1024:
3495:
21:
3506:
1844:
Zhang, Z. H.; Raddi, R.; Burgasser, A. J.; Casewell, S. L.; Smart, R. L.; Galvez-Ortiz, M. C.; Jones, H. R. A.; Baig, S.; Lodieu, N.; Gauza, B.; Pavlenko, Ya. V.; Jiao, Y. F.; Zhao, Z. K.; Zhou, S. Y.; Pinfield, D. J. (2024-07-27). "Primeval very low-mass stars and brown dwarfs -- VIII. The first age
865:
color (ch1-ch2 = 0.925±0.039 mag). The very red color between J and ch2 (J-ch2 > 8.03 mag) and the absolute brightness would suggest a much redder ch1-ch2 color of about 2.4 to 3 mag. Due to the agreement with new subdwarf models, together with the high tangential velocity of
468:
was discovered in 2003 as the first L-type subdwarf, which was later re-classified as an extreme subdwarf. The L-type subdwarfs have subtypes similar to M-type subdwarfs: The subtypes subdwarf (sd), extreme subdwarfs (esd) and ultra subdwarfs (usd), which are defined by their decreasing
817:
is the first object that was discovered in 2002 as a T-type subdwarf candidate and in 2006 it was confirmed to have low metallicity. The first two extreme subdwarfs of type T were discovered in 2020 by scientists and volunteers of the
435:
can be used to discover subdwarfs. Additionally the subdwarfs have spectral features that make them different from subdwarfs with solar metallicity. All subdwarfs share the suppression of the near-infrared spectrum, mainly the
1460:
Burgasser, Adam J.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Burrows, Adam; Liebert, James; Reid, I. Neill; Gizis, John E.; et al. (August 2003). "The first substellar subdwarf? Discovery of a metal-poor L dwarf with halo kinematics".
1915:
Geier, S.; Edelmann, H.; Heber, U.; Morales-Rueda, L. (2009). "Discovery of a close substellar companion to the hot subdwarf star HD 149382 â the decisive influence of substellar objects on late stellar evolution".
267:
coined the term, the subdwarf type has been extended to lower-mass stars than were known at the time. Astronomers have also discovered an entirely different group of blue-white subdwarfs, making two distinct categories:
448:, causing this suppressed near-infrared spectrum. This is seen as blue infrared colors compared to brown dwarfs with solar metallicity. The low metallicity also change other absorption features, such as deeper
1001:
or gravitational influence from substellar companions. B-type subdwarfs, being more luminous than white dwarfs, are a significant component in the hot star population of old stellar systems, such as
649:
563:
805:
727:
3346:
846:) color, compared to objects with similar temperature, but with solar metallicity. The color of T-types as a single classification criterion can be misleading. The closest
345:
854:, was first classified as a subdwarf of type T due to its color, while not showing a high tangential velocity. Only in 2021 it was identified as an exoplanet.
823:
330:
383:
373:
1116:
at present is usually unmarked. Their place would be a streak lower than the main sequence, under the label "sequence" on the HR diagram at the right.
1400:
1186:
874:
1596:
Burgasser, Adam J.; Burrows, Adam; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy (2006). "Method for determining the physical properties of the coldest known brown dwarfs".
1775:
Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Marocco, Federico; Caselden, Dan; Meisner, Aaron M.; Faherty, Jacqueline K.; Schneider, Adam C.; et al. (June 2021).
1360:
Schweitzer, A.; Scholz, R.-D.; Stauffer, J.; Irwin, M.; McCaughrean, M.J. (1999). "APMPM J0559-2903: The coolest extreme subdwarf known".
901:(sdT8) is the companion of an old subdwarf-white dwarf binary, which is estimated to be older than 10 billion years. It has a mass of 44.9
415:
enriched the universe with heavier elements. The old subdwarfs belong therefore often to the older structures in our Milky Way, mainly the
970:
Hot subdwarfs, of bluish spectral types O and B are an entirely different class of object than cool subdwarfs; they are also called
1527:
Schneider, Adam C.; Burgasser, Adam J.; Gerasimov, Roman; Marocco, Federico; Gagne, Jonathan; Goodman, Sam; et al. (24 July 2020).
399:
of subdwarfs is coupled with their old age. The early universe had a low content of elements heavier than helium and formed stars and
441:
1301:"Revised metallicity classes for low-mass stars: Dwarfs (dM), subdwarfs (sdM), extreme Subdwarfs (esdM), and ultrasubdwarfs (usdM)"
1716:"The second discovery from the COCONUTS Program: A cold wide-orbit exoplanet around a young field M dwarf at 10.9 pc"
870:. (2021) argue that the most likely explanation is a cold very low-metal brown dwarf, maybe the first subdwarf of type Y.
222:
3378:
1872:
570:
484:
1714:
Zhang, Zhoujian; Liu, Michael C.; Claytor, Zachary R.; Best, William M.J.; Dupuy, Trent J.; Siverd, Robert J. (2021-07-01).
317:, resulting in a smaller, hotter star for a given mass. This lower opacity also allows them to emit a higher percentage of
839:
1396:"Primeval very low-mass stars and brown dwarfs - I. Six new L subdwarfs, classification and atmospheric properties"
3353:
2672:
847:
1394:
Zhang, Z.H.; Pinfield, D.J.; GĂĄlvez-Ortiz, M.C.; Burningham, B.; Lodieu, N.; Marocco, F.; et al. (January 2017).
1918:
1781:
1720:
738:
657:
1180:
Burningham, Ben; Smith, L.; Cardoso, C.V.; Lucas, P.W.; Burgasser, Adam J.; Jones, H.R.A.; Smart, R.L. (May 2014).
3065:
1113:
242:
25:
3358:
2995:
2979:
2014:
993:
The reasons for their premature loss of their hydrogen envelope are unclear, but the interaction of stars in a
3405:
3272:
256:
in 1939, to refer to a series of stars with anomalous spectra that were previously labeled as "intermediate
3388:
3339:
3314:
2607:
997:
system is thought to be one of the main mechanisms. Single subdwarfs may be the result of a merger of two
3329:
3309:
1971:
2692:
3393:
3324:
3294:
1362:
1143:
3400:
3277:
3254:
2836:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
1598:
1533:
1463:
1243:
2543:
2417:
2052:
932:
814:
465:
3319:
3070:
2869:
2779:
2739:
2721:
2647:
2218:
2144:
862:
843:
1659:
Meisner, Aaron M.; Schneider, Adam C.; Burgasser, Adam J.; Marocco, Federico; Line, Michael R.;
3480:
3460:
3232:
3227:
3125:
3020:
2969:
2774:
2764:
2437:
2235:
2203:
2094:
2077:
1035:
32:
1665:"New Candidate Extreme T Subdwarfs from the Backyard Worlds: Planet 9 Citizen Science Project"
1529:"WISEA J041451.67-585456.7 and WISEA J181006.18-101000.5: The first extreme T-type subdwarfs?"
1241:
Burgasser, Adam J.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy (2006). "Discovery of the coolest extreme subdwarf".
3334:
3304:
3299:
3289:
3217:
3005:
2171:
1305:
2452:
1375:
3475:
3373:
3363:
3212:
3180:
2974:
2769:
2754:
2067:
1937:
1881:
1800:
1739:
1686:
1617:
1552:
1482:
1419:
1371:
1324:
1262:
1205:
978:. Hot subdwarf stars represent a late stage in the evolution of some stars, caused when a
884:, allowing the age to be measured at 8.4 to 13.8 billion years. It has a mass of 84 to 87
8:
3531:
2935:
2918:
2589:
2491:
2314:
827:
449:
412:
3075:
1941:
1885:
1804:
1743:
1690:
1621:
1556:
1486:
1423:
1328:
1266:
1209:
3536:
3470:
3431:
3383:
3368:
3282:
3222:
3145:
3055:
3025:
3015:
2959:
2881:
2572:
2208:
2007:
1953:
1927:
1897:
1850:
1826:
1790:
1757:
1729:
1676:
1641:
1607:
1578:
1542:
1506:
1472:
1409:
1314:
1278:
1252:
1195:
858:
457:
453:
437:
314:
234:
195:
1949:
1054:
The heavy metal subdwarfs are a type of hot subdwarf star with high concentrations of
811:
For T-type subdwarfs only a small sample of subdwarfs and extreme subdwarfs is known.
3421:
2846:
2819:
2799:
2599:
2383:
2371:
2198:
2178:
2132:
2114:
2082:
1957:
1830:
1818:
1761:
1633:
1582:
1570:
1498:
1437:
1342:
1223:
1006:
973:
917:
474:
359:
2906:
1901:
1510:
1282:
3249:
3202:
3152:
3140:
3118:
3113:
3040:
3000:
2947:
2729:
2652:
2627:
2521:
2442:
2166:
2127:
1945:
1889:
1808:
1747:
1694:
1645:
1625:
1560:
1490:
1427:
1332:
1270:
1213:
1002:
945:
922:
423:. Objects in the thick disk or the halo have a high space velocity compared to the
408:
310:
218:
1777:"The enigmatic brown dwarf WISEA J153429.75-104303.3 (a.k.a. "the Accident")"
3436:
3239:
3108:
2952:
2923:
2864:
2859:
2734:
2462:
2427:
2361:
2307:
2302:
2247:
2057:
965:
961:
873:
Binaries can help to determine the age and mass of these subdwarfs. The subdwarf
819:
461:
174:
294:
stars, cool subdwarfs (of spectral types G to M) produce their energy from
3498:
3264:
3103:
2930:
2901:
2876:
2809:
2498:
2366:
2252:
2154:
2044:
2034:
1813:
1776:
1752:
1715:
1699:
1664:
1660:
1565:
1528:
1159:
927:
298:
181:
3525:
3450:
3244:
3207:
3175:
3050:
2759:
2582:
2553:
2531:
2149:
2122:
2099:
2000:
1822:
1637:
1574:
1502:
1441:
1346:
1227:
936:
878:
432:
420:
334:
322:
291:
264:
253:
246:
238:
130:
1432:
1395:
857:
The first Y-type subdwarf candidate was discovered in 2021, the brown dwarf
3510:
3185:
3135:
3130:
3030:
2913:
2896:
2854:
2824:
2814:
2749:
2632:
2577:
2558:
2538:
2516:
2508:
2351:
2344:
2183:
2104:
2087:
1218:
1181:
1139:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1055:
885:
326:
257:
167:
95:
88:
81:
74:
67:
60:
53:
46:
39:
16:
Star of luminosity class VI under the Yerkes spectral classification system
3426:
3098:
3090:
3080:
3060:
3035:
2964:
2886:
2642:
2617:
2612:
2526:
2486:
2447:
2412:
2395:
2390:
2062:
1612:
1477:
1257:
998:
994:
939:
881:
851:
470:
400:
396:
318:
302:
109:
102:
1299:
LĂ©pine, SĂ©bastien; Rich, R. Michael; Shara, Michael M. (November 2007).
1023:
3010:
2707:
2680:
2657:
2637:
2622:
2474:
2378:
2356:
2334:
2329:
2193:
1893:
416:
230:
188:
160:
146:
3197:
3045:
2829:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2744:
2697:
2687:
2481:
2457:
2432:
2339:
2290:
2223:
2213:
2188:
2161:
2137:
2072:
1071:
1063:
1059:
979:
898:
894:
428:
404:
153:
116:
20:
3190:
2891:
2565:
2324:
1855:
1795:
1734:
1681:
1629:
1547:
1494:
1414:
1393:
1337:
1300:
1274:
983:
445:
295:
139:
1932:
1526:
1459:
1319:
1200:
3465:
2940:
2702:
2469:
2422:
2405:
2400:
2319:
1774:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1067:
831:
363:
1658:
1522:
1520:
344:
Cool subdwarfs of spectral type L and T exist, for example
3455:
3443:
2662:
2548:
1914:
1845:
benchmark L subdwarf, a wide companion to a halo white dwarf".
987:
835:
306:
1448:
1517:
1359:
337:, they frequently have high space velocities relative to the
301:. The explanation of their underluminosity lies in their low
1870:
Jeffery, C. Simon (2005). "Pulsations in
Subdwarf B Stars".
1175:
1173:
1112:
are as yet fairly rarely seen stars, and their place on the
2804:
2023:
1843:
1595:
1179:
1075:
226:
3505:
1389:
1387:
1385:
3170:
1170:
732:
424:
338:
1992:
1294:
1292:
822:
project. The first extreme subdwarfs of type T are
305:: These stars are not enriched in elements heavier than
1382:
834:
in their atmosphere, due to the lower concentration of
644:{\displaystyle \ -1.7<{\bigl }_{\star }\leq -1.0\ ,}
558:{\displaystyle \ -1.0<{\bigl }_{\star }\leq -0.3\ ,}
473:, compared to solar metallicity, which is defined on a
753:
672:
594:
508:
460:
band at 0.8 ÎŒm in early L-subdwarfs and stronger
1289:
741:
660:
573:
487:
1240:
1713:
464:band at 0.99 ÎŒm for mid- to late L-subdwarfs.
237:lower than that of main-sequence stars of the same
799:
721:
643:
557:
1401:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1187:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1105:
1103:
838:in these subdwarfs. This leads to a bluer W1-W2 (
3523:
1298:
1134:
1132:
390:
351:Subclasses of cool subdwarfs are as following:
1100:
800:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }_{\odot }\equiv 0\ ,}
722:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }_{\star }\leq -1.7~.}
456:bands at 0.7 ÎŒm in L-subdwarfs, a weaker
2008:
911:
774:
747:
693:
666:
615:
588:
529:
502:
440:and K-band. The low metallicity increase the
1972:"Astronomers discover two heavy metal stars"
1138:
1129:
217:, sometimes denoted by "sd", is a star with
1166:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP. p. 122.
830:. Subdwarfs of type T and Y have less
2015:
2001:
1148:. New York, NY: Oxford UP. pp. 87â92.
877:(sdL3) was discovered as a companion to a
1931:
1854:
1837:
1812:
1794:
1751:
1733:
1698:
1680:
1611:
1564:
1546:
1476:
1431:
1413:
1336:
1318:
1256:
1217:
1199:
284:
272:
1109:
1012:
952:
313:of their outer layers and decreases the
277:
1869:
951:
283:
3524:
1078:. Known heavy metal subdwarfs include
986:layers before the core begins to fuse
764:
759:
756:
683:
678:
675:
605:
600:
597:
519:
514:
511:
309:. The lower metallicity decreases the
1996:
1873:Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy
1158:
333:. Usually members of the Milky Way's
1018:
866:200 km/s, Kirkpatrick, Marocco
403:with lower metallicity. Only later
13:
1182:"The discovery of a T6.5 subdwarf"
942:and the first substellar subdwarf.
252:The term "subdwarf" was coined by
245:subdwarfs appear to lie below the
14:
3548:
1919:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
1782:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
1721:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
3504:
3494:
3493:
1022:
348:with spectral type sdT6.5.
19:
1964:
1908:
1863:
1768:
1707:
1652:
1589:
893:, making VVV 1256â62B likely a
427:, which belongs to the younger
1353:
1234:
1152:
1058:. The metals detected include
223:Yerkes spectral classification
1:
3406:Timeline of stellar astronomy
1663:; et al. (2 June 2021).
1123:
861:, which shows a moderate red
329:star, a feature known as the
1093:
442:collision induced absorption
391:Subdwarfs of type L, T and Y
225:system. They are defined as
7:
3066:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
1950:10.1088/0004-637X/702/1/L96
908:, making it a brown dwarf.
243:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
27:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
10:
3553:
2980:KelvinâHelmholtz mechanism
1363:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1145:The Alchemy of the Heavens
959:
912:Examples of cool subdwarfs
3489:
3414:
3263:
3161:
3089:
2988:
2845:
2720:
2598:
2507:
2243:
2234:
2113:
2043:
2030:
2022:
1669:The Astrophysical Journal
1599:The Astrophysical Journal
1534:The Astrophysical Journal
1464:The Astrophysical Journal
1244:The Astrophysical Journal
18:
3359:With multiple exoplanets
1814:10.3847/2041-8213/ac0437
1753:10.3847/2041-8213/ac1123
1700:10.3847/1538-4357/ac013c
1566:10.3847/1538-4357/ab9a40
346:ULAS J131610.28+075553.0
2145:Asymptotic giant branch
1376:1999A&A...350L..62S
1164:Stars and their Spectra
933:2MASS J05325346+8246465
863:Spitzer Space Telescope
567:extreme subdwarfs have
3481:Tidal disruption event
2970:Circumstellar envelope
2204:Luminous blue variable
1661:Faherty, Jacqueline K.
815:2MASSI J0937347+293142
801:
723:
645:
559:
3006:Effective temperature
1433:10.1093/mnras/stw2438
1306:Astrophysical Journal
1013:Heavy metal subdwarfs
982:star loses its outer
802:
724:
654:ultra subdwarfs have
646:
560:
3476:Planet-hosting stars
3354:With resolved images
3325:Historical brightest
3255:Photometric-standard
3181:Solar radio emission
2975:Eddington luminosity
2755:Triple-alpha process
2693:ThorneâĆ»ytkow object
2068:Young stellar object
1219:10.1093/mnras/stu184
953:Hot (blue) subdwarfs
739:
658:
571:
485:
413:neutron star mergers
285:Cool (red) subdwarfs
3300:Highest temperature
3071:Colorâcolor diagram
2936:Protoplanetary disk
2740:Protonâproton chain
2418:Chemically peculiar
1942:2009ApJ...702L..96G
1886:2005JApA...26..261J
1805:2021ApJ...915L...6K
1744:2021ApJ...916L..11Z
1691:2021ApJ...915..120M
1622:2006ApJ...639.1095B
1557:2020ApJ...898...77S
1487:2003ApJ...592.1186B
1424:2017MNRAS.464.3040Z
1329:2007ApJ...669.1235L
1267:2006ApJ...645.1485B
1210:2014MNRAS.440..359B
1007:elliptical galaxies
897:star. The subdwarf
321:light for the same
221: VI under the
3305:Lowest temperature
3056:Photometric system
3026:Absolute magnitude
2960:Circumstellar dust
2573:Stellar black hole
2209:Stellar population
2095:HerbigâHaro object
1894:10.1007/BF02702334
1034:. You can help by
797:
769:
735:sets the scale at
719:
688:
641:
610:
555:
524:
331:ultraviolet excess
315:radiation pressure
3519:
3518:
3422:Substellar object
3401:Planetary nebulae
2820:Luminous red nova
2730:Deuterium burning
2716:
2715:
2199:Instability strip
2179:Wolf-Rayet nebula
2133:Horizontal branch
2078:Pre-main-sequence
1052:
1051:
1003:globular clusters
974:horizontal-branch
793:
768:
744:
715:
687:
663:
637:
609:
576:
551:
523:
490:
475:logarithmic scale
409:planetary nebulae
3544:
3511:Stars portal
3509:
3508:
3497:
3496:
3153:Planetary system
3076:Strömgren sphere
2948:Asteroseismology
2669:Black hole star
2241:
2240:
2167:Planetary nebula
2128:Red-giant branch
2017:
2010:
2003:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1935:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1880:(2â3): 261â271.
1867:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1816:
1798:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1755:
1737:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1684:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1615:
1613:astro-ph/0510707
1606:(2): 1095â1113.
1593:
1587:
1586:
1568:
1550:
1524:
1515:
1514:
1480:
1478:astro-ph/0304174
1471:(2): 1186â1192.
1457:
1446:
1445:
1435:
1417:
1408:(3): 3040â3059.
1391:
1380:
1379:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1340:
1322:
1313:(2): 1235â1247.
1296:
1287:
1286:
1260:
1258:astro-ph/0603382
1251:(2): 1485â1497.
1238:
1232:
1231:
1221:
1203:
1177:
1168:
1167:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1136:
1117:
1107:
1047:
1044:
1026:
1019:
954:
946:SSSPM J1549-3544
923:Groombridge 1830
806:
804:
803:
798:
791:
784:
783:
778:
777:
770:
767:
762:
754:
751:
750:
742:
728:
726:
725:
720:
713:
703:
702:
697:
696:
689:
686:
681:
673:
670:
669:
661:
650:
648:
647:
642:
635:
625:
624:
619:
618:
611:
608:
603:
595:
592:
591:
574:
564:
562:
561:
556:
549:
539:
538:
533:
532:
525:
522:
517:
509:
506:
505:
488:
466:2MASS J0532+8246
374:APMPM J0559-2903
369:extreme subdwarf
286:
219:luminosity class
208:
191:
184:
177:
170:
163:
156:
149:
142:
135:
126:
119:
112:
105:
98:
91:
84:
77:
70:
63:
56:
49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
3552:
3551:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3503:
3485:
3410:
3379:Milky Way novae
3315:Smallest volume
3259:
3240:Radial velocity
3163:
3157:
3109:Common envelope
3085:
2984:
2953:Helioseismology
2924:Bipolar outflow
2865:Microturbulence
2860:Convection zone
2841:
2735:Lithium burning
2722:Nucleosynthesis
2712:
2594:
2503:
2230:
2109:
2058:Molecular cloud
2039:
2026:
2021:
1991:
1981:
1979:
1978:. 2 August 2013
1970:
1969:
1965:
1913:
1909:
1868:
1864:
1842:
1838:
1773:
1769:
1712:
1708:
1657:
1653:
1594:
1590:
1525:
1518:
1458:
1449:
1392:
1383:
1358:
1354:
1297:
1290:
1239:
1235:
1178:
1171:
1157:
1153:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1120:
1108:
1101:
1096:
1048:
1042:
1039:
1032:needs expansion
1015:
968:
966:O-type subdwarf
962:B-type subdwarf
960:Main articles:
956:
914:
907:
904:
891:
888:
848:directly imaged
828:WISEA 1810â1010
824:WISEA 0414â5854
820:Backyard Worlds
779:
773:
772:
771:
763:
755:
752:
746:
745:
740:
737:
736:
698:
692:
691:
690:
682:
674:
671:
665:
664:
659:
656:
655:
620:
614:
613:
612:
604:
596:
593:
587:
586:
572:
569:
568:
534:
528:
527:
526:
518:
510:
507:
501:
500:
486:
483:
482:
481:subdwarfs have
393:
384:LSPM J0822+1700
288:
233: 1.5 to 2
211:
210:
206:
202:
200:
198:
196:
193:
189:
186:
182:
179:
175:
172:
168:
165:
161:
158:
154:
151:
147:
144:
140:
137:
133:
131:
128:
124:
121:
117:
114:
110:
107:
103:
100:
96:
93:
89:
86:
82:
79:
75:
72:
68:
65:
61:
58:
54:
51:
47:
44:
40:
37:
33:
30:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3550:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3501:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3397:
3396:
3391:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3310:Largest volume
3307:
3302:
3297:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3269:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3167:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3128:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3095:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3021:Magnetic field
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2992:
2990:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2931:Accretion disk
2928:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2907:Alfvén surface
2904:
2902:Stellar corona
2899:
2894:
2889:
2879:
2877:Radiation zone
2874:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2857:
2851:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2675:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2615:
2610:
2604:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2575:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2556:
2546:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2519:
2513:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2499:Blue straggler
2496:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2415:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2388:
2387:
2386:
2376:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2354:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2295:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2257:Main sequence
2255:
2250:
2244:
2238:
2236:Classification
2232:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2221:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2172:Protoplanetary
2164:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2130:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2020:
2019:
2012:
2005:
1997:
1990:
1989:
1963:
1926:(1): L96âL99.
1907:
1862:
1836:
1767:
1706:
1651:
1630:10.1086/499344
1588:
1516:
1495:10.1086/375813
1447:
1381:
1352:
1338:10.1086/521614
1288:
1275:10.1086/504375
1233:
1194:(1): 359â364.
1169:
1151:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1050:
1049:
1029:
1027:
1014:
1011:
955:
950:
949:
948:
943:
930:
928:Mu Cassiopeiae
925:
920:
918:Kapteyn's Star
913:
910:
905:
902:
889:
886:
859:WISE 1534â1043
842:) or ch1-ch2 (
809:
808:
807:by definition.
796:
790:
787:
782:
776:
766:
761:
758:
749:
729:
718:
712:
709:
706:
701:
695:
685:
680:
677:
668:
652:
640:
634:
631:
628:
623:
617:
607:
602:
599:
590:
585:
582:
579:
565:
554:
548:
545:
542:
537:
531:
521:
516:
513:
504:
499:
496:
493:
392:
389:
388:
387:
380:
377:
370:
367:
360:Kapteyn's Star
356:
325:relative to a
290:Like ordinary
287:
282:
281:
280:
275:
273:Cool subdwarfs
204:
194:
187:
183:Red supergiant
180:
173:
166:
159:
152:
145:
138:
129:
122:
115:
108:
101:
94:
87:
80:
73:
66:
59:
52:
45:
38:
31:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3549:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3500:
3492:
3491:
3488:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3471:Intergalactic
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3451:Galactic year
3449:
3445:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3348:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3330:Most luminous
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3262:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3245:Proper motion
3243:
3241:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3208:Constellation
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3176:Solar eclipse
3174:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3162:Earth-centric
3160:
3154:
3151:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2760:Alpha process
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2537:
2533:
2532:Helium planet
2530:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2522:Parker's star
2520:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2497:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2453:Lambda Boötis
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2296:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2219:Superluminous
2217:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2123:Main sequence
2121:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2100:Hayashi track
2098:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2013:
2011:
2006:
2004:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1977:
1974:. Astronomy.
1973:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1874:
1866:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1783:
1778:
1771:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1710:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1592:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1523:
1521:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1356:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1295:
1293:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1245:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1174:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1133:
1128:
1115:
1111:
1110:Hot subdwarfs
1106:
1104:
1099:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1046:
1037:
1033:
1030:This section
1028:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1017:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
991:
989:
985:
981:
977:
975:
967:
963:
958:
947:
944:
941:
938:
935:, a possible
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
915:
909:
900:
896:
892:
883:
880:
876:
871:
869:
864:
860:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
816:
812:
794:
788:
785:
780:
734:
730:
716:
710:
707:
704:
699:
653:
638:
632:
629:
626:
621:
583:
580:
577:
566:
552:
546:
543:
540:
535:
497:
494:
491:
480:
479:
478:
476:
472:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
434:
433:proper motion
430:
426:
422:
421:galactic halo
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
385:
381:
379:ultrasubdwarf
378:
375:
371:
368:
365:
361:
357:
355:cool subdwarf
354:
353:
352:
349:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
323:spectral type
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
297:
293:
292:main-sequence
279:
278:Hot subdwarfs
276:
274:
271:
270:
269:
266:
261:
259:
255:
254:Gerard Kuiper
250:
248:
247:main sequence
244:
240:
239:spectral type
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
209:
192:
185:
178:
171:
169:Bright giants
164:
157:
150:
143:
136:
132:Main sequence
127:
120:
113:
106:
99:
92:
85:
78:
71:
64:
57:
50:
43:
36:
34:Spectral type
29:
22:
3374:White dwarfs
3364:Brown dwarfs
3347:Most distant
3295:Most massive
3273:Proper names
3233:Photographic
3186:Solar System
3164:observations
3091:Star systems
2914:Stellar wind
2897:Chromosphere
2870:Oscillations
2750:Helium flash
2600:Hypothetical
2578:X-ray binary
2517:Compact star
2352:Bright giant
2297:
2105:Henyey track
2083:Herbig Ae/Be
1980:. Retrieved
1976:Sci-News.com
1975:
1966:
1923:
1917:
1910:
1877:
1871:
1865:
1846:
1839:
1786:
1780:
1770:
1725:
1719:
1709:
1672:
1668:
1654:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1538:
1532:
1468:
1462:
1405:
1399:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1310:
1304:
1248:
1242:
1236:
1191:
1185:
1163:
1160:Kaler, James
1154:
1144:
1140:Croswell, K.
1088:HE 1256-2738
1084:LS IV-14 116
1080:HE 2359-2844
1056:heavy metals
1053:
1040:
1036:adding to it
1031:
1016:
999:white dwarfs
992:
971:
969:
957:
875:VVV 1256â62B
872:
867:
856:
813:
810:
401:brown dwarfs
394:
350:
343:
327:Population I
289:
262:
258:white dwarfs
251:
214:
212:
123:
111:White dwarfs
104:Brown dwarfs
3427:Brown dwarf
3203:Circumpolar
3081:Kraft break
3061:Color index
3036:Metallicity
2996:Designation
2965:Cosmic dust
2887:Photosphere
2653:Dark-energy
2628:Electroweak
2613:Black dwarf
2544:Radio-quiet
2527:White dwarf
2413:White dwarf
2063:Bok globule
995:binary star
940:brown dwarf
882:white dwarf
852:COCONUTS-2b
850:exoplanet,
471:metallicity
397:metallicity
319:ultraviolet
303:metallicity
190:Hypergiants
176:Supergiants
162:Blue giants
3532:Star types
3526:Categories
3389:Candidates
3384:Supernovae
3369:Red dwarfs
3228:Extinction
3016:Kinematics
3011:Luminosity
2989:Properties
2882:Atmosphere
2780:Si burning
2770:Ne burning
2708:White hole
2681:Quasi-star
2608:Blue dwarf
2463:Technetium
2379:Hypergiant
2357:Supergiant
1982:5 November
1856:2407.19219
1796:2106.13408
1735:2107.02805
1728:(2): L11.
1682:2106.01387
1675:(2): 120.
1548:2007.03836
1415:1609.07181
1124:References
1114:HR diagram
1043:March 2024
899:Wolf 1130C
417:thick disk
405:supernovae
358:Examples:
235:magnitudes
231:luminosity
155:Red giants
134:("dwarfs")
118:Red dwarfs
3537:Subdwarfs
3320:Brightest
3218:Magnitude
3198:Pole star
3119:Symbiotic
3114:Eclipsing
3046:Starlight
2847:Structure
2837:Supernova
2830:Micronova
2825:Recurrent
2810:Symbiotic
2795:p-process
2790:r-process
2785:s-process
2775:O burning
2765:C burning
2745:CNO cycle
2688:Gravastar
2224:Hypernova
2214:Supernova
2189:Dredge-up
2162:Blue loop
2155:super-AGB
2138:Red clump
2115:Evolution
2073:Protostar
2053:Accretion
2045:Formation
1958:119282460
1933:0908.1025
1831:235651911
1823:2041-8205
1789:(1): L6.
1762:236464073
1638:0004-637X
1583:220403370
1575:1538-4357
1541:(1): 77.
1503:0004-637X
1442:0035-8711
1347:0004-637X
1320:0707.2993
1228:0035-8711
1201:1401.5982
1094:Footnotes
1072:zirconium
1064:strontium
1060:germanium
980:red giant
972:"extreme
895:red dwarf
786:≡
781:⊙
708:−
705:≤
700:⋆
630:−
627:≤
622:⋆
578:−
544:−
541:≤
536:⋆
492:−
431:. A high
429:thin disk
386:(usdM7.5)
382:Example:
372:Example:
141:Subgiants
125:Subdwarfs
3499:Category
3394:Remnants
3290:Extremes
3250:Parallax
3223:Apparent
3213:Asterism
3191:Sunlight
3141:Globular
3126:Multiple
3051:Variable
3041:Rotation
3001:Dynamics
2892:Starspot
2566:Magnetar
2509:Remnants
2325:Subgiant
2298:Subdwarf
2150:post-AGB
1902:13814916
1511:11895472
1283:10911965
1162:(1989).
1142:(1995).
984:hydrogen
446:hydrogen
419:and the
395:The low
366:(sdM2.5)
362:(sdM1),
296:hydrogen
215:subdwarf
197:absolute
3466:Gravity
3415:Related
3335:Nearest
3283:Chinese
3131:Cluster
3104:Contact
2941:Proplyd
2815:Remnant
2703:Blitzar
2677:Hawking
2633:Strange
2583:Burster
2539:Neutron
2492:Extreme
2443:He-weak
2088:T Tauri
1938:Bibcode
1882:Bibcode
1801:Bibcode
1740:Bibcode
1687:Bibcode
1646:9291848
1618:Bibcode
1553:Bibcode
1483:Bibcode
1420:Bibcode
1372:Bibcode
1370:: L62.
1325:Bibcode
1263:Bibcode
1206:Bibcode
1068:yttrium
844:Spitzer
832:methane
376:(esdM7)
364:GJ 1062
311:opacity
241:. On a
3456:Galaxy
3444:Planet
3432:Desert
3340:bright
3278:Arabic
3099:Binary
2919:Bubble
2643:Planck
2618:Exotic
2554:Binary
2549:Pulsar
2487:Helium
2448:Barium
2391:Carbon
2384:Yellow
2372:Yellow
2345:Yellow
2184:PG1159
1956:
1900:
1829:
1821:
1760:
1644:
1636:
1581:
1573:
1509:
1501:
1440:
1345:
1281:
1226:
1086:, and
988:helium
976:stars"
836:carbon
792:
743:
714:
662:
636:
575:
550:
489:
438:H-band
307:helium
299:fusion
265:Kuiper
263:Since
199:magni-
148:Giants
3461:Guest
3265:Lists
3146:Super
2800:Fusor
2673:Black
2658:Quark
2638:Preon
2623:Boson
2559:X-ray
2475:Shell
2428:Ap/Bp
2330:Giant
2248:Early
2194:OH/IR
2024:Stars
1954:S2CID
1928:arXiv
1898:S2CID
1851:arXiv
1847:MNRAS
1827:S2CID
1791:arXiv
1758:S2CID
1730:arXiv
1677:arXiv
1642:S2CID
1608:arXiv
1579:S2CID
1543:arXiv
1507:S2CID
1473:arXiv
1410:arXiv
1315:arXiv
1279:S2CID
1253:arXiv
1196:arXiv
868:et al
229:with
227:stars
3136:Open
3031:Mass
2855:Core
2805:Nova
2698:Iron
2648:Dark
2458:Lead
2438:HgMn
2433:CEMP
2362:Blue
2335:Blue
2253:Late
2035:List
1984:2016
1819:ISSN
1634:ISSN
1571:ISSN
1499:ISSN
1438:ISSN
1343:ISSN
1224:ISSN
1076:lead
1074:and
1005:and
964:and
937:halo
879:halo
840:WISE
826:and
731:The
584:<
498:<
452:and
411:and
335:halo
201:tude
3437:Sub
3171:Sun
2590:SGR
2367:Red
2340:Red
1946:doi
1924:702
1890:doi
1809:doi
1787:915
1748:doi
1726:916
1695:doi
1673:915
1626:doi
1604:639
1561:doi
1539:898
1491:doi
1469:592
1428:doi
1406:464
1368:350
1333:doi
1311:669
1271:doi
1249:645
1214:doi
1192:440
1038:.
733:Sun
711:1.7
651:and
633:1.0
581:1.7
547:0.3
495:1.0
462:FeH
454:TiO
450:CaH
444:of
425:Sun
339:Sun
260:".
3528::
2470:Be
2423:Am
2406:CH
2401:CN
2320:OB
2315:WR
1952:.
1944:.
1936:.
1922:.
1896:.
1888:.
1878:26
1876:.
1849:.
1825:.
1817:.
1807:.
1799:.
1785:.
1779:.
1756:.
1746:.
1738:.
1724:.
1718:.
1693:.
1685:.
1671:.
1667:.
1640:.
1632:.
1624:.
1616:.
1602:.
1577:.
1569:.
1559:.
1551:.
1537:.
1531:.
1519:^
1505:.
1497:.
1489:.
1481:.
1467:.
1450:^
1436:.
1426:.
1418:.
1404:.
1398:.
1384:^
1366:.
1341:.
1331:.
1323:.
1309:.
1303:.
1291:^
1277:.
1269:.
1261:.
1247:.
1222:.
1212:.
1204:.
1190:.
1184:.
1172:^
1131:^
1102:^
1090:.
1082:,
1070:,
1066:,
1062:,
1009:.
990:.
477::
458:VO
407:,
341:.
249:.
213:A
203:(M
2663:Q
2482:B
2396:S
2308:B
2303:O
2291:M
2286:K
2281:G
2276:F
2271:A
2266:B
2261:O
2016:e
2009:t
2002:v
1986:.
1960:.
1948::
1940::
1930::
1904:.
1892::
1884::
1859:.
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1833:.
1811::
1803::
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1648:.
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694:]
684:H
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667:[
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520:H
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205:V
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83:M
76:K
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55:A
48:B
41:O
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