcode 2119:Bibcode 2066:Bibcode 2054:: A60. 2007:Bibcode 1954:Bibcode 1942:: A36. 1901:Bibcode 1854:Bibcode 1807:Bibcode 1759:Bibcode 1757:: 209. 1718:Bibcode 1691:5203133 1669:Bibcode 1612:Bibcode 1555:Bibcode 1514:Bibcode 1454:Bibcode 1389:Bibcode 1377:: A42. 1342:Bibcode 1295:Bibcode 1268:Bibcode 1266:: 600. 1241:Bibcode 1239:: 123. 1206:Bibcode 1169:Bibcode 1167:: 723. 1074:WOH G64 920:in the 918:Antares 912:in the 835:opacity 372:HR 5171 249:massive 224:with a 4712:exotic 4685:pulsar 4630:yellow 4598:yellow 4505:Failed 4271:Galaxy 4259:Planet 4247:Desert 4155:bright 4093:Arabic 3914:Binary 3734:Bubble 3458:Planck 3433:Exotic 3369:Binary 3364:Pulsar 3302:Helium 3263:Barium 3206:Carbon 3199:Yellow 3187:Yellow 3160:Yellow 2999:PG1159 2787: 2757:: L1. 2736: 2680: 2610: 2551: 2457: 2404: 2361: 2305: 2246: 2190: 2137: 2084: 2025: 1995:: L8. 1972: 1919: 1825: 1689: 1630: 1472: 1407: 1313: 1131: 777:core. 771:oxygen 767:carbon 524:while 499:3,450 491:3,535 488:M4–4.5 483:3,550 475:3,605 467:3,615 459:3,660 451:3,710 443:3,745 435:3,790 427:3,840 419:4,015 411:4,100 408:K1–1.5 292:Yerkes 245:volume 220:) are 199:magni- 148:Giants 5084:Stars 4776:Lists 4717:quark 4276:Guest 4080:Lists 3961:Super 3615:Fusor 3488:Black 3473:Quark 3453:Preon 3438:Boson 3374:X-ray 3290:Shell 3243:Ap/Bp 3145:Giant 3063:Early 3009:OH/IR 2839:Stars 2785:S2CID 2759:arXiv 2734:S2CID 2708:arXiv 2678:S2CID 2652:arXiv 2608:S2CID 2580:arXiv 2549:S2CID 2523:arXiv 2455:S2CID 2429:arXiv 2402:S2CID 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