Stellar classification

3664: 10653: 1968:

the intensity of hydrogen spectral lines, which causes variation in the wavelengths emanated from stars and results in variation in color appearance. The spectra in class A tended to produce the strongest hydrogen absorption lines while spectra in class O produced virtually no visible lines. The lettering system displayed the gradual decrease in hydrogen absorption in the spectral classes when moving down the alphabet. This classification system was later modified by Annie Jump Cannon and Antonia Maury to produce the Harvard spectral classification scheme.

3430: 40: 3120: 10615: 3926: 3679:. These are red giants, near the end of their lives, in which there is an excess of carbon in the atmosphere. The old R and N classes ran parallel to the normal classification system from roughly mid-G to late M. These have more recently been remapped into a unified carbon classifier C with N0 starting at roughly C6. Another subset of cool carbon stars are the C–J-type stars, which are characterized by the strong presence of molecules of 3369: 3003: 2870: 2735: 2625: 2538: 2350: 2231: 3145: 10665: 3309: 10689: 10677: 10626: 3281:, cool as they age and so progress to later spectral types. Brown dwarfs start their lives with M-type spectra and will cool through the L, T, and Y spectral classes, faster the less massive they are; the highest-mass brown dwarfs cannot have cooled to Y or even T dwarfs within the age of the universe. Because this leads to an unresolvable overlap between spectral types 2261:. Spectral type O7 was defined to be the point at which the two intensities are equal, with the He I line weakening towards earlier types. Type O3 was, by definition, the point at which said line disappears altogether, although it can be seen very faintly with modern technology. Due to this, the modern definition uses the ratio of the 2373: II λ4541 disappears. However, with modern equipment, the line is still apparent in the early B-type stars. Today for main-sequence stars, the B class is instead defined by the intensity of the He I violet spectrum, with the maximum intensity corresponding to class B2. For supergiants, lines of 1980:, placed the Orion subtype of Secchi class I ahead of the remainder of Secchi class I, thus placing the modern type B ahead of the modern type A. She was the first to do so, although she did not use lettered spectral types, but rather a series of twenty-two types numbered from I–XXII. 311:

conventional colour descriptions would suggest. This characteristic of 'lightness' indicates that the simplified assignment of colours within the spectrum can be misleading. Excluding colour-contrast effects in dim light, in typical viewing conditions there are no green, cyan, indigo, or violet stars.

8179:

Burningham, Ben; Pinfield, D. J.; Leggett, S. K.; Tamura, M.; Lucas, P. W.; Homeier, D.; Day-Jones, A.; Jones, H. R. A.; Clarke, J. R. A.; Ishii, M.; Kuzuhara, M.; Lodieu, N.; Zapatero-Osorio, María Rosa; Venemans, B. P.; Mortlock, D. J.; Barrado y Navascués, D.; Martin, Eduardo L.; Magazzù, Antonio

4133:

Working from these constraints and the problems of having an empirical sample set of only one, the range of stars that are predicted to be able to support life is limited by a few factors. Of the main-sequence star types, stars more massive than 1.5 times that of the Sun (spectral types O, B, and A)

3437:

Brown dwarfs of spectral class Y are cooler than those of spectral class T and have qualitatively different spectra from them. A total of 17 objects have been placed in class Y as of August 2013. Although such dwarfs have been modelled and detected within forty light-years by the

2086:

Finally, by 1912, Cannon had changed the types B, A, B5A, F2G, etc. to B0, A0, B5, F2, etc. This is essentially the modern form of the Harvard classification system. This system was developed through the analysis of spectra on photographic plates, which could convert light emanated from stars into a

1967:

The catalogue used a scheme in which the previously used Secchi classes (I to V) were subdivided into more specific classes, given letters from A to P. Also, the letter Q was used for stars not fitting into any other class. Fleming worked with Pickering to differentiate 17 different classes based on

8478:

Looper, Dagny L.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Cutri, Roc M.; Barman, Travis; Burgasser, Adam J.; Cushing, Michael C.; Roellig, Thomas; McGovern, Mark R.; McLean, Ian S.; Rice, Emily; Swift, Brandon J. (October 2008). "Discovery of two nearby peculiar L dwarfs from the 2MASS Proper-Motion Survey: Young or

8069:

Leggett, Sandy K.; Cushing, Michael C.; Saumon, Didier; Marley, Mark S.; Roellig, Thomas L.; Warren, Stephen J.; Burningham, Ben; Jones, Hugh R. A.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Lodieu, Nicolas; Lucas, Philip W.; Mainzer, Amy K.; Martín, Eduardo L.; McCaughrean, Mark J.; Pinfield, David J.; Sloan, Gregory

4244:

These proportions are fractions of stars brighter than absolute magnitude 16; lowering this limit will render earlier types even rarer, whereas generally adding only to the M class. The proportions are calculated ignoring the value of 800 in the total column since the actual numbers add up to

3782:

The spectral type is formed by the letter S and a number between zero and ten. This number corresponds to the temperature of the star and approximately follows the temperature scale used for class M giants. The most common types are S3 to S5. The non-standard designation S10 has only been

2377:

are used instead; the Si IV λ4089 and Si III λ4552 lines are indicative of early B. At mid-B, the intensity of the latter relative to that of Si II λλ4128-30 is the defining characteristic, while for late B, it is the intensity of Mg II λ4481 relative to that of He I λ4471.

8547:

Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Looper, Dagny L.; Burgasser, Adam J.; Schurr, Steven D.; Cutri, Roc M.; Cushing, Michael C.; Cruz, Kelle L.; Sweet, Anne C.; Knapp, Gillian R.; Barman, Travis S.; Bochanski, John J. (September 2010). "Discoveries from a near-infrared proper motion survey using multi-epoch Two

4081:

A classification system for neutron stars using Roman numerals has been proposed: type I for less massive neutron stars with low cooling rates, type II for more massive neutron stars with higher cooling rates, and a proposed type III for more massive neutron stars (possible exotic star candidates)

3232:

There is a secondary group found with these spectra, a cooler, "intermediate" group designated "Ofpe/WN9". These stars have also been referred to as WN10 or WN11, but that has become less popular with the realisation of the evolutionary difference from other Wolf–Rayet stars. Recent discoveries of

2082:

returned to the lettered types, but dropped all letters except O, B, A, F, G, K, M, and N used in that order, as well as P for planetary nebulae and Q for some peculiar spectra. She also used types such as B5A for stars halfway between types B and A, F2G for stars one fifth of the way from F to G,

2069:

Antonia Maury published her own stellar classification catalogue in 1897 called "Spectra of Bright Stars Photographed with the 11 inch Draper Telescope as Part of the Henry Draper Memorial", which included 4,800 photographs and Maury's analyses of 681 bright northern stars. This was

3834:

and have shrunk to planetary size, slowly cooling down. Class D is further divided into spectral types DA, DB, DC, DO, DQ, DX, and DZ. The letters are not related to the letters used in the classification of other stars, but instead indicate the composition of the white dwarf's visible outer

2924:

become present. Mainstream theories (those rooted in lower harmful radioactivity and star longevity) would thus suggest such stars have the optimal chances of heavily evolved life developing on orbiting planets (if such life is directly analogous to Earth's) due to a broad habitable zone yet much

960:

spectral sequence is actually a sequence in temperature. Because the classification sequence predates our understanding that it is a temperature sequence, the placement of a spectrum into a given subtype, such as B3 or A7, depends upon (largely subjective) estimates of the strengths of absorption

4086:

flux it carries. These neutrinos carry away so much heat energy that after only a few years the temperature of an isolated neutron star falls from the order of billions to only around a million Kelvin. This proposed neutron star classification system is not to be confused with the earlier Secchi

4077:

are dynamic and tend to quickly fade in brightness as the progenitor star transitions to the white dwarf branch. If shown, a planetary nebula would be plotted to the right of the diagram's upper right quadrant. A black hole emits no visible light of its own, and therefore would not appear on the

3790:

The basic classification is usually followed by an abundance indication, following one of several schemes: S2,5; S2/5; S2 Zr4 Ti2; or S2*5. A number following a comma is a scale between 1 and 9 based on the ratio of ZrO and TiO. A number following a slash is a more-recent but less-common scheme

3210:

Although the central stars of most planetary nebulae (CSPNe) show O-type spectra, around 10% are hydrogen-deficient and show WR spectra. These are low-mass stars and to distinguish them from the massive Wolf–Rayet stars, their spectra are enclosed in square brackets: e.g. . Most of these show

310:

The conventional colour description takes into account only the peak of the stellar spectrum. In actuality, however, stars radiate in all parts of the spectrum. Because all spectral colours combined appear white, the actual apparent colours the human eye would observe are far lighter than the

4095:

Several spectral types, all previously used for non-standard stars in the mid-20th century, have been replaced during revisions of the stellar classification system. They may still be found in old editions of star catalogs: R and N have been subsumed into the new C class as C-R and C-N.

3163:

of class W or WR are notable for spectra lacking hydrogen lines. Instead their spectra are dominated by broad emission lines of highly ionized helium, nitrogen, carbon, and sometimes oxygen. They are thought to mostly be dying supergiants with their hydrogen layers blown away by

8125:

Delorme, Philippe; Delfosse, Xavier; Albert, Loïc; Artigau, Étienne; Forveille, Thierry; Reylé, Céline; Allard, France; Homeier, Derek; Robin, Annie C.; Willott, Chris J.; Liu, Michael C.; Dupuy, Trent J. (2008). "CFBDS J005910.90-011401.3: Reaching the T-Y brown dwarf transition?".

4072:

The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, which the MK system is based on, is observational in nature so these remnants cannot easily be plotted on the diagram, or cannot be placed at all. Old neutron stars are relatively small and cold, and would fall on the far right side of the diagram.

2307:

When the MKK classification scheme was first described in 1943, the only subtypes of class O used were O5 to O9.5. The MKK scheme was extended to O9.7 in 1971 and O4 in 1978, and new classification schemes that add types O2, O3, and O3.5 have subsequently been introduced.

2168:

Depending on the context, "early" and "late" may be absolute or relative terms. "Early" as an absolute term would therefore refer to O or B, and possibly A stars. As a relative reference it relates to stars hotter than others, such as "early K" being perhaps K0, K1, K2 and K3.

2054:

Because the 22 Roman numeral groupings did not account for additional variations in spectra, three additional divisions were made to further specify differences: Lowercase letters were added to differentiate relative line appearance in spectra; the lines were defined as:

2652: I) beginning to gain on ionized metal lines by late F. Their spectra are characterized by the weaker hydrogen lines and ionized metals. Their color is white. About 1 in 33 (3.03%) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are F-type stars, including 1 star 3648:

The giants among those stars are presumed to produce this carbon themselves, but some stars in this class are double stars, whose odd atmosphere is suspected of having been transferred from a companion that is now a white dwarf, when the companion was a carbon-star.

3411:, which are very violent objects and will disrupt other proplyds in the vicinity, stripping them of their gas. The victim proplyds will then probably go on to become main-sequence stars or brown dwarfs of the L and T classes, which are quite invisible to us. 3453:, and that this should be taken as the indicative feature for the T-Y transition. In fact, this ammonia-absorption feature is the main criterion that has been adopted to define this class. However, this feature is difficult to distinguish from absorption by 3803:

In between the M and S classes, border cases are named MS stars. In a similar way, border cases between the S and C-N classes are named SC or CS. The sequence M → MS → S → SC → C-N is hypothesized to be a sequence of increased carbon abundance with age for

5690:

Walborn, Nolan R.; Sota, Alfredo; Maíz Apellániz, Jesús; Alfaro, Emilio J.; Morrell, Nidia I.; Barbá, Rodolfo H.; Arias, Julia I.; Gamen, Roberto C. (2010). "Early Results from the Galactic O-Star Spectroscopic Survey: C III Emission Lines in of Spectra".

4134:

age too quickly for advanced life to develop (using Earth as a guideline). On the other extreme, dwarfs of less than half the mass of the Sun (spectral type M) are likely to tidally lock planets within their habitable zone, along with other problems (see

3316:

Class L dwarfs get their designation because they are cooler than M stars and L is the remaining letter alphabetically closest to M. Some of these objects have masses large enough to support hydrogen fusion and are therefore stars, but most are of

1296:

are applied to luminosity classes other than supergiants; for example, a giant star slightly less luminous than typical may be given a luminosity class of IIIb, while a luminosity class IIIa indicates a star slightly brighter than a typical giant.

2172:"Late" is used in the same way, with an unqualified use of the term indicating stars with spectral types such as K and M, but it can also be used for stars that are cool relative to other stars, as in using "late G" to refer to G7, G8, and G9. 3604:). The suffix "pec" stands for peculiar. The peculiar suffix is still used for other features that are unusual and summarizes different properties, indicative of low surface gravity, subdwarfs and unresolved binaries. The prefix sd stands for 339:(MK) classification. Each star is assigned a spectral class (from the older Harvard spectral classification, which did not include luminosity) and a luminosity class using Roman numerals as explained below, forming the star's spectral type. 3620:

stars. Subdwarfs appear bluer than disk objects. The red suffix describes objects with red color, but an older age. This is not interpreted as low surface gravity, but as a high dust content. The blue suffix describes objects with blue

5265:

Gray, R. O.; Corbally, C. J.; Garrison, R. F.; McFadden, M. T.; Robinson, P. E. (October 2003). "Contributions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spectroscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 Parsecs: The Northern Sample. I".

1284:

Nominal luminosity class VII (and sometimes higher numerals) is now rarely used for white dwarf or "hot sub-dwarf" classes, since the temperature-letters of the main sequence and giant stars no longer apply to white dwarfs.

948:

derived a theory of ionization by extending well-known ideas in physical chemistry pertaining to the dissociation of molecules to the ionization of atoms. First he applied it to the solar chromosphere, then to stellar spectra.

390:). Stars are grouped according to their spectral characteristics by single letters of the alphabet, optionally with numeric subdivisions. Main-sequence stars vary in surface temperature from approximately 2,000 to 50,000 4117:

Stability, luminosity, and lifespan are all factors in stellar habitability. Humans know of only one star that hosts life, the G-class Sun, a star with an abundance of heavy elements and low variability in brightness. The

8609:

Faherty, Jacqueline K.; Riedel, Adric R.; Cruz, Kelle L.; Gagne, Jonathan; Filippazzo, Joseph C.; Lambrides, Erini; Fica, Haley; Weinberger, Alycia; Thorstensen, John R.; Tinney, C.G.; Baldassare, Vivienne (July 2016).

2361:

are so energetic, they only live for a relatively short time. Thus, due to the low probability of kinematic interaction during their lifetime, they are unable to stray far from the area in which they formed, apart from

7683:

Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Barman, Travis S.; Burgasser, Adam J.; McGovern, Mark R.; McLean, Ian S.; Tinney, Christopher G.; Lowrance, Patrick J. (2006). "Discovery of a Very Young Field L Dwarf, 2MASS J01415823−4633574".

4145:

is searching for habitable planets at nearby main-sequence stars that are less massive than spectral type A but more massive than type M—making the most probable stars to host life dwarf stars of types F, G, and K.

3168:, thereby directly exposing their hot helium shells. Class WR is further divided into subclasses according to the relative strength of nitrogen and carbon emission lines in their spectra (and outer layers). 1258:

Marginal cases are allowed; for example, a star may be either a supergiant or a bright giant, or may be in between the subgiant and main-sequence classifications. In these cases, two special symbols are used:

3914:. Originally, this number was rounded to one of the digits 1 through 9, but more recently fractional values have started to be used, as well as values below 1 and above 9.(For example DA1.5 for IK Pegasi B) 918:(0–9), where 0 denotes the hottest stars of a given class. For example, A0 denotes the hottest stars in class A and A9 denotes the coolest ones. Fractional numbers are allowed; for example, the star 4254:

Technically, white dwarfs are no longer "live" stars but, rather, the "dead" remains of extinguished stars. Their classification uses a different set of spectral types from element-burning "live" stars.

2877:

K-type stars are orangish stars that are slightly cooler than the Sun. They make up about 12% of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood. There are also giant K-type stars, which range from

1642:

The reason for the odd arrangement of letters in the Harvard classification is historical, having evolved from the earlier Secchi classes and been progressively modified as understanding improved.

394:, whereas more-evolved stars can have temperatures above 100,000 K. Physically, the classes indicate the temperature of the star's atmosphere and are normally listed from hottest to coldest. 7587:

Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Reid, I. Neill; Liebert, James; Cutri, Roc M.; Nelson, Brant; Beichman, Charles A.; Dahn, Conard C.; Monet, David G.; Gizis, John E.; Skrutskie, Michael F. (10 July 1999).

2758: II, which are most pronounced at G2. They have even weaker hydrogen lines than F, but along with the ionized metals, they have neutral metals. There is a prominent spike in the G band of 207:. This is based on the width of certain absorption lines in the star's spectrum, which vary with the density of the atmosphere and so distinguish giant stars from dwarfs. Luminosity class 3022: 6.7 (the limiting magnitude for typical naked-eye visibility under good conditions being typically quoted as 6.5), and it is extremely unlikely that any brighter examples will be found. 2561: II lines is notably strengthening by this point. About 1 in 160 (0.625%) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are A-type stars, which includes 9 stars within 15 parsecs. 3645:

heavy element production, the spectra of these stars become increasingly deviant from the usual late spectral classes G, K, and M. Equivalent classes for carbon-rich stars are S and C.

2095:

A luminosity classification known as the Mount Wilson system was used to distinguish between stars of different luminosities. This notation system is still sometimes seen on modern spectra.

1956:

classified most of the spectra in this catalogue and was credited with classifying over 10,000 featured stars and discovering 10 novae and more than 200 variable stars. With the help of the

2300:, which may reach 2,000 km/s. Because they are so massive, O-type stars have very hot cores and burn through their hydrogen fuel very quickly, so they are the first stars to leave the 5421:

Sion, Edward M.; Holberg, J. B.; Oswalt, Terry D.; McCook, George P.; Wasatonic, Richard (December 2009). "The White Dwarfs Within 20 Parsecs of the Sun: Kinematics and Statistics".

154:

being coolest (e.g., A8, A9, F0, and F1 form a sequence from hotter to cooler). The sequence has been expanded with three classes for other stars that do not fit in the classical system:

6855:

Walborn, Nolan R.; Howarth, Ian D.; Lennon, Daniel J.; Massey, Philip; Oey, M. S.; Moffat, Anthony F. J.; Skalkowski, Gwen; Morrell, Nidia I.; Drissen, Laurent; Parker, Joel Wm. (2002).

977:

or Morgan-Keenan (alternatively referred to as the MKK, or Morgan-Keenan-Kellman) system from the authors' initials, is a system of stellar spectral classification introduced in 1943 by

8414:

Cruz, Kelle L.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Burgasser, Adam J. (February 2009). "Young L dwarfs identified in the field: A preliminary low-gravity, optical spectral Sequence from L0 to L5".

3014:) have such low luminosities that none are bright enough to be seen with the unaided eye, unless under exceptional conditions. The brightest-known M class main-sequence star is 2762:

molecules. Class G main-sequence stars make up about 7.5%, nearly one in thirteen, of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood. There are 21 G-type stars within 10pc.

4677:

Sota, A.; Maíz Apellániz, J.; Morrell, N. I.; Barbá, R. H.; Walborn, N. R.; et al. (March 2014). "The Galactic O-Star Spectroscopic Survey (GOSSS). II. Bright Southern Stars".

4557:

Baraffe, I.; Chabrier, G.; Barman, T. S.; Allard, F.; Hauschildt, P. H. (May 2003). "Evolutionary models for cool brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets. The case of HD 209458".

3063:) and all neutral metals, but absorption lines of hydrogen are usually absent. TiO bands can be strong in class M stars, usually dominating their visible spectrum by about M5. 5800:

Rauw, G.; Manfroid, J.; Gosset, E.; Nazé, Y.; Sana, H.; De Becker, M.; Foellmi, C.; Moffat, A. F. J. (2007). "Early-type stars in the core of the young open cluster Westerlund 2".

5747:

Fariña, Cecilia; Bosch, Guillermo L.; Morrell, Nidia I.; Barbá, Rodolfo H.; Walborn, Nolan R. (2009). "Spectroscopic Study of the N159/N160 Complex in the Large Magellanic Cloud".

2765:

Class G contains the "Yellow Evolutionary Void". Supergiant stars often swing between O or B (blue) and K or M (red). While they do this, they do not stay for long in the unstable

10466: 3010:

Class M stars are by far the most common. About 76% of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are class M stars. However, class M main-sequence stars (

5362:

Cenarro, A. J.; Peletier, R. F.; Sanchez-Blazquez, P.; Selam, S. O.; Toloba, E.; Cardiel, N.; Falcon-Barroso, J.; Gorgas, J.; Jimenez-Vicente, J.; Vazdekis, A. (January 2007).

2190:. If that were true, then stars would start their lives as very hot "early-type" stars and then gradually cool down into "late-type" stars. This mechanism provided ages of the 2545:

A-type stars are among the more common naked eye stars, and are white or bluish-white. They have strong hydrogen lines, at a maximum by A0, and also lines of ionized metals (

6396:

Cannon, Annie J.; Pickering, Edward C. (1901). "Spectra of bright southern stars photographed with the 13 inch Boyden telescope as part of the Henry Draper Memorial".

5479:

Calibration of Fundamental Stellar Quantities: Proceedings of the 111th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union held at Villa Olmo, Como, Italy, May 24–29, 1984

1634:

is listed as spectral type B1.5Vnne, indicating a spectrum with the general classification B1.5V, as well as very broad absorption lines and certain emission lines.

3487:

masses, but young objects might reach below one Jupiter mass (although they cool to become planets), which means that Y class objects straddle the 13 Jupiter mass

1799:

used for Secchi classes should not be confused with the completely unrelated Roman numerals used for Yerkes luminosity classes and the proposed neutron star classes.

6236:

Maury, Antonia C.; Pickering, Edward C. (1897). "Spectra of bright stars photographed with the 11 inch Draper Telescope as part of the Henry Draper Memorial".

6793:"Some Spectroscopic Characteristics of the OB Stars: An Investigation of the Space Distribution of Certain OB Stars and the Reference Frame of the Classification" 6937: 5003:; et al. (February 2014). "A High Angular Resolution Survey of Massive Stars in Cygnus OB2: Results from the Hubble Space Telescope Fine Guidance Sensors". 4523: 1013:

is based on just surface temperature). Later, in 1953, after some revisions to the list of standard stars and classification criteria, the scheme was named the

7163:

Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; De Jager, C. (2000). "Checking the yellow evolutionary void. Three evolutionary critical Hypergiants: HD 33579, HR 8752 & IRC +10420".

2357:

B-type stars are very luminous and blue. Their spectra have neutral helium lines, which are most prominent at the B2 subclass, and moderate hydrogen lines. As

3795:

may be indicated explicitly. Also occasionally seen is a number following an asterisk, which represents the strength of the ZrO bands on a scale from 1 to 5.

3442:(WISE) there is no well-defined spectral sequence yet and no prototypes. Nevertheless, several objects have been proposed as spectral classes Y0, Y1, and Y2. 2139:: The categories are defined by one or more standard stars for each category and sub-category, with an associated description of the distinguishing features. 7085:

Gray, R. O; Garrison, R. F (1989). "The early F-type stars - Refined classification, confrontation with Stromgren photometry, and the effects of rotation".

6110:

Pickering, Edward C. (1890). "The Draper Catalogue of stellar spectra photographed with the 8-inch Bache telescope as a part of the Henry Draper memorial".

7237: 3691:. A few main-sequence carbon stars are known, but the overwhelming majority of known carbon stars are giants or supergiants. There are several subclasses: 95:, with the line strength indicating the abundance of that element. The strengths of the different spectral lines vary mainly due to the temperature of the 3476:

measurements have, however, since shown that its luminosity is inconsistent with it being colder than ~400 K. The coolest Y dwarf currently known is

3229:

stars are O-type stars with WN-like lines in their spectra. The name "slash" comes from their printed spectral type having a slash in it (e.g. "Of/WNL").

1785:, which are in modern class Be. In 1891, Edward Charles Pickering proposed that class V should correspond to the modern class O (which then included 3348:-bearing condensates never form. Thus, L-type stars larger than dwarfs can never form in an isolated environment. However, it may be possible for these 4138:). While there are many problems facing life on red dwarfs, many astronomers continue to model these systems due to their sheer numbers and longevity. 4069:, and as can be seen from the radically different classification scheme for class D, non-stellar objects are difficult to fit into the MK system. 7190: 4334: 6528:

FitzGerald, M. Pim (October 1969). "Comparison Between Spectral-Luminosity Classes on the Mount Wilson and Morgan–Keenan Systems of Classification".

3407:

higher than what was previously conjectured. It is theorized that these proplyds are in a race with each other. The first one to form will become a

10719: 5637:

Maíz Apellániz, J.; Walborn, Nolan R.; Morrell, N. I.; Niemela, V. S.; Nelan, E. P. (2007). "Pismis 24-1: The Stellar Upper Mass Limit Preserved".

4978: 1661:

In the late 1890s, this classification began to be superseded by the Harvard classification, which is discussed in the remainder of this article.

3775:, and have more similar carbon and oxygen abundances to class M or carbon stars. Like carbon stars, nearly all known class S stars are 3588:

because they have larger radii and lower masses compared to the field stars of similar spectral type. These sources are marked by a letter beta (

3380:

with surface temperatures between approximately 550 and 1,300 K (277 and 1,027 °C; 530 and 1,880 °F). Their emission peaks in the

7071: 6319: 2296:, although not as strong as in later types. Higher-mass O-type stars do not retain extensive atmospheres due to the extreme velocity of their 7915: 3206:

WO (WO1 to WO4) – strong O VI lines, extremely rare, extension of the WCE class into incredibly hot temperatures (up to 200 kK or more)

7871: 1036:

because the radius of the giant is much greater than a dwarf of similar mass. Therefore, differences in the spectrum can be interpreted as

6686:. Astronomical Society of the Pacific conference series. Vol. 60. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 3–14. 1278:

For example, a star classified as A3-4III/IV would be in between spectral types A3 and A4, while being either a giant star or a subgiant.

7640: 3663: 3233:

even rarer stars have extended the range of slash stars as far as O2-3.5If/WN5-7, which are even hotter than the original "slash" stars.

961:

features in stellar spectra. As a result, these subtypes are not evenly divided into any sort of mathematically representable intervals.

3025:

Although most class M stars are red dwarfs, most of the largest-known supergiant stars in the Milky Way are class M stars, such as

2250:

lie within this spectral class. O-type stars frequently have complicated surroundings that make measurement of their spectra difficult.

1316:

Additional nomenclature, in the form of lower-case letters, can follow the spectral type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum.

3791:

designed to represent the ratio of carbon to oxygen on a scale of 1 to 10, where a 0 would be an MS star. Intensities of zirconium and

3123: 3745:

Class S stars form a continuum between class M stars and carbon stars. Those most similar to class M stars have strong

7945:

Zuckerman, B.; Song, I. (2009). "The minimum Jeans mass, brown dwarf companion IMF, and predictions for detection of Y-type dwarfs".

9070: 3917:

Two or more of the type letters may be used to indicate a white dwarf that displays more than one of the spectral features above.

1964:, the first iteration of the Henry Draper catalogue was devised to replace the Roman-numeral scheme established by Angelo Secchi. 2000:

included 'Orion type' stars that displayed an increasing strength in hydrogen absorption lines from group I to group V

6432:

Cannon, Annie Jump; Pickering, Edward Charles (1912). "Classification of 1,688 southern stars by means of their spectra".

5319:

Shenavrin, V. I.; Taranova, O. G.; Nadzhip, A. E. (January 2011). "Search for and study of hot circumstellar dust envelopes".

3600:) stands for normal surface gravity and is usually dropped. Sometimes an extremely low surface gravity is denoted by a delta ( 3596:) for low surface gravity. Indication for low surface gravity are weak CaH, K and Na lines, as well as strong VO line. Alpha ( 10498: 6691: 6372: 6337: 6295: 6052: 6007: 5487: 4746: 4507: 1658:

in order to classify observed spectra. By 1866, he had developed three classes of stellar spectra, shown in the table below.

5566: 5206:

Lyubimkov, Leonid S.; Lambert, David L.; Rostopchin, Sergey I.; Rachkovskaya, Tamara M.; Poklad, Dmitry B. (February 2010).

3625:

colors that cannot be explained with low metallicity. Some are explained as L+T binaries, others are not binaries, such as

8070:

C.; Smart, Richard L.; Tamura, Motohide; Van Cleve, Jeffrey E. (2009). "The Physical Properties of Four ~600 K T Dwarfs".

7738: 3882:-rich atmosphere, indicated by metal spectral lines (a merger of the obsolete white dwarf spectral types, DG, DK, and DM). 2242:

range. These are the rarest of all main-sequence stars. About 1 in 3,000,000 (0.00003%) of the main-sequence stars in the

2175:

In the relative sense, "early" means a lower Arabic numeral following the class letter, and "late" means a higher number.

4484: 4127: 3439: 1948: 358:. Those numbers are given labels such as "U−V" or "B−V", which represent the colors passed by two standard filters (e.g. 8003:

Dupuy, T. J.; Kraus, A. L. (2013). "Distances, Luminosities, and Temperatures of the Coldest Known Substellar Objects".

6557:"New subdwarfs. II. Radial velocities, photometry, and preliminary space motions for 112 stars with large proper motion" 3578:

The blue suffix (e.g. L3blue) indicates unusual blue near-infrared colors for L-dwarfs without obvious low metallicity.

10714: 10473: 9792: 7191:"On a cosmological timescale, The Earth's period of habitability is nearly over | International Space Fellowship" 3892:

The type is followed by a number giving the white dwarf's surface temperature. This number is a rounded form of 50400/

3130:

Spectra of some very hot and bluish stars exhibit marked emission lines from carbon or nitrogen, or sometimes oxygen.

8682: 4527: 4135: 2024:

included Secchi type 2 stars with decreasing hydrogen absorption lines and increasing solar-type metallic lines

2431:

projected out by the stars being of particular interest. Be stars are generally thought to feature unusually strong

8342:

Burningham, Ben; Smith, L.; Cardoso, C.V.; Lucas, P.W.; Burgasser, Adam J.; Jones, H.R.A.; Smart, R.L. (May 2014).

6832:

Morgan, W. W.; Abt, Helmut A.; Tapscott, J. W. (1978). "Revised MK Spectral Atlas for stars earlier than the sun".

4828:

Stellar Atmospheres; a Contribution to the Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars

3492: 10652: 3187:

h tag used (e.g. WN9h) for WR with hydrogen emission and ha (e.g. WN6ha) for both hydrogen emission and absorption

10709: 10185: 7245: 4366:

Habets, G. M. H. J.; Heinze, J. R. W. (November 1981). "Empirical bolometric corrections for the main-sequence".

941: 5364:"Medium-resolution Isaac Newton Telescope library of empirical spectra - II. The stellar atmospheric parameters" 1281:

Sub-dwarf classes have also been used: VI for sub-dwarfs (stars slightly less luminous than the main sequence).

442: 10729: 10478: 10115: 10099: 9134: 3259:

The new spectral types L, T, and Y were created to classify infrared spectra of cool stars. This includes both

2183: 2016:

were Secchi's type 1 stars, with decreasing strength in hydrogen absorption lines from groups VII−XI

914:

The spectral classes O through M, as well as other more specialized classes discussed later, are subdivided by

7429:

Miszalski, B.; Crowther, P. A.; De Marco, O.; Köppen, J.; Moffat, A. F. J.; Acker, A.; Hillwig, T. C. (2012).

7120:

Keenan, Philip C.; McNeil, Raymond C. (1989). "The Perkins catalog of revised MK types for the cooler stars".

6152: 10525: 10392: 8238: 7589:"Dwarfs Cooler than M: the Definition of Spectral Type L Using Discovery from the 2-µ ALL-SKY Survey (2MASS)" 5508:"Spectral Classification and Properties of the OVz Stars in the Galactic O Star Spectroscopic Survey (GOSSS)" 5153:

Nazé, Y. (November 2009). "Hot stars observed by XMM-Newton. I. The catalog and the properties of OB stars".

4762:

Russell, Henry Norris (March 1914). "Relations Between the Spectra and Other Characteristics of the Stars".

10508: 10459: 10434: 9727: 9107: 6493:

Nassau, J. J.; Seyfert, Carl K. (March 1946). "Spectra of BD Stars Within Five Degrees of the North Pole".

4876: 4402:

Weidner, Carsten; Vink, Jorick S. (December 2010). "The masses, and the mass discrepancy of O-type stars".

4323: 4114:

any kind of stellar habitat, this section will address the probability of life arising around other stars.

327:

do not literally appear brown, but hypothetically would appear dim red or grey/black to a nearby observer.

17: 8925:

Yakovlev, D. G.; Kaminker, A. D.; Haensel, P.; Gnedin, O. Y. (2002). "The cooling neutron star in 3C 58".

7872:"NASA spots chilled-out stars cooler than the human body | Technology News Blog – Yahoo! News Canada" 6023: 10449: 10429: 8756:

Sion, E. M.; Greenstein, J. L.; Landstreet, J. D.; Liebert, James; Shipman, H. L.; Wegner, G. A. (1983).

3957:

A different set of spectral peculiarity symbols are used for white dwarfs than for other types of stars:

3626: 1943: 9812: 7759:

Kirkpatrick, J. Davy; Cushing, Michael C.; Gelino, Christopher R.; Beichman, Charles A.; Tinney, C. G.;

4297: 10724: 10643: 10513: 10444: 10414: 9062: 5056:

Prinja, R. K.; Massa, D. L. (October 2010). "Signature of wide-spread clumping in B supergiant winds".

4738: 3827: 2247: 8797:

Córsico, A. H.; Althaus, L. G. (2004). "The rate of period change in pulsating DB-white dwarf stars".

5960:

Analyse spectrale de la lumière de quelques étoiles, et nouvelles observations sur les taches solaires

944:

was formulated (by 1914), this was generally suspected to be true. In the 1920s, the Indian physicist

10520: 10397: 10374: 9956: 9405: 9400: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9380: 8850:

McCook, George P.; Sion, Edward M. (1999). "A Catalog of Spectroscopically Identified White Dwarfs".

8072: 5611: 4850: 2898: 2857: 2721: 2619: 2532: 2425: 2402: 2369:

The transition from class O to class B was originally defined to be the point at which the

2336: 2217: 2202:. The terms "early" and "late" were carried over, beyond the demise of the model they were based on. 1300:

A sample of extreme V stars with strong absorption in He II λ4686 spectral lines have been given the

64: 8903: 8872: 9663: 9537: 9172: 9100: 6600:; Gettel, Sara (December 2011). "Non-detection of the Putative Substellar Companion to HD 149382". 5423: 4035:. They are occasionally used for certain non-stellar objects: Type P objects are stars within 3821: 2428: 953: 7763:; Schneider, Adam; Mace, Gregory N. (2013). "Discovery of the Y1 Dwarf WISE J064723.23-623235.5". 6095:

Catchers of the Light: The Forgotten Lives of the Men and Women Who First Photographed the Heavens

3830:) is the modern classification used for white dwarfs—low-mass stars that are no longer undergoing 3468:, is a > Y2 dwarf with an effective temperature originally estimated around 300 10439: 10190: 9989: 9899: 9859: 9841: 9767: 9338: 9264: 7923: 7361:

Kingsburgh, R. L.; Barlow, M. J.; Storey, P. J. (1995). "Properties of the WO Wolf-Rayet stars".

6202: 3809: 3776: 2908:

They have extremely weak hydrogen lines, if those are present at all, and mostly neutral metals (

2714: 2121: 30:"Star classification" redirects here. For the ranking system, e.g. "four out of five stars", see 3702:

C-N – Formerly its own class representing the carbon star equivalent of late K- to M-type stars.

10600: 10580: 10352: 10347: 10245: 10140: 10089: 9894: 9884: 9557: 9323: 9214: 9197: 8867: 6680: 6044: 6038: 4161: 4105: 4031: 3937: 3865: 3858: 3148: 2779: 2508: 347: 9056: 6776: 5606: 5477: 5208:"Accurate fundamental parameters for A-, F- and G-type Supergiants in the solar neighbourhood" 4974: 4065:

Stellar remnants are objects associated with the death of stars. Included in the category are

3111:

A number of new spectral types have been taken into use from newly discovered types of stars.

10454: 10424: 10419: 10409: 10337: 10125: 9291: 8314: 7212: 3907: 3570:

The red suffix (e.g. L0red) indicates objects without signs of youth, but high dust content.

3399:

from which stars and planetary systems are formed) indicates that the number of stars in the

3293: 3285: 2405:. B-type stars are relatively uncommon and the closest is Regulus, at around 80 light years. 978: 937: 403: 355: 302:

is then G2V, indicating a main-sequence star with a surface temperature around 5,800 K.

31: 9572: 9088: 8948: 8820: 8149: 7968: 7653: 7547:

Kirkpatrick, J. D. (2008). "Outstanding Issues in Our Understanding of L, T, and Y Dwarfs".

7405: 7374: 7176: 7026: 6781:, W. W. Morgan, P. C. Keenan and E. Kellman, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1943. 6716: 5889: 5823: 5176: 5079: 4945: 4580: 4425: 4379: 3480:

with an approximate temperature of 250 K, and a mass just seven times that of Jupiter.

2238:

O-type stars are very hot and extremely luminous, with most of their radiated output in the

10595: 10493: 10483: 10332: 10300: 10094: 9889: 9874: 9187: 9022: 8944: 8859: 8816: 8769: 8723: 8633: 8567: 8498: 8433: 8365: 8278: 8203: 8145: 8091: 8022: 7964: 7782: 7703: 7661: 7649: 7600: 7566: 7511: 7452: 7431:"IC 4663: The first unambiguous [WN] Wolf-Rayet central star of a planetary nebula" 7401: 7370: 7333: 7302: 7172: 7129: 7094: 7053: 7022: 6946: 6871: 6837: 6804: 6759: 6619: 6568: 6537: 6502: 6441: 6405: 6245: 6177: 6119: 5932: 5897: 5885: 5819: 5766: 5710: 5656: 5529: 5442: 5385: 5328: 5285: 5229: 5172: 5122: 5075: 5022: 4941: 4906: 4831: 4798: 4767: 4696: 4634: 4576: 4421: 4375: 3638: 982: 80: 7632: 3888:

DX – spectral lines are insufficiently clear to classify into one of the above categories.

1433:

C III 4647–4650–4652Å emission lines with comparable strength to the N III line

110:

Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan–Keenan (MK) system using the letters

8: 10055: 10038: 9709: 9611: 9434: 5978: 5959: 3720: 3392: 3160: 3139: 2571: 2455: 2398: 1939: 1896: 1786: 1372: 1025: 72: 10195: 9026: 8863: 8773: 8727: 8637: 8571: 8502: 8437: 8369: 8282: 8207: 8095: 8026: 7786: 7707: 7604: 7570: 7515: 7456: 7337: 7306: 7133: 7098: 7057: 7034: 6950: 6875: 6841: 6808: 6763: 6623: 6572: 6541: 6506: 6445: 6409: 6249: 6123: 5936: 5770: 5714: 5660: 5533: 5446: 5389: 5332: 5289: 5233: 5126: 5026: 4953: 4910: 4835: 4802: 4771: 4700: 4638: 3321:

mass and are therefore brown dwarfs. They are a very dark red in color and brightest in

2450:- or B(e) stars for typographic reasons - possess distinctive neutral or low ionisation 10693: 10590: 10551: 10503: 10488: 10402: 10342: 10265: 10175: 10145: 10135: 10079: 10001: 9692: 9328: 9127: 9067: 9038: 9012: 8960: 8934: 8885: 8832: 8806: 8659: 8623: 8591: 8557: 8522: 8488: 8457: 8445: 8423: 8391: 8355: 8296: 8268: 8221: 8193: 8161: 8135: 8107: 8103: 8081: 8046: 8012: 7980: 7954: 7849: 7829: 7798: 7772: 7719: 7693: 7665: 7556: 7529: 7501: 7470: 7442: 7145: 7065: 6887: 6668: 6635: 6609: 6313: 5901: 5875: 5835: 5809: 5782: 5756: 5726: 5722: 5700: 5672: 5646: 5547: 5519: 5458: 5454: 5432: 5403: 5375: 5344: 5301: 5275: 5247: 5219: 5188: 5162: 5135: 5110: 5091: 5065: 5038: 5012: 4712: 4686: 4592: 4566: 4437: 4411: 4170: – Variation of reflectance or emittance of a material with respect to wavelengths 4167: 4111: 3746: 3477: 3404: 3064: 3060: 2243: 2187: 2128: 1961: 1953: 1191: 990: 343: 8579: 7794: 7390:"Mass-loss rates of H-rich central stars of planetary nebulae as distance indicators?" 6857:"A New Spectral Classification System for the Earliest O Stars: Definition of Type O2" 6752:

Massive Stars: Fundamental Parameters and Circumstellar Interactions (Eds. P. Benaglia

5778: 10541: 9966: 9939: 9919: 9719: 9503: 9491: 9318: 9298: 9252: 9234: 9202: 9042: 8889: 8663: 8651: 8646: 8611: 8595: 8583: 8514: 8449: 8395: 8383: 8300: 8291: 8256: 8216: 8181: 8038: 7844: 7817: 7669: 7533: 7524: 7489: 7465: 7430: 7149: 6891: 6697: 6687: 6639: 6631: 6597: 6378: 6368: 6343: 6333: 6301: 6291: 6048: 6003: 5730: 5551: 5542: 5507: 5483: 5462: 5407: 5398: 5363: 5348: 5305: 5251: 5242: 5207: 5034: 4914: 4742: 4716: 4708: 4503: 4441: 4026: 3879: 3753: 3424: 3357: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3318: 3019: 2921: 2845: 2766: 2729: 2725: 2514: 2496: 2459: 2179: 2079: 1957: 1778: 1180: 1097: 940:) was not fully understood until after its development, though by the time the first 852:

for remembering the order of the spectral type letters, from hottest to coolest, is "

383: 312: 10026: 8836: 8526: 8461: 8111: 8050: 7984: 7853: 7723: 7474: 6974: 6468: 5839: 5786: 5676: 5192: 5095: 5042: 4596: 3756:

bands of class M stars, whereas those most similar to carbon stars have strong

3637:

Carbon-stars are stars whose spectra indicate production of carbon – a byproduct of

10669: 10369: 10322: 10272: 10260: 10238: 10233: 10160: 10120: 10067: 9849: 9772: 9747: 9641: 9562: 9286: 9247: 9030: 8964: 8952: 8877: 8824: 8777: 8731: 8641: 8575: 8506: 8441: 8373: 8286: 8225: 8211: 8153: 8099: 8030: 7972: 7839: 7802: 7790: 7711: 7657: 7608: 7519: 7460: 7409: 7341: 7137: 7102: 7030: 6954: 6879: 6812: 6627: 6576: 6510: 6000:

The Analysis of Starlight: One Hundred and Fifty Years of Astronomical Spectroscopy

5940: 5905: 5893: 5827: 5774: 5718: 5664: 5537: 5450: 5393: 5336: 5293: 5237: 5180: 5130: 5083: 5030: 4949: 4806: 4704: 4584: 4459: 4429: 4183: 4123: 4074: 4036: 3353: 3268: 3099: 3056: 3026: 2839: 2821: 2684: 2678: 2440: 2401:. About 1 in 800 (0.125%) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are 1700:

A subtype of Secchi class I with narrow lines in place of wide bands, such as

829: 774: 719: 664: 609: 554: 499: 200: 88: 60: 8165: 7976: 7267: 5184: 5087: 4433: 4039:(typically young white dwarfs or hydrogen-poor M giants); type Q objects are 2925:

lower harmful periods of emission compared to those with the broadest such zones.

10556: 10359: 10228: 10072: 10043: 9984: 9979: 9854: 9582: 9547: 9481: 9427: 9422: 9367: 9177: 9074: 8956: 8828: 8157: 7414: 7389: 5831: 4932:

Morgan, William Wilson; Keenan, Philip Childs (1973). "Spectral Classification".

4588: 4264: 3761: 3724: 3585: 3465: 3420: 3278: 3192:

WN/C – WN stars plus strong C IV lines, intermediate between WN and WC stars

3077: 2953: 2833: 2472: 2386: 2344: 2225: 2195: 2070:

the first instance in which a woman was credited for an observatory publication.

1555: 1392: 1006: 915: 7238:"Discovered: Stars as Cool as the Human Body | Science Mission Directorate" 6266: 4099: 2178:

This obscure terminology is a hold-over from a late nineteenth century model of

1040:

and a luminosity class can be assigned purely from examination of the spectrum.

10657: 10618: 10384: 10223: 10050: 10021: 9996: 9929: 9618: 9486: 9372: 9274: 9164: 9154: 7897: 7760: 5000: 4142: 3831: 3749: 3445:

The spectra of these prospective Y objects display absorption around 1.55

3429: 2997: 2977: 2959: 2935: 2902: 2451: 2382: 2199: 2132: 2008:

acted as an intermediate between the 'Orion type' and Secchi type I group

1796: 415: 204: 68: 43:

A simple chart for classifying the main star types using Harvard classification

39: 6382: 5340: 4526:. Australia Telescope Outreach and Education. 21 December 2004. Archived from 3925: 3461:, and other authors have stated that the assignment of class Y0 is premature. 2182:, which supposed that stars were powered by gravitational contraction via the 10703: 10570: 10364: 10327: 10295: 10170: 9879: 9702: 9673: 9651: 9269: 9242: 9219: 9120: 8655: 8587: 8518: 8453: 8387: 6856: 6701: 6347: 6305: 4652: 3947:

DAO – a hydrogen- and helium-rich white dwarf displaying ionized helium lines

3944:

DAB – a hydrogen- and helium-rich white dwarf displaying neutral helium lines

3847: 3713: 3622: 3613: 3330: 3015: 2947: 2941: 2696: 2672: 2318: 2301: 2257: II λ4541 relative to that of He I λ4471, where λ is the radiation 1977: 1774: 1716:

Yellow stars – hydrogen less strong, but evident metallic lines, such as the

1679: 1651: 1536: 1425:

Si IV 4089Å & 4116Å are emitted, in addition to the N III line

1080: 1002: 986: 455: 386:, who re-ordered and simplified the prior alphabetical system by Draper (see 265: 84: 8034: 6672: 3449:. Delorme et al. have suggested that this feature is due to absorption from 2965: 2785: 2458:, undergoing processes not normally allowed under current understandings of 1028:

of spectral lines. The gravity, and hence the pressure, on the surface of a

929:

The fact that the Harvard classification of a star indicated its surface or

10681: 10630: 10305: 10255: 10250: 10150: 10033: 10016: 9974: 9944: 9934: 9869: 9752: 9697: 9678: 9658: 9636: 9628: 9471: 9464: 9303: 9224: 9207: 9034: 8378: 8343: 8042: 6906: 6367:(1st ed.). Cambridge: M.A. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 6362: 4918: 4811: 4786: 4119: 4052: 3719:

C-Hd – Hydrogen-deficient carbon stars, similar to late G supergiants with

3699:) representing the carbon star equivalent of late G- to early K-type stars. 3668: 3334: 3165: 2827: 2791: 2690: 2484: 2436: 2432: 2417: 2363: 2297: 2293: 1249: 1147: 1142: 945: 818: 763: 708: 653: 598: 543: 488: 409: 193: 8981: 8242: 6327: 6285: 4082:

with higher cooling rates. The more massive a neutron star is, the higher

2268:

O-type stars have dominant lines of absorption and sometimes emission for

10546: 10218: 10210: 10200: 10180: 10155: 10084: 10006: 9762: 9737: 9732: 9646: 9606: 9567: 9532: 9515: 9510: 9182: 9096: 9003:

Harre, Jan-Vincent; Heller, René (2021). "Digital color codes of stars".

8939: 8811: 7834: 7698: 5880: 5814: 5651: 5475: 5380: 5280: 4571: 4066: 4060: 3933: 3805: 3798: 3740: 3658: 3609: 3446: 3377: 3274: 3264: 3250: 3119: 3042: 2862:"K-type star" redirects here. For the Korean nuclear fusion project, see 2809: 2803: 2666: 2502: 2324: 2253:

O-type spectra formerly were defined by the ratio of the strength of the

2239: 2211: 1755: 1728:. This includes the modern classes G and K as well as late class F. 1244: 1131: 1126: 1114: 1109: 1092: 994: 933: 930: 433: 351: 324: 294: 177: 168: 162: 156: 96: 6999: 6364:

The Harvard College Observatory: The first four directorships, 1839-1919

4207:, generally considered a bluish star, is used as a standard for "white". 1946:, using the objective-prism method. A first result of this work was the 10130: 9827: 9800: 9777: 9757: 9742: 9594: 9498: 9476: 9454: 9449: 9313: 6778:

An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification

6326:

Gray, Richard O.; Corbally, Christopher J.; Burgasser, Adam J. (2009).

4903:

An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification

4173: 4155: 4056: 3326: 3297: 3289: 3220: 3184:

Extended WN classes WN10 and WN11 sometimes used for the Ofpe/WN9 stars

3089: 3083: 3038: 2890: 2886: 2878: 2583: 2409: 2390: 2340: 2258: 2221: 2198:, and was rendered obsolete by the discovery that stars are powered by 1782: 1737: 1581: 1159: 1074: 1033: 1029: 998: 807: 752: 697: 642: 587: 532: 477: 424: 237: 227: 217: 146:

type). Each letter class is then subdivided using a numeric digit with

104: 8704:

Bouigue, R. (1954). Annales d'Astrophysique, Vol. 17, p. 104

5979:

Nouvelles recherches sur l'analyse spectrale de la lumière des étoiles

5205: 4901:

Morgan, William Wilson; Keenan, Philip Childs; Kellman, Edith (1943).

2144: 10317: 10165: 9949: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9864: 9817: 9807: 9601: 9577: 9552: 9459: 9410: 9343: 9333: 9308: 9281: 9257: 9192: 8677: 7213:""Goldilocks" Stars May Be "Just Right" for Finding Habitable Worlds" 6682:

The MK Process at 50 Years: A Powerful Tool for Astrophysical Insight

6287:

The analysis of starlight: Two centuries of astronomical spectroscopy

5866:

Crowther, Paul A. (2007). "Physical Properties of Wolf-Rayet Stars".

4216:

Chromaticity can vary significantly within a class; for example, the

3885:

DC – no strong spectral lines indicating one of the above categories.

3846:-rich atmosphere or outer layer, indicated by strong Balmer hydrogen 3784: 3772: 3768: 3706: 3686: 3680: 3675:

Originally classified as R and N stars, these are also known as

3642: 3617: 3488: 3408: 3260: 3254: 3095: 3030: 3011: 2993: 2989: 2909: 2882: 2653: 2607: 2550: 2447: 2394: 2120:"Spectral type" redirects here. For spectral types of asteroids, see 1705: 1621: 1456:

Displays strong He II absorption accompanied by weak N III emissions

1221: 919: 320: 107:

state, giving an objective measure of the photosphere's temperature.

48: 8904:"Pulsating Variable Stars and the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram" 6750:

Walborn, N. R. (2008). "Multiwavelength Systematics of OB Spectra".

5361: 4999:

Caballero-Nieves, S. M.; Nelan, E. P.; Gies, D. R.; Wallace, D. J.;

3368: 3308: 3126:, an emission-line galaxy where massive bright blue stars are formed 3002: 2869: 2734: 2624: 2537: 2349: 2230: 10310: 10011: 9685: 9444: 9417: 9017: 8906:. Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian. 9 March 2015 8881: 8782: 8757: 8735: 8628: 8510: 8273: 8257:"The Spectral Energy Distribution of the Coldest Known Brown Dwarf" 7739:"Classification of Stellar Spectra and its Physical Interpretation" 7715: 7613: 7588: 7346: 7321: 7141: 7106: 6959: 6932: 6883: 6817: 6792: 6581: 6556: 6514: 5945: 5920: 5668: 5636: 5524: 5297: 4083: 3843: 3792: 3605: 3523: 3473: 3381: 3322: 3241:

They are O stars with strong magnetic fields. Designation is Of?p.

3052: 2971: 2894: 2815: 2702: 2649: 2589: 2490: 2421: 2281: 2262: 1721: 1631: 1414: 1410: 1305: 1216: 1197: 1175: 1164: 849: 280: 255: 99:, although in some cases there are true abundance differences. The 92: 76: 8562: 8493: 8428: 8360: 8198: 8140: 8086: 8017: 7959: 7777: 7682: 7561: 7506: 7447: 6614: 5761: 5705: 5437: 5224: 5167: 5070: 5017: 4691: 4416: 4276:

This rises to 78.6% if we include all stars. (See the above note.)

4267:, this instead refers to abnormally strong metallic spectral lines 3641:

helium fusion. With increased carbon abundance, and some parallel

3144: 10585: 10060: 9822: 9589: 9542: 9525: 9520: 9439: 6040:

Stars and Their Spectra: An Introduction to the Spectral Sequence

5476:

D.S. Hayes; L.E. Pasinetti; A.G. Davis Philip (6 December 2012).

3688: 3682: 3484: 3458: 3450: 3385: 3034: 2917: 2759: 2755: 2641: 2558: 2554: 2478: 2413: 2374: 2358: 2273: 2136: 2032:

included Secchi type 3 stars with increasing spectral lines

1741: 1725: 8546: 7758: 7013:

Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973). "Spectral Classification".

4998: 3875:-rich atmosphere, indicated by atomic or molecular carbon lines. 1690:. This includes the modern class A and early class F. 10575: 10563: 9782: 9668: 9080: 8755: 8178: 7428: 6002:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 60, 134. 5689: 3929: 3911: 3872: 3854: 3757: 3469: 3400: 3396: 3292:

for some masses and ages of different L-T-Y types, no distinct

3175:

WN – spectrum dominated by N III-V and He I-II lines

3152: 2595: 2370: 2289: 2285: 2277: 2269: 2254: 1761: 1687: 391: 4676: 4012: 3608:

and only includes cool subdwarfs. This prefix indicates a low

1650:

During the 1860s and 1870s, pioneering stellar spectroscopist

1441:

N III emission, absence or weak absorption of He II

8924: 7916:"NASA - NASA'S Wise Mission Discovers Coolest Class of Stars" 7320:

Figer, Donald F.; McLean, Ian S.; Najarro, Francisco (1997).

4540:— Explains the reason for the difference in color perception. 4100:

Stellar classification, habitability, and the search for life

3454: 3049: 3045:

are late class M, usually in the range of M6.5 to M9.5.

2863: 2601: 2520: 1701: 1610:

Abnormally strong spectral lines of the specified element(s)

1479:

WR stars with hydrogen seen in both absorption and emission.

8714:

Keenan, P. C. (1954). "Classification of the S-Type Stars".

8612:"Population properties of brown dwarf analogs to exoplanets" 8477: 8182:"Exploring the substellar temperature regime down to ~550 K" 8124: 5264: 3864:

DO – a helium-rich atmosphere, indicated by ionized helium,

172:. Some non-stellar objects have also been assigned letters: 9924: 9143: 9087:

Merrifield, Michael; Bauer, Amanda; Häußler, Boris (2010).

8758:"A proposed new white dwarf spectral classification system" 8341: 7586: 7293:

Payne, Cecilia H. (1930). "Classification of the O Stars".

6678:. In Corbally, C. J.; Gray, R. O.; Garrison, R. F. (eds.). 5505: 4556: 4204: 4164: – Ancient Chinese name for cataclysmic variable stars 4040: 3352:

to form through stellar collisions, an example of which is

2913: 2645: 2577: 2546: 2292:

lines, strengthening from O5 to O9, and prominent hydrogen

1808:

Classifications in the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra

1683: 56: 10676: 10625: 8068: 7865: 7863: 6854: 4975:"A note on the spectral atlas and spectral classification" 2435:, high surface temperatures, and significant attrition of 2389:. The Orion OB1 association occupies a large portion of a 1764:

bands and lines, corresponding to modern classes C and S.

1708:. In modern terms, this corresponds to early B-type stars 10290: 6595: 6434:

Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College

4487:. Australia Telescope National Facility. 17 October 2018. 4217: 3629:

and are explained with thin and/or large-grained clouds.

3464:

The latest brown dwarf proposed for the Y spectral type,

2797: 2743: 2191: 1717: 1592:

Variable spectral feature (sometimes abbreviated to "v")

1024:

Denser stars with higher surface gravity exhibit greater

923: 382:

is a one-dimensional classification scheme by astronomer

316: 299: 9112: 8413: 7050:

Revised MK Spectral Atlas for stars earlier than the sun

6596:

Norris, Jackson M.; Wright, Jason T.; Wade, Richard A.;

5482:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 129–. 5318: 3048:

The spectrum of a class M star contains lines from

7860: 7048:

Morgan, W. W.; Abt, Helmut A.; Tapscott, J. W. (1978).

6938:

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

5921:"The Kinematics of the Gould Belt: An Expanding Group?" 5746: 5614:

Department of Physics and Astronomy: Astrophysics Group

5420: 3705:

C-J – A subtype of cool C stars with a high content of

1736:

Orange to red stars with complex band spectra, such as

1618:

indicating an abnormally strong ionised helium line at

9086: 8608: 7360: 7162: 5799: 4625:

Ledrew, Glenn (February 2001). "The Real Starry Sky".

3920: 3799:

Classes MS and SC: Intermediate carbon-related classes

1383:"Reversed" center of emission lines weaker than edges 10641: 6325: 6147: 6145: 5983:

Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences

5964:

Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences

3990:

Magnetic white dwarf without detectable polarization

1267:) means that a star is either one class or the other. 4791:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A

4178:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

4087:

spectral classes and the Yerkes luminosity classes.

2194:

that were much smaller than what is observed in the

2073: 1274:) means that the star is in between the two classes. 103:

of a star is a short code primarily summarizing the

27:

Classification of stars based on spectral properties

7490:"Spectral classification of O2-3.5 If*/WN5-7 stars" 6530:

Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada

6067:

p. 60–63, Hearnshaw 1986; pp. 623–625, Secchi 1866.

4900: 4627:

Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada

3244: 1547:Peculiar spectrum, similar to the spectra of novae 7319: 6679: 6261: 6259: 6142: 6043:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5469: 3974:Magnetic white dwarf with detectable polarization 3612:and kinematic properties that are more similar to 3178:WNE (WN2 to WN5 with some WN6) – hotter or "early" 3151:image of the nebula M1-67 and the Wolf–Rayet star 2381:These stars tend to be found in their originating 1927:Classes carried through into the MK system are in 373: 305: 8348:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 8186:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 7898:"NASA Satellite Finds Coldest, Darkest Stars Yet" 7822:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 7494:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 7435:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 7047: 6831: 6024:"Classification of Stellar Spectra: Some History" 5368:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 5212:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 5111:"Photospheric Variations of the Supergiant γ Cyg" 4500:The Guinness Book of Astronomy: Facts & Feats 3767:bands. Class S stars have excess amounts of 3632: 3181:WNL (WN7 to WN9 with some WN6) – cooler or "late" 3114: 2265:line N IV λ4058 to N III λλ4634-40-42. 1942:began to make a survey of stellar spectra at the 1047:are distinguished, as listed in the table below. 964: 335:The modern classification system is known as the 67:from the star is analyzed by splitting it with a 10701: 7998: 7996: 7994: 7891: 7889: 6904: 6361:Jones, Bessie Zaban; Boyd, Lyle Gifford (1971). 4992: 4220:(a G2 star) is white, while a G9 star is yellow. 3514:This suffix stands for "peculiar" (e.g. L2pec). 1971: 8751: 8749: 8747: 8745: 8255:Luhman, Kevin L.; Esplin, Taran L. (May 2016). 7487: 7388:Tinkler, C. M.; Lamers, H. J. G. L. M. (2002). 6431: 6395: 6256: 3857:-rich atmosphere, indicated by neutral helium, 3526:and indicates a low metallicity and blue color 2632:F-type stars have strengthening spectral lines 2397:and contains many of the brighter stars of the 9077:by Richard O. Gray and Christopher J. Corbally 9063:Spectral Types for Hipparcos Catalogue Entries 8796: 6521: 6235: 4728: 4726: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4226: 3815: 3592:) for intermediate surface gravity and gamma ( 3483:The mass range for Y dwarfs is 9–25 3133: 2557: II) at a maximum at A5. The presence of 1511:Broad ("nebulous") absorption due to spinning 1495:Spectra with interstellar absorption features 9128: 7991: 7944: 7886: 7582: 7580: 7387: 7052:. Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago. 6924: 6673:"A Hierarchy of Standards for the MK Process" 6492: 6332:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 5918: 5868:Annual Review of Astronomy & Astrophysics 4979:Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg 4620: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4606: 3195:WC – spectrum with strong C II-IV lines 2713:"G star" redirects here. For other uses, see 1746:This corresponds to the modern class M. 1009:, which is related to luminosity (whilst the 8896: 8843: 8742: 8254: 8064: 8062: 8060: 7815: 7626: 7624: 7322:"AK-Band Spectral Atlas of Wolf-Rayet Stars" 7119: 7084: 7012: 5506:Arias, Julia I.; et al. (August 2016). 4931: 4653:"Spectral classification of stars (OBAFGKM)" 4368:Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series 4365: 4090: 9002: 8852:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 8248: 7641:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 7630: 7546: 7232: 7230: 7015:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 6797:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 6663: 6661: 6659: 6657: 6655: 6653: 6651: 6649: 6548: 5925:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 5683: 5055: 4934:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 4723: 4679:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 4401: 4223: 4025:are left over from the system developed by 4013:Non-stellar spectral types: Classes P and Q 3495:division between brown dwarfs and planets. 3340:Due to low surface gravity in giant stars, 354:—the measured differences in three or more 9135: 9121: 8849: 8002: 7577: 7070:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6745: 6743: 6741: 6739: 6737: 6589: 6527: 6486: 6318:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6135: 6133: 6105: 6103: 5742: 5740: 4670: 4603: 4203:This is the relative color of the star if 3950:DAZ – a hydrogen-rich metallic white dwarf 3106: 2135:, similar to classification of species in 1417: III 4634Å, 4640Å, & 4642Å lines 9016: 8938: 8871: 8810: 8781: 8645: 8627: 8561: 8492: 8427: 8377: 8359: 8290: 8272: 8215: 8197: 8139: 8085: 8057: 8016: 7958: 7843: 7833: 7776: 7736: 7697: 7621: 7612: 7560: 7523: 7505: 7464: 7446: 7422: 7413: 7345: 6958: 6930: 6816: 6613: 6580: 6360: 6283: 6109: 5997: 5944: 5879: 5813: 5760: 5704: 5650: 5600: 5564: 5541: 5523: 5436: 5397: 5379: 5312: 5279: 5241: 5223: 5199: 5166: 5134: 5069: 5016: 4810: 4787:"On a Physical Theory of Stellar Spectra" 4690: 4570: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4453: 4451: 4415: 4321: 4298:"Morgan-Keenan Luminosity Class | COSMOS" 1341:Undescribed spectral peculiarities exist 1311: 8976: 8974: 8232: 8118: 7818:"Y-Spectral class for Ultra-Cool Dwarfs" 7488:Crowther, P. A.; Walborn, N. R. (2011). 7227: 7113: 6667: 6646: 5865: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5501: 5499: 4848: 4732: 4477: 3953:DBZ – a helium-rich metallic white dwarf 3924: 3662: 3544:) have an intermediate surface gravity. 3498: 3428: 3395:(protoplanetary disks, clumps of gas in 3367: 3307: 3143: 3118: 3001: 2920: I). By late K, molecular bands of 2868: 2733: 2623: 2536: 2348: 2229: 1976:In 1897, another astronomer at Harvard, 330: 38: 8616:Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 8550:Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 7381: 7122:Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 7087:Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 6790: 6784: 6749: 6734: 6554: 6130: 6100: 5737: 5607:"The Classification of Stellar Spectra" 5355: 5148: 5146: 4761: 4384: – Luminosities are derived from M 4361: 4359: 4357: 4355: 4126:in that it only contains one star (see 4110:While humans may eventually be able to 3506:Symbols used for peculiar brown dwarfs 2416:have been observed to show one or more 2090: 1471:WR stars with hydrogen emission lines. 323:are a deep shade of yellow/orange, and 14: 10702: 8713: 8542: 8540: 8538: 8536: 8473: 8471: 8409: 8407: 8405: 8337: 8335: 7895: 7869: 7748:: 6 – via Heidelberg University. 7662:10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.134017 7078: 6905:Elizabeth Howell (21 September 2013). 5898:10.1146/annurev.astro.45.051806.110615 5632: 5630: 5258: 5102: 5049: 4969: 4967: 4965: 4963: 4925: 4849:Universe, Physics And (14 June 2013). 4624: 4543: 4448: 4395: 3838:The white dwarf types are as follows: 1789:) and stars within planetary nebulae. 1678:White and blue stars with broad heavy 9116: 8971: 7816:Deacon, N. R.; Hambly, N. C. (2006). 7746:Astro Lab Landessternwarte Königstuhl 7549:14th Cambridge Workshop on Cool Stars 7292: 7286: 6398:Annals of Harvard College Observatory 6238:Annals of Harvard College Observatory 6112:Annals of Harvard College Observatory 6036: 5861: 5859: 5857: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5793: 5577: 5496: 4825: 4497: 3491:-fusion limit that marks the current 3472:, the temperature of the human body. 3067:bands become present by late M. 2186:, which is now known to not apply to 2127:The stellar classification system is 1758:, which he put into a distinct group: 1005:sensitive to stellar temperature and 203:is added to the spectral class using 7737:Camenzind, Max (27 September 2006). 7295:Harvard College Observatory Bulletin 7041: 7006: 6721:The Internet Encyclopedia of Science 5912: 5414: 5152: 5143: 5108: 4851:"The Yerkes spectral classification" 4784: 4645: 4352: 3198:WCE (WC4 to WC6) – hotter or "early" 1413: IV 4058Å is stronger than the 1001:) classification scheme is based on 10720:Hertzsprung–Russell classifications 8533: 8468: 8402: 8332: 7896:Venton, Danielle (23 August 2011). 7035:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333 6714: 6203:"Classification of stellar spectra" 5627: 4960: 4954:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333 4905:. The University of Chicago Press. 4874: 4491: 4457: 4176: – bookkeeping survey of stars 4128:Habitability of binary star systems 4046: 3921:Extended white dwarf spectral types 3771:and other elements produced by the 3522:This prefix (e.g. sdL0) stands for 3440:Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer 3236: 3201:WCL (WC7 to WC9) – cooler or "late" 3159:Once included as type O stars, the 3041:. Furthermore, some larger, hotter 2272: II lines, prominent ionized ( 1949:Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra 1670:Secchi class description 1402:N III and He II emission 87:. Each line indicates a particular 24: 8996: 8344:"The discovery of a T6.5 subdwarf" 8243:"A Very Cool Pair of Brown Dwarfs" 6422:Hearnshaw (1986) pp. 117–119, 5988:(July–December 1866), pp. 621–628. 5969:(July–December 1866), pp. 364–368. 5846: 4766:. Vol. 22. pp. 275–294. 4340:from the original on 28 March 2023 3337:to be prominent in their spectra. 3211:spectra, some , and very rarely . 3171:WR spectra range is listed below: 3006:Spectra of a hypothetical M5V star 2905: B, are main-sequence stars. 2873:Spectra of a hypothetical K5V star 2738:Spectra of a hypothetical G5V star 2628:Spectra of a hypothetical F5V star 2541:Spectra of a hypothetical A5V star 2385:, which are associated with giant 2353:Spectra of a hypothetical B3V star 2234:Spectra of a hypothetical O5V star 2040:included Secchi type 4 stars 1565:Narrow ("sharp") absorption lines 1077:or extremely luminous supergiants 298:. The full spectral class for the 25: 10741: 9050: 8683:Space Telescope Science Institute 6284:Hearnshaw, J.B. (17 March 2014). 6226:Hearnshaw (1986) pp. 111–112 5693:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 5604: 5565:MacRobert, Alan (1 August 2006). 4374:: 193–237 (Tables VII and VIII). 4136:Habitability of red dwarf systems 3966:Spectral peculiarities for stars 3671:and its striking spiral structure 3312:Artist's impression of an L-dwarf 2115: 2074:The current Harvard system (1912) 1645: 1600:Weak lines (also "w" & "wk") 1325:Spectral peculiarities for stars 413: 407: 10687: 10675: 10663: 10651: 10624: 10614: 10613: 8918: 8790: 8707: 8698: 8670: 8602: 8307: 8217:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13885.x 8172: 7938: 7908: 7845:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10795.x 7809: 7752: 7730: 7676: 7540: 7525:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19129.x 7466:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20929.x 6834:Williams Bay: Yerkes Observatory 5399:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11196.x 5243:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15979.x 5109:Gray, David F. (November 2010). 4733:Phillips, Kenneth J. H. (1995). 3433:Artist's impression of a Y-dwarf 3372:Artist's impression of a T-dwarf 3245:Cool red and brown dwarf classes 2746:, have prominent spectral lines 2161:, while "late" is a synonym for 2157:types. "Early" is a synonym for 1882:Did not appear in the catalogue 1802: 1772:In 1877, he added a fifth class: 1304:designation. An example star is 9068:Stellar Spectral Classification 7870:Wehner, Mike (24 August 2011). 7481: 7354: 7313: 7260: 7205: 7183: 7156: 6992: 6967: 6898: 6848: 6825: 6770: 6708: 6461: 6452: 6425: 6416: 6389: 6354: 6329:Stellar spectral classification 6229: 6220: 6195: 6170: 6088: 6079: 6070: 6061: 6030: 6016: 5991: 5972: 5953: 5558: 4894: 4868: 4842: 4819: 4778: 4755: 4270: 4257: 4248: 4210: 3388:is prominent in their spectra. 2149:Stars are often referred to as 2145:"Early" and "late" nomenclature 1984:Summary of 1897 Harvard system 1519:Very broad absorption features 374:Harvard spectral classification 306:Conventional colour description 138:, a sequence from the hottest ( 6975:"THE 100 NEAREST STAR SYSTEMS" 6290:(2nd ed.). New York, NY. 4877:"The MKK and Revised MK Atlas" 4826:Payne, Cecilia Helena (1925). 4516: 4315: 4290: 4197: 4186: – Branch of astrophysics 3695:C-R – Formerly its own class ( 3633:Late giant carbon-star classes 3562:) have a low surface gravity. 3214: 3115:Hot blue emission star classes 2246:are O-type stars. Some of the 1021:, which remains in use today. 971:Yerkes spectral classification 965:Yerkes spectral classification 344:stellar classification systems 13: 1: 10526:Timeline of stellar astronomy 8982:"Stars and Habitable Planets" 8548:Micron All-Sky Survey data". 8239:European Southern Observatory 7631:Kirkpatrick, J. Davy (2005). 7000:"Stars within 20 light-years" 6931:Slettebak, Arne (July 1988). 6555:Sandage, A. (December 1969). 5567:"The Spectral Types of Stars" 4324:"MAGNITUDE AND COLOR SYSTEMS" 4283: 4006:Spectral peculiarities exist 3908:effective surface temperature 3376:Class T dwarfs are cool 1972:The old Harvard system (1897) 1938:In the 1880s, the astronomer 1527:A nebula's spectrum mixed in 9108:Stellar classification table 9057:Libraries of stellar spectra 8927:Astronomy & Astrophysics 8446:10.1088/0004-6256/137/2/3345 8104:10.1088/0004-637X/695/2/1517 7633:"New Spectral Types L and T" 6458:Hearnshaw (1986) pp. 121–122 6178:"Williamina Paton Fleming -" 6139:pp. 106–108, Hearnshaw 1986. 5723:10.1088/2041-8205/711/2/L143 5455:10.1088/0004-6256/138/6/1681 5136:10.1088/0004-6256/140/5/1329 3787:when at an extreme minimum. 3584:Young brown dwarfs have low 3277:, stars that do not undergo 2742:G-type stars, including the 2454:that are considered to have 2044: 2036: 2028: 2020: 2012: 2004: 1996: 1015:Morgan–Keenan classification 792: 737: 682: 627: 572: 517: 462: 387: 83:of colors interspersed with 7: 10186:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 8580:10.1088/0067-0049/190/1/100 7977:10.1051/0004-6361:200810038 7795:10.1088/0004-637X/776/2/128 5779:10.1088/0004-6256/138/2/510 5185:10.1051/0004-6361/200912659 5088:10.1051/0004-6361/201015252 4830:(Ph.D). Radcliffe College. 4460:"What color are the stars?" 4434:10.1051/0004-6361/201014491 4322:O’Connell (27 March 2023). 4149: 3816:White dwarf classifications 3716:analogues of the C-R stars. 3356:while in the height of its 3267:that are very faint in the 3134:Class WR (or W): Wolf–Rayet 2443:at a curiously rapid rate. 1944:Harvard College Observatory 1760:Red stars with significant 1108:intermediate-size luminous 956:then demonstrated that the 942:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 922:is classified as O9.7. The 10: 10746: 10100:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism 8957:10.1051/0004-6361:20020699 8829:10.1051/0004-6361:20041372 8799:Astronomy and Astrophysics 8647:10.3847/0067-0049/225/1/10 8292:10.3847/0004-6256/152/3/78 8158:10.1051/0004-6361:20079317 8128:Astronomy and Astrophysics 7947:Astronomy and Astrophysics 7904:– via www.wired.com. 7415:10.1051/0004-6361:20020061 7394:Astronomy and Astrophysics 7363:Astronomy and Astrophysics 7165:Astronomy and Astrophysics 6907:"Regulus: The Kingly Star" 6632:10.1088/0004-637X/743/1/88 6076:pp. 62–63, Hearnshaw 1986. 5919:Rountree Lesh, J. (1968). 5832:10.1051/0004-6361:20066495 5802:Astronomy and Astrophysics 5543:10.3847/0004-6256/152/2/31 5155:Astronomy and Astrophysics 5058:Astronomy and Astrophysics 5035:10.1088/0004-6256/147/2/40 4739:Cambridge University Press 4709:10.1088/0067-0049/211/1/10 4589:10.1051/0004-6361:20030252 4559:Astronomy and Astrophysics 4502:(4th ed.). Guinness. 4404:Astronomy and Astrophysics 4103: 4050: 3819: 3738: 3734: 3656: 3652: 3418: 3414: 3363: 3303: 3248: 3218: 3137: 2987: 2983: 2861: 2855: 2851: 2719: 2712: 2708: 2644: II. Neutral metals ( 2617: 2613: 2530: 2526: 2403:B-type main-sequence stars 2334: 2330: 2215: 2209: 2205: 2184:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism 2119: 2048:included Wolf–Rayet stars 1899:spectra with bright lines 1637: 1373:"Forbidden" emission lines 1051:Yerkes luminosity classes 29: 10715:Stars by luminosity class 10609: 10534: 10383: 10281: 10209: 10108: 9965: 9840: 9718: 9627: 9363: 9354: 9233: 9163: 9150: 9142: 9005:Astronomische Nachrichten 8073:The Astrophysical Journal 7765:The Astrophysical Journal 7686:The Astrophysical Journal 7593:The Astrophysical Journal 7326:The Astrophysical Journal 6602:The Astrophysical Journal 5998:Hearnshaw, J. B. (1986). 5639:The Astrophysical Journal 5341:10.1134/S1063772911010070 4158: – Type of telescope 4141:For these reasons NASA's 4091:Replaced spectral classes 3936:of type DA2) resolved by 3667:Image of the carbon star 3505: 2858:K-type main-sequence star 2722:G-type main-sequence star 2620:F-type main-sequence star 2533:A-type main-sequence star 2426:electromagnetic radiation 2337:B-type main-sequence star 2218:O-type main-sequence star 1925: 1535:Unspecified peculiarity, 1333:uncertain spectral value 1032:is much lower than for a 65:Electromagnetic radiation 55:is the classification of 10479:With multiple exoplanets 9101:University of Nottingham 9081:Spectral models of stars 8416:The Astronomical Journal 8261:The Astronomical Journal 7268:"Galactic refurbishment" 7215:. NASA.com. 7 March 2019 6864:The Astronomical Journal 6037:Kaler, James B. (1997). 5749:The Astronomical Journal 5512:The Astronomical Journal 5424:The Astronomical Journal 5268:The Astronomical Journal 5115:The Astronomical Journal 5005:The Astronomical Journal 4875:UCL (30 November 2018). 4785:Saha, M. N. (May 1921). 4190: 3822:White dwarf spectroscopy 3685:in addition to those of 3554:Objects with the gamma ( 3329:is cool enough to allow 1837:Hydrogen lines dominant 1503:Enhanced metal features 993:. This two-dimensional ( 936:(or more precisely, its 883:e!", or another one is " 439:Main-sequence luminosity 9265:Asymptotic giant branch 9073:31 October 2010 at the 8949:2002A&A...389L..24Y 8821:2004A&A...428..159C 8678:"Colour-magnitude data" 8150:2008A&A...482..961D 8035:10.1126/science.1241917 7969:2009A&A...493.1149Z 7654:2005ARA&A..43..195K 7406:2002A&A...384..987T 7375:1995A&A...295...75K 7177:2000A&A...353..163N 7027:1973ARA&A..11...29M 6791:Walborn, N. R. (1971). 6473:www.projectcontinua.org 6271:www.projectcontinua.org 6182:www.projectcontinua.org 5890:2007ARA&A..45..177C 5824:2007A&A...463..981R 5177:2009A&A...506.1055N 5080:2010A&A...521L..55P 4946:1973ARA&A..11...29M 4581:2003A&A...402..701B 4498:Moore, Patrick (1992). 4426:2010A&A...524A..98W 4380:1981A&AS...46..193H 3982:Emission lines present 3810:asymptotic giant branch 3777:asymptotic-giant-branch 3627:2MASS J11263991−5003550 3536:Objects with the beta ( 3391:Study of the number of 3107:Extended spectral types 3018:, class M0V, with 2715:G star (disambiguation) 2288: III) and neutral 2122:Asteroid spectral types 1754:In 1868, he discovered 1365:Emission lines present 10710:Stars by spectral type 10601:Tidal disruption event 10090:Circumstellar envelope 9324:Luminous blue variable 9035:10.1002/asna.202113868 7761:Faherty, Jacqueline K. 7272:www.spacetelescope.org 6085:p. 60, Hearnshaw 1986. 4881:UCL Observatory (UCLO) 4812:10.1098/rspa.1921.0029 4265:used with A-type stars 4106:Planetary habitability 4032:Henry Draper Catalogue 3940: 3826:The class D (for 3672: 3434: 3373: 3313: 3156: 3149:Hubble Space Telescope 3127: 3007: 2874: 2780:Beta Canum Venaticorum 2739: 2629: 2542: 2420:in emission, with the 2354: 2235: 1312:Spectral peculiarities 1288:Occasionally, letters 1043:A number of different 1011:Harvard classification 748:pale yellowish orange 142:type) to the coolest ( 53:stellar classification 44: 10730:Concepts in astronomy 10126:Effective temperature 9089:"Star Classification" 8762:Astrophysical Journal 8716:Astrophysical Journal 8481:Astrophysical Journal 8315:"Spectral type codes" 7193:. Spacefellowship.com 6561:Astrophysical Journal 6495:Astrophysical Journal 4524:"The Colour of Stars" 4485:"The Colour of Stars" 4302:astronomy.swin.edu.au 4017:Finally, the classes 3928: 3835:layer or atmosphere. 3666: 3499:Peculiar brown dwarfs 3432: 3371: 3311: 3300:values can be given. 3286:effective temperature 3147: 3122: 3005: 2872: 2737: 2627: 2540: 2509:Omicron Canis Majoris 2352: 2233: 1952:, published in 1890. 1733:Secchi class III 979:William Wilson Morgan 938:effective temperature 926:is classified as G2. 522:10,000–33,000 K 467:≥ 33,000 K 404:Effective temperature 331:Modern classification 42: 32:Star (classification) 10596:Planet-hosting stars 10474:With resolved images 10445:Historical brightest 10375:Photometric-standard 10301:Solar radio emission 10095:Eddington luminosity 9875:Triple-alpha process 9813:Thorne–Żytkow object 9188:Young stellar object 8379:10.1093/mnras/stu184 6153:"Williamina Fleming" 5001:DeGioia-Eastwood, K. 4855:Physics and Universe 4122:is also unlike many 2456:forbidden mechanisms 2091:Mount Wilson classes 1751:Secchi class IV 1713:Secchi class II 1697:(Orion subtype) 1391:Emission lines with 1349:Special peculiarity 577:7,300–10,000 K 430:Main-sequence radius 199:In the MK system, a 10420:Highest temperature 10191:Color–color diagram 10056:Protoplanetary disk 9860:Proton–proton chain 9538:Chemically peculiar 9027:2021AN....342..578H 8864:1999ApJS..121....1M 8774:1983ApJ...269..253S 8728:1954ApJ...120..484K 8638:2016ApJS..225...10F 8572:2010ApJS..190..100K 8503:2008ApJ...686..528L 8438:2009AJ....137.3345C 8370:2014MNRAS.440..359B 8319:simbad.u-strasbg.fr 8283:2016AJ....152...78L 8208:2008MNRAS.391..320B 8096:2009ApJ...695.1517L 8027:2013Sci...341.1492D 7926:on 14 February 2021 7874:. Ca.news.yahoo.com 7787:2013ApJ...776..128K 7708:2006ApJ...639.1120K 7605:1999ApJ...519..802K 7571:2008ASPC..384...85K 7516:2011MNRAS.416.1311C 7457:2012MNRAS.423..934M 7338:1997ApJ...486..420F 7307:1930BHarO.878....1P 7134:1989ApJS...71..245K 7099:1989ApJS...69..301G 7058:1978rmsa.book.....M 6951:1988PASP..100..770S 6876:2002AJ....123.2754W 6842:1978rmsa.book.....M 6809:1971ApJS...23..257W 6764:2008RMxAC..33....5W 6624:2011ApJ...743...88N 6573:1969ApJ...158.1115S 6542:1969JRASC..63..251P 6507:1946ApJ...103..117N 6469:"Annie Jump Cannon" 6446:1912AnHar..56..115C 6410:1901AnHar..28..129C 6250:1897AnHar..28....1M 6124:1890AnHar..27....1P 5937:1968ApJS...17..371L 5771:2009AJ....138..510F 5715:2010ApJ...711L.143W 5661:2007ApJ...660.1480M 5571:Sky & Telescope 5534:2016AJ....152...31A 5447:2009AJ....138.1681S 5390:2007MNRAS.374..664C 5333:2011ARep...55...31S 5290:2003AJ....126.2048G 5234:2010MNRAS.402.1369L 5127:2010AJ....140.1329G 5027:2014AJ....147...40C 4911:1943assw.book.....M 4836:1925PhDT.........1P 4803:1921RSPSA..99..135S 4772:1914PA.....22..275R 4701:2014ApJS..211...10S 4639:2001JRASC..95...32L 4458:Charity, Mitchell. 3405:orders of magnitude 3071:Spectral standards: 2929:Spectral standards: 2773:Spectral standards: 2660:Spectral standards: 2572:Gamma Ursae Majoris 2565:Spectral standards: 2466:Spectral standards: 2399:constellation Orion 2359:O- and B-type stars 2312:Spectral standards: 2188:main-sequence stars 2087:readable spectrum. 1985: 1940:Edward C. Pickering 1809: 1769:Secchi class V 1695:Secchi class I 1675:Secchi class I 1357:Composite spectrum 1192:main-sequence stars 1052: 1026:pressure broadening 952:Harvard astronomer 803:light orangish red 797:2,300–3,900 K 742:3,900–5,300 K 687:5,300–6,000 K 632:6,000–7,300 K 498:≥ 30,000 456:main-sequence stars 73:diffraction grating 10425:Lowest temperature 10176:Photometric system 10146:Absolute magnitude 10080:Circumstellar dust 9693:Stellar black hole 9329:Stellar population 9215:Herbig–Haro object 8986:www.solstation.com 6598:Mahadevan, Suvrath 4741:. pp. 47–53. 4530:on 3 December 2013 4168:Spectral signature 3941: 3783:used for the star 3673: 3435: 3403:should be several 3374: 3350:L-type supergiants 3314: 3157: 3128: 3065:Vanadium(II) oxide 3008: 2875: 2740: 2630: 2543: 2355: 2248:most massive stars 2244:solar neighborhood 2236: 2059:(a): average width 1983: 1962:Williamina Fleming 1954:Williamina Fleming 1910:Planetary nebulae 1807: 1573:Very narrow lines 1487:Weak Helium lines 1050: 1045:luminosity classes 1038:luminosity effects 991:Yerkes Observatory 973:, also called the 528:deep bluish white 421:Main-sequence mass 150:being hottest and 45: 10725:Stellar astronomy 10639: 10638: 10542:Substellar object 10521:Planetary nebulae 9940:Luminous red nova 9850:Deuterium burning 9836: 9835: 9319:Instability strip 9299:Wolf-Rayet nebula 9253:Horizontal branch 9198:Pre-main-sequence 9059:by D. Montes, UCM 7248:on 7 October 2011 6979:www.astro.gsu.edu 6693:978-1-58381-396-6 6374:978-0-674-41880-6 6339:978-0-691-12510-7 6297:978-1-107-03174-6 6097:by Stefan Hughes. 6054:978-0-521-58570-5 6009:978-0-521-25548-6 5489:978-94-009-5456-4 5321:Astronomy Reports 4764:Popular Astronomy 4748:978-0-521-39788-9 4509:978-0-85112-940-2 4180:, survey of stars 4075:Planetary nebulae 4037:planetary nebulae 4010: 4009: 3868:, spectral lines. 3861:, spectral lines. 3760:D lines and weak 3752:analogous to the 3586:surface gravities 3582: 3581: 3558:) suffix (e.g. L5 3540:) suffix (e.g. L4 3425:Substellar object 3358:luminous red nova 2846:Epsilon Geminorum 2767:yellow supergiant 2730:Yellow hypergiant 2726:Yellow supergiant 2515:Eta Canis Majoris 2497:Eta Ursae Majoris 2460:quantum mechanics 2446:Objects known as 2180:stellar evolution 2080:Annie Jump Cannon 2052: 2051: 1958:Harvard computers 1936: 1935: 1793: 1792: 1779:Gamma Cassiopeiae 1667:Class number 1628: 1627: 1256: 1255: 1181:Gamma Cassiopeiae 1098:Eta Canis Majoris 846: 845: 828:≤ 0.08 384:Annie Jump Cannon 284:, and class 63:characteristics. 16:(Redirected from 10737: 10692: 10691: 10690: 10680: 10679: 10668: 10667: 10666: 10656: 10655: 10647: 10631:Stars portal 10629: 10628: 10617: 10616: 10273:Planetary system 10196:Strömgren sphere 10068:Asteroseismology 9789:Black hole star 9361: 9360: 9287:Planetary nebula 9248:Red-giant branch 9137: 9130: 9123: 9114: 9113: 9104: 9046: 9020: 8990: 8989: 8978: 8969: 8968: 8942: 8940:astro-ph/0204233 8922: 8916: 8915: 8913: 8911: 8900: 8894: 8893: 8875: 8847: 8841: 8840: 8814: 8812:astro-ph/0408237 8794: 8788: 8787: 8785: 8753: 8740: 8739: 8711: 8705: 8702: 8696: 8695: 8693: 8691: 8674: 8668: 8667: 8649: 8631: 8606: 8600: 8599: 8565: 8544: 8531: 8530: 8496: 8475: 8466: 8465: 8431: 8422:(2): 3345–3357. 8411: 8400: 8399: 8381: 8363: 8339: 8330: 8329: 8327: 8325: 8311: 8305: 8304: 8294: 8276: 8252: 8246: 8236: 8230: 8229: 8219: 8201: 8176: 8170: 8169: 8143: 8122: 8116: 8115: 8089: 8080:(2): 1517–1526. 8066: 8055: 8054: 8020: 8011:(6153): 1492–5. 8000: 7989: 7988: 7962: 7953:(3): 1149–1154. 7942: 7936: 7935: 7933: 7931: 7922:. Archived from 7912: 7906: 7905: 7893: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7879: 7867: 7858: 7857: 7847: 7837: 7835:astro-ph/0607305 7813: 7807: 7806: 7780: 7756: 7750: 7749: 7743: 7734: 7728: 7727: 7701: 7699:astro-ph/0511462 7692:(2): 1120–1128. 7680: 7674: 7673: 7637: 7628: 7619: 7618: 7616: 7584: 7575: 7574: 7564: 7544: 7538: 7537: 7527: 7509: 7500:(2): 1311–1323. 7485: 7479: 7478: 7468: 7450: 7426: 7420: 7419: 7417: 7385: 7379: 7378: 7358: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7317: 7311: 7310: 7290: 7284: 7283: 7281: 7279: 7264: 7258: 7257: 7255: 7253: 7244:. Archived from 7242:science.nasa.gov 7234: 7225: 7224: 7222: 7220: 7209: 7203: 7202: 7200: 7198: 7187: 7181: 7180: 7160: 7154: 7153: 7117: 7111: 7110: 7082: 7076: 7075: 7069: 7061: 7045: 7039: 7038: 7010: 7004: 7003: 6996: 6990: 6989: 6987: 6985: 6971: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6928: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6902: 6896: 6895: 6870:(5): 2754–2771. 6861: 6852: 6846: 6845: 6829: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6788: 6782: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6747: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6717:"late-type star" 6715:Darling, David. 6712: 6706: 6705: 6685: 6677: 6665: 6644: 6643: 6617: 6593: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6552: 6546: 6545: 6525: 6519: 6518: 6490: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6479: 6465: 6459: 6456: 6450: 6449: 6429: 6423: 6420: 6414: 6413: 6393: 6387: 6386: 6358: 6352: 6351: 6323: 6317: 6309: 6281: 6279: 6277: 6263: 6254: 6253: 6233: 6227: 6224: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6174: 6168: 6167: 6165: 6163: 6157:Oxford Reference 6149: 6140: 6137: 6128: 6127: 6107: 6098: 6092: 6086: 6083: 6077: 6074: 6068: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6034: 6028: 6027: 6020: 6014: 6013: 5995: 5989: 5976: 5970: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5916: 5910: 5909: 5883: 5881:astro-ph/0610356 5863: 5844: 5843: 5817: 5815:astro-ph/0612622 5797: 5791: 5790: 5764: 5744: 5735: 5734: 5708: 5687: 5681: 5680: 5654: 5652:astro-ph/0612012 5645:(2): 1480–1485. 5634: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5602: 5575: 5574: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5545: 5527: 5503: 5494: 5493: 5473: 5467: 5466: 5440: 5431:(6): 1681–1689. 5418: 5412: 5411: 5401: 5383: 5381:astro-ph/0611618 5359: 5353: 5352: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5283: 5281:astro-ph/0308182 5274:(4): 2048–2059. 5262: 5256: 5255: 5245: 5227: 5218:(2): 1369–1379. 5203: 5197: 5196: 5170: 5161:(2): 1055–1064. 5150: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5121:(5): 1329–1336. 5106: 5100: 5099: 5073: 5053: 5047: 5046: 5020: 4996: 4990: 4989: 4987: 4985: 4971: 4958: 4957: 4929: 4923: 4922: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4797:(697): 135–153. 4782: 4776: 4775: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4735:Guide to the Sun 4730: 4721: 4720: 4694: 4674: 4668: 4667: 4665: 4663: 4657:www.eudesign.com 4649: 4643: 4642: 4622: 4601: 4600: 4574: 4572:astro-ph/0302293 4554: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4520: 4514: 4513: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4455: 4446: 4445: 4419: 4399: 4393: 4388:figures, using M 4383: 4363: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4339: 4331:Caltech ASTR 511 4328: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4294: 4277: 4274: 4268: 4261: 4255: 4252: 4246: 4242: 4221: 4214: 4208: 4201: 4184:Stellar dynamics 4179: 4047:Stellar remnants 3960: 3959: 3750:absorption bands 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3561: 3557: 3551: 3543: 3539: 3533: 3503: 3502: 3354:V838 Monocerotis 3284: 3269:visible spectrum 3237:Magnetic O stars 3161:Wolf–Rayet stars 3057:visible spectrum 3027:VY Canis Majoris 2840:Epsilon Virginis 2822:61 Ursae Majoris 2685:78 Ursae Majoris 2679:37 Ursae Majoris 2408:Massive yet non- 2387:molecular clouds 1986: 1982: 1810: 1806: 1787:Wolf–Rayet stars 1664: 1663: 1624: 1556:P Cygni profiles 1319: 1318: 1056:Luminosity class 1053: 1049: 983:Philip C. Keenan 817:≤ 0.7 693:yellowish white 635:yellowish white 487:≥ 6.6 397: 396: 356:color magnitudes 201:luminosity class 89:chemical element 21: 10745: 10744: 10740: 10739: 10738: 10736: 10735: 10734: 10700: 10699: 10698: 10688: 10686: 10674: 10664: 10662: 10650: 10642: 10640: 10635: 10623: 10605: 10530: 10499:Milky Way novae 10435:Smallest volume 10379: 10360:Radial velocity 10283: 10277: 10229:Common envelope 10205: 10104: 10073:Helioseismology 10044:Bipolar outflow 9985:Microturbulence 9980:Convection zone 9961: 9855:Lithium burning 9842:Nucleosynthesis 9832: 9714: 9623: 9350: 9229: 9178:Molecular cloud 9159: 9146: 9141: 9075:Wayback Machine 9053: 8999: 8997:Further reading 8994: 8993: 8980: 8979: 8972: 8923: 8919: 8909: 8907: 8902: 8901: 8897: 8873:10.1.1.565.5507 8848: 8844: 8795: 8791: 8754: 8743: 8712: 8708: 8703: 8699: 8689: 8687: 8685:(www.stsci.edu) 8676: 8675: 8671: 8607: 8603: 8545: 8534: 8476: 8469: 8412: 8403: 8340: 8333: 8323: 8321: 8313: 8312: 8308: 8253: 8249: 8245:, 23 March 2011 8237: 8233: 8177: 8173: 8123: 8119: 8067: 8058: 8001: 7992: 7943: 7939: 7929: 7927: 7914: 7913: 7909: 7894: 7887: 7877: 7875: 7868: 7861: 7814: 7810: 7757: 7753: 7741: 7735: 7731: 7681: 7677: 7635: 7629: 7622: 7585: 7578: 7545: 7541: 7486: 7482: 7427: 7423: 7386: 7382: 7359: 7355: 7318: 7314: 7291: 7287: 7277: 7275: 7266: 7265: 7261: 7251: 7249: 7236: 7235: 7228: 7218: 7216: 7211: 7210: 7206: 7196: 7194: 7189: 7188: 7184: 7161: 7157: 7118: 7114: 7083: 7079: 7063: 7062: 7046: 7042: 7011: 7007: 6998: 6997: 6993: 6983: 6981: 6973: 6972: 6968: 6929: 6925: 6915: 6913: 6903: 6899: 6859: 6853: 6849: 6830: 6826: 6789: 6785: 6775: 6771: 6748: 6735: 6725: 6723: 6713: 6709: 6694: 6675: 6669:Garrison, R. F. 6666: 6647: 6594: 6590: 6553: 6549: 6526: 6522: 6491: 6487: 6477: 6475: 6467: 6466: 6462: 6457: 6453: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6417: 6394: 6390: 6375: 6359: 6355: 6340: 6324: 6311: 6310: 6298: 6282: 6275: 6273: 6267:"Antonia Maury" 6265: 6264: 6257: 6234: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6211: 6209: 6201: 6200: 6196: 6186: 6184: 6176: 6175: 6171: 6161: 6159: 6151: 6150: 6143: 6138: 6131: 6108: 6101: 6093: 6089: 6084: 6080: 6075: 6071: 6066: 6062: 6055: 6035: 6031: 6022: 6021: 6017: 6010: 5996: 5992: 5977: 5973: 5958: 5954: 5917: 5913: 5864: 5847: 5798: 5794: 5745: 5738: 5688: 5684: 5635: 5628: 5618: 5616: 5603: 5578: 5563: 5559: 5504: 5497: 5490: 5474: 5470: 5419: 5415: 5360: 5356: 5317: 5313: 5263: 5259: 5204: 5200: 5151: 5144: 5107: 5103: 5054: 5050: 4997: 4993: 4983: 4981: 4973: 4972: 4961: 4930: 4926: 4899: 4895: 4885: 4883: 4873: 4869: 4859: 4857: 4847: 4843: 4824: 4820: 4783: 4779: 4760: 4756: 4749: 4731: 4724: 4675: 4671: 4661: 4659: 4651: 4650: 4646: 4623: 4604: 4555: 4544: 4533: 4531: 4522: 4521: 4517: 4510: 4496: 4492: 4483: 4482: 4478: 4468: 4466: 4456: 4449: 4400: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4364: 4353: 4343: 4341: 4337: 4326: 4320: 4316: 4306: 4304: 4296: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4280: 4275: 4271: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4224: 4215: 4211: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4177: 4152: 4124:stellar systems 4108: 4102: 4093: 4063: 4051:Main articles: 4049: 4015: 3923: 3905: 3898: 3824: 3818: 3801: 3765: 3743: 3737: 3728: 3661: 3655: 3635: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3559: 3555: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3531: 3501: 3427: 3421:Sub-brown dwarf 3417: 3366: 3306: 3282: 3279:hydrogen fusion 3257: 3249:Main articles: 3247: 3239: 3223: 3217: 3142: 3140:Wolf–Rayet star 3136: 3117: 3109: 3078:Beta Andromedae 3000: 2986: 2954:Epsilon Eridani 2867: 2860: 2854: 2834:Kappa Geminorum 2732: 2718: 2711: 2622: 2616: 2535: 2529: 2473:Upsilon Orionis 2439:as the objects 2412:stars known as 2383:OB associations 2347: 2345:Blue supergiant 2333: 2284: III, and 2228: 2226:Blue supergiant 2214: 2208: 2196:geologic record 2147: 2125: 2118: 2093: 2076: 1974: 1805: 1777:stars, such as 1773: 1759: 1745: 1696: 1648: 1640: 1619: 1606: 1393:P Cygni profile 1314: 1007:surface gravity 967: 916:Arabic numerals 835: 832: 824: 821: 813: 810: 806:0.08–0.45 780: 777: 769: 766: 758: 755: 725: 722: 714: 711: 707:0.96–1.15 703: 700: 670: 667: 659: 656: 648: 645: 615: 612: 604: 601: 593: 590: 560: 557: 553:25–30,000 549: 546: 538: 535: 505: 502: 494: 491: 483: 480: 476:≥ 16 454: 453:Fraction of all 449: 440: 431: 422: 376: 350:, are based on 333: 313:"Yellow" dwarfs 308: 79:exhibiting the 59:based on their 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10743: 10733: 10732: 10727: 10722: 10717: 10712: 10697: 10696: 10684: 10672: 10660: 10637: 10636: 10634: 10633: 10621: 10610: 10607: 10606: 10604: 10603: 10598: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10578: 10573: 10568: 10567: 10566: 10561: 10560: 10559: 10554: 10538: 10536: 10532: 10531: 10529: 10528: 10523: 10518: 10517: 10516: 10511: 10501: 10496: 10491: 10486: 10481: 10476: 10471: 10470: 10469: 10464: 10463: 10462: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10437: 10432: 10430:Largest volume 10427: 10422: 10417: 10407: 10406: 10405: 10400: 10389: 10387: 10381: 10380: 10378: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10357: 10356: 10355: 10350: 10345: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10314: 10313: 10308: 10303: 10298: 10287: 10285: 10279: 10278: 10276: 10275: 10270: 10269: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10248: 10243: 10242: 10241: 10236: 10231: 10226: 10215: 10213: 10207: 10206: 10204: 10203: 10198: 10193: 10188: 10183: 10178: 10173: 10168: 10163: 10158: 10153: 10148: 10143: 10141:Magnetic field 10138: 10133: 10128: 10123: 10118: 10112: 10110: 10106: 10105: 10103: 10102: 10097: 10092: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10076: 10075: 10065: 10064: 10063: 10058: 10051:Accretion disk 10048: 10047: 10046: 10041: 10031: 10030: 10029: 10027:Alfvén surface 10024: 10022:Stellar corona 10019: 10014: 10009: 9999: 9997:Radiation zone 9994: 9993: 9992: 9987: 9977: 9971: 9969: 9963: 9962: 9960: 9959: 9954: 9953: 9952: 9947: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9897: 9892: 9887: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9846: 9844: 9838: 9837: 9834: 9833: 9831: 9830: 9825: 9820: 9815: 9810: 9805: 9804: 9803: 9798: 9795: 9787: 9786: 9785: 9780: 9775: 9770: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9735: 9730: 9724: 9722: 9716: 9715: 9713: 9712: 9707: 9706: 9705: 9695: 9690: 9689: 9688: 9683: 9682: 9681: 9676: 9666: 9656: 9655: 9654: 9644: 9639: 9633: 9631: 9625: 9624: 9622: 9621: 9619:Blue straggler 9616: 9615: 9614: 9604: 9599: 9598: 9597: 9587: 9586: 9585: 9580: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9545: 9535: 9530: 9529: 9528: 9523: 9518: 9508: 9507: 9506: 9496: 9495: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9474: 9469: 9468: 9467: 9462: 9457: 9447: 9442: 9437: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9425: 9415: 9414: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9377:Main sequence 9375: 9370: 9364: 9358: 9356:Classification 9352: 9351: 9349: 9348: 9347: 9346: 9341: 9331: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9295: 9294: 9292:Protoplanetary 9284: 9279: 9278: 9277: 9272: 9262: 9261: 9260: 9250: 9245: 9239: 9237: 9231: 9230: 9228: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9212: 9211: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9169: 9167: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9157: 9151: 9148: 9147: 9140: 9139: 9132: 9125: 9117: 9111: 9110: 9105: 9084: 9078: 9065: 9060: 9052: 9051:External links 9049: 9048: 9047: 9011:(3): 578–587. 8998: 8995: 8992: 8991: 8970: 8917: 8895: 8882:10.1086/313186 8842: 8789: 8783:10.1086/161036 8741: 8736:10.1086/145937 8706: 8697: 8669: 8601: 8556:(1): 100–146. 8532: 8511:10.1086/591025 8487:(1): 528–541. 8479:metal-rich?". 8467: 8401: 8354:(1): 359–364. 8331: 8306: 8247: 8231: 8192:(1): 320–333. 8171: 8134:(3): 961–971. 8117: 8056: 7990: 7937: 7907: 7885: 7859: 7808: 7751: 7729: 7716:10.1086/499622 7675: 7648:(1): 195–246. 7620: 7614:10.1086/307414 7599:(2): 802–833. 7576: 7539: 7480: 7441:(1): 934–947. 7421: 7400:(3): 987–998. 7380: 7353: 7347:10.1086/304488 7332:(1): 420–434. 7312: 7285: 7259: 7226: 7204: 7182: 7155: 7142:10.1086/191373 7112: 7107:10.1086/191315 7077: 7040: 7005: 6991: 6966: 6960:10.1086/132234 6933:"The Be Stars" 6923: 6897: 6884:10.1086/339831 6847: 6824: 6818:10.1086/190239 6783: 6769: 6733: 6707: 6692: 6645: 6588: 6582:10.1086/150271 6547: 6520: 6515:10.1086/144796 6485: 6460: 6451: 6424: 6415: 6388: 6373: 6353: 6338: 6296: 6255: 6228: 6219: 6194: 6169: 6141: 6129: 6099: 6087: 6078: 6069: 6060: 6053: 6029: 6015: 6008: 5990: 5971: 5952: 5946:10.1086/190179 5911: 5874:(1): 177–219. 5845: 5808:(3): 981–991. 5792: 5755:(2): 510–516. 5736: 5682: 5669:10.1086/513098 5626: 5576: 5557: 5495: 5488: 5468: 5413: 5374:(2): 664–690. 5354: 5311: 5298:10.1086/378365 5257: 5198: 5142: 5101: 5048: 4991: 4959: 4924: 4893: 4867: 4841: 4818: 4777: 4754: 4747: 4722: 4669: 4644: 4602: 4565:(2): 701–712. 4542: 4515: 4508: 4490: 4476: 4447: 4394: 4389: 4385: 4351: 4314: 4288: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4278: 4269: 4256: 4247: 4222: 4209: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4187: 4181: 4171: 4165: 4159: 4151: 4148: 4143:Kepler Mission 4101: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4048: 4045: 4014: 4011: 4008: 4007: 4004: 4000: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3988: 3984: 3983: 3980: 3976: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3967: 3964: 3955: 3954: 3951: 3948: 3945: 3922: 3919: 3910:, measured in 3903: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3876: 3869: 3862: 3851: 3848:spectral lines 3832:nuclear fusion 3820:Main article: 3817: 3814: 3800: 3797: 3763: 3739:Main article: 3736: 3733: 3732: 3731: 3726: 3717: 3710: 3703: 3700: 3657:Main article: 3654: 3651: 3634: 3631: 3616:stars than to 3580: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3571: 3568: 3564: 3563: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3520: 3516: 3515: 3512: 3508: 3507: 3500: 3497: 3478:WISE 0855−0714 3466:WISE 1828+2650 3416: 3413: 3365: 3362: 3331:metal hydrides 3305: 3302: 3246: 3243: 3238: 3235: 3219:Main article: 3216: 3213: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3203: 3202: 3199: 3193: 3190: 3189: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3138:Main article: 3135: 3132: 3116: 3113: 3108: 3105: 3104: 3103: 3092: 3088:M1-M2Ia-Iab – 3086: 3080: 2998:Red supergiant 2985: 2982: 2981: 2980: 2978:Gamma Draconis 2974: 2968: 2962: 2960:Kappa Ophiuchi 2956: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2936:Sigma Draconis 2922:titanium oxide 2903:Alpha Centauri 2853: 2850: 2849: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2830: 2824: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2782: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2681: 2675: 2669: 2656:within 20 ly. 2615: 2612: 2611: 2610: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2580: 2574: 2528: 2525: 2524: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2481: 2475: 2452:emission lines 2332: 2329: 2328: 2327: 2321: 2210:Main article: 2207: 2204: 2200:nuclear fusion 2146: 2143: 2133:type specimens 2117: 2116:Spectral types 2114: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2092: 2089: 2075: 2072: 2067: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2050: 2049: 2046: 2042: 2041: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2030: 2026: 2025: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2014: 2010: 2009: 2006: 2002: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1993: 1990: 1973: 1970: 1934: 1933: 1923: 1922: 1921:Other spectra 1919: 1916: 1912: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1901: 1900: 1893: 1888: 1884: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1873: 1872: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1860: 1858: 1843: 1839: 1838: 1835: 1825: 1821: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1804: 1801: 1797:Roman numerals 1791: 1790: 1770: 1766: 1765: 1752: 1748: 1747: 1734: 1730: 1729: 1714: 1710: 1709: 1698: 1692: 1691: 1680:hydrogen lines 1676: 1672: 1671: 1668: 1656:Secchi classes 1647: 1646:Secchi classes 1644: 1639: 1636: 1626: 1625: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1585: 1579: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1567: 1566: 1563: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1548: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1533: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1513: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1504: 1501: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1472: 1469: 1465: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1426: 1423: 1419: 1418: 1408: 1404: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1395: 1389: 1385: 1384: 1381: 1377: 1376: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1363: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1343: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1327: 1326: 1323: 1313: 1310: 1276: 1275: 1268: 1254: 1253: 1247: 1242: 1230: 1229: 1219: 1214: 1202: 1201: 1195: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1178: 1173: 1169: 1168: 1162: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1145: 1140: 1136: 1135: 1129: 1125:less luminous 1123: 1119: 1118: 1112: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1095: 1089: 1085: 1084: 1078: 1072: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1003:spectral lines 966: 963: 844: 843: 840: 837: 833: 830: 826: 822: 819: 815: 811: 808: 804: 801: 798: 795: 789: 788: 785: 782: 778: 775: 773:0.08–0.6 771: 767: 764: 762:0.7–0.96 760: 756: 753: 751:0.45–0.8 749: 746: 743: 740: 734: 733: 730: 727: 723: 720: 716: 712: 709: 705: 701: 698: 696:0.8–1.04 694: 691: 688: 685: 679: 678: 675: 672: 668: 665: 661: 657: 654: 652:1.15–1.4 650: 646: 643: 641:1.04–1.4 639: 636: 633: 630: 624: 623: 620: 617: 613: 610: 606: 602: 599: 595: 591: 588: 584: 581: 578: 575: 569: 568: 565: 562: 558: 555: 551: 547: 544: 540: 536: 533: 529: 526: 523: 520: 514: 513: 510: 507: 503: 500: 496: 492: 489: 485: 481: 478: 474: 471: 468: 465: 459: 458: 451: 446: 437: 428: 419: 414:Chromaticity ( 412: 408:Vega-relative 406: 401: 380:Harvard system 375: 372: 346:, such as the 332: 329: 325:"brown" dwarfs 307: 304: 205:Roman numerals 101:spectral class 85:spectral lines 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10742: 10731: 10728: 10726: 10723: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10708: 10707: 10705: 10695: 10685: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10671: 10661: 10659: 10654: 10649: 10648: 10645: 10632: 10627: 10622: 10620: 10612: 10611: 10608: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10591:Intergalactic 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10571:Galactic year 10569: 10565: 10562: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10549: 10548: 10545: 10544: 10543: 10540: 10539: 10537: 10533: 10527: 10524: 10522: 10519: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10506: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10490: 10487: 10485: 10482: 10480: 10477: 10475: 10472: 10468: 10465: 10461: 10458: 10457: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10450:Most luminous 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10412: 10411: 10408: 10404: 10401: 10399: 10396: 10395: 10394: 10391: 10390: 10388: 10386: 10382: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10365:Proper motion 10363: 10361: 10358: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10340: 10339: 10336: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10328:Constellation 10326: 10324: 10321: 10319: 10316: 10312: 10309: 10307: 10304: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10296:Solar eclipse 10294: 10293: 10292: 10289: 10288: 10286: 10282:Earth-centric 10280: 10274: 10271: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10254: 10253: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10240: 10237: 10235: 10232: 10230: 10227: 10225: 10222: 10221: 10220: 10217: 10216: 10214: 10212: 10208: 10202: 10199: 10197: 10194: 10192: 10189: 10187: 10184: 10182: 10179: 10177: 10174: 10172: 10169: 10167: 10164: 10162: 10159: 10157: 10154: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10132: 10129: 10127: 10124: 10122: 10119: 10117: 10114: 10113: 10111: 10107: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10074: 10071: 10070: 10069: 10066: 10062: 10059: 10057: 10054: 10053: 10052: 10049: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10036: 10035: 10032: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10005: 10004: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9982: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9972: 9970: 9968: 9964: 9958: 9955: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9927: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9880:Alpha process 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9847: 9845: 9843: 9839: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9802: 9799: 9796: 9794: 9791: 9790: 9788: 9784: 9781: 9779: 9776: 9774: 9771: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9721: 9717: 9711: 9708: 9704: 9701: 9700: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9687: 9684: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9671: 9670: 9667: 9665: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9657: 9653: 9652:Helium planet 9650: 9649: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9642:Parker's star 9640: 9638: 9635: 9634: 9632: 9630: 9626: 9620: 9617: 9613: 9610: 9609: 9608: 9605: 9603: 9600: 9596: 9593: 9592: 9591: 9588: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9573:Lambda Boötis 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9540: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9527: 9524: 9522: 9519: 9517: 9514: 9513: 9512: 9509: 9505: 9502: 9501: 9500: 9497: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9479: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9456: 9453: 9452: 9451: 9448: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9436: 9433: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9420: 9419: 9416: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9378: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9365: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9353: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9339:Superluminous 9337: 9336: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9293: 9290: 9289: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9267: 9266: 9263: 9259: 9256: 9255: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9243:Main sequence 9241: 9240: 9238: 9236: 9232: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9220:Hayashi track 9218: 9216: 9213: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9190: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9170: 9168: 9166: 9162: 9156: 9153: 9152: 9149: 9145: 9138: 9133: 9131: 9126: 9124: 9119: 9118: 9115: 9109: 9106: 9102: 9098: 9094: 9093:Sixty Symbols 9090: 9085: 9082: 9079: 9076: 9072: 9069: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9058: 9055: 9054: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9028: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9001: 9000: 8987: 8983: 8977: 8975: 8966: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8950: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8921: 8905: 8899: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8857: 8853: 8846: 8838: 8834: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8804: 8800: 8793: 8784: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8759: 8752: 8750: 8748: 8746: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8725: 8721: 8717: 8710: 8701: 8686: 8684: 8679: 8673: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8621: 8617: 8613: 8605: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8543: 8541: 8539: 8537: 8528: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8486: 8482: 8474: 8472: 8463: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8447: 8443: 8439: 8435: 8430: 8425: 8421: 8417: 8410: 8408: 8406: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8371: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8345: 8338: 8336: 8320: 8316: 8310: 8302: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8275: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8251: 8244: 8240: 8235: 8227: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8200: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8183: 8175: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8133: 8129: 8121: 8113: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8074: 8065: 8063: 8061: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8019: 8014: 8010: 8006: 7999: 7997: 7995: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7941: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7911: 7903: 7899: 7892: 7890: 7873: 7866: 7864: 7855: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7828:: 1722–1730. 7827: 7823: 7819: 7812: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7755: 7747: 7740: 7733: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7679: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7642: 7634: 7627: 7625: 7615: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7583: 7581: 7572: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7543: 7535: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7484: 7476: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7425: 7416: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7384: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7357: 7348: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7316: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7289: 7273: 7269: 7263: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7233: 7231: 7214: 7208: 7192: 7186: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7159: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7116: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7081: 7073: 7067: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7044: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7009: 7001: 6995: 6980: 6976: 6970: 6961: 6956: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6939: 6934: 6927: 6912: 6908: 6901: 6893: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6851: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6828: 6819: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6787: 6780: 6779: 6773: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6746: 6744: 6742: 6740: 6738: 6722: 6718: 6711: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6689: 6684: 6683: 6674: 6670: 6664: 6662: 6660: 6658: 6656: 6654: 6652: 6650: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6592: 6583: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6551: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6524: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6489: 6474: 6470: 6464: 6455: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6428: 6419: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6392: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6370: 6366: 6365: 6357: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6321: 6315: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6293: 6289: 6288: 6272: 6268: 6262: 6260: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6232: 6223: 6208: 6207:spiff.rit.edu 6204: 6198: 6183: 6179: 6173: 6158: 6154: 6148: 6146: 6136: 6134: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6106: 6104: 6096: 6091: 6082: 6073: 6064: 6056: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6041: 6033: 6025: 6019: 6011: 6005: 6001: 5994: 5987: 5984: 5981:, P. Secchi, 5980: 5975: 5968: 5965: 5962:, P. Secchi, 5961: 5956: 5947: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5915: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5862: 5860: 5858: 5856: 5854: 5852: 5850: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5796: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5743: 5741: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5686: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5633: 5631: 5615: 5613: 5608: 5605:Allen, J. S. 5601: 5599: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5585: 5583: 5581: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5553: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5500: 5491: 5485: 5481: 5480: 5472: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5425: 5417: 5409: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5358: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5315: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5261: 5253: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5202: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5149: 5147: 5137: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5105: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4980: 4976: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4897: 4882: 4878: 4871: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4813: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4758: 4750: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4729: 4727: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4673: 4658: 4654: 4648: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4529: 4525: 4519: 4511: 4505: 4501: 4494: 4486: 4480: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4452: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4398: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4356: 4336: 4332: 4325: 4318: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4289: 4273: 4266: 4260: 4251: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4219: 4213: 4206: 4200: 4196: 4185: 4182: 4175: 4172: 4169: 4166: 4163: 4160: 4157: 4154: 4153: 4147: 4144: 4139: 4137: 4131: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4115: 4113: 4107: 4097: 4088: 4085: 4079: 4076: 4070: 4068: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4044: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4005: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3994: 3993: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3981: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3969: 3965: 3962: 3961: 3958: 3952: 3949: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3909: 3902: 3895: 3887: 3884: 3881: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3867: 3863: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3840: 3839: 3836: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3813: 3811: 3807: 3796: 3794: 3788: 3786: 3780: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3748: 3742: 3729: 3722: 3718: 3715: 3714:Population II 3711: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3693: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3678: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3650: 3646: 3644: 3640: 3630: 3628: 3624: 3623:near-infrared 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3587: 3577: 3574: 3573: 3569: 3566: 3565: 3553: 3548: 3547: 3535: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3518: 3517: 3513: 3510: 3509: 3504: 3496: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3370: 3361: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3336: 3335:alkali metals 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3310: 3301: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3252: 3242: 3234: 3230: 3228: 3222: 3212: 3205: 3200: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3173: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3166:stellar winds 3162: 3155:in the center 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3131: 3125: 3121: 3112: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3091: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3079: 3075: 3074: 3073: 3072: 3068: 3066: 3062: 3059:, especially 3058: 3054: 3051: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3016:Lacaille 8760 3013: 3004: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2979: 2975: 2973: 2969: 2967: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2955: 2951: 2949: 2948:Epsilon Cygni 2945: 2943: 2939: 2937: 2933: 2932: 2931: 2930: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2899:orange dwarfs 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2847: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2817: 2813: 2811: 2807: 2805: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2781: 2777: 2776: 2775: 2774: 2770: 2768: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2716: 2704: 2700: 2698: 2697:Beta Virginis 2694: 2692: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2674: 2673:Alpha Leporis 2670: 2668: 2664: 2663: 2662: 2661: 2657: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2626: 2621: 2609: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2597: 2593: 2591: 2587: 2585: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2539: 2534: 2522: 2518: 2516: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2504: 2500: 2498: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2469: 2468: 2467: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2444: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2433:stellar winds 2430: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2414:Be stars 2411: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2364:runaway stars 2360: 2351: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2326: 2322: 2320: 2319:S Monocerotis 2316: 2315: 2314: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2303: 2302:main sequence 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2232: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2213: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2123: 2111:c: supergiant 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2096: 2088: 2084: 2081: 2071: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2057: 2056: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1981: 1979: 1978:Antonia Maury 1969: 1965: 1963: 1960:, especially 1959: 1955: 1951: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1932: 1930: 1924: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1885: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1863: 1862: 1859: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1822: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1803:Draper system 1800: 1798: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1775:Emission-line 1771: 1768: 1767: 1763: 1757: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1732: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1669: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1653: 1652:Angelo Secchi 1643: 1635: 1633: 1630:For example, 1623: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1537:peculiar star 1534: 1531: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1506: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1494: 1491: 1490: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1429: 1428: 1424: 1421: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1405: 1401: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1368: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1340: 1337: 1336: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1317: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1279: 1273: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1143:bright giants 1141: 1138: 1137: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1082: 1081:Cygnus OB2#12 1079: 1076: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1065: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1048: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 987:Edith Kellman 984: 980: 976: 972: 962: 959: 958:O-B-A-F-G-K-M 955: 954:Cecilia Payne 950: 947: 943: 939: 935: 932: 927: 925: 921: 917: 912: 911:nemonics!" . 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 863: 859: 855: 851: 841: 838: 836: 827: 825: 816: 814: 805: 802: 800:orangish red 799: 796: 794: 791: 790: 786: 783: 781: 772: 770: 761: 759: 750: 747: 745:light orange 744: 741: 739: 736: 735: 731: 728: 726: 718:0.6–1.5 717: 715: 706: 704: 695: 692: 689: 686: 684: 681: 680: 676: 673: 671: 662: 660: 651: 649: 640: 637: 634: 631: 629: 626: 625: 621: 618: 616: 607: 605: 597:1.4–1.8 596: 594: 586:1.4–2.1 585: 583:bluish white 582: 579: 576: 574: 571: 570: 566: 563: 561: 552: 550: 542:1.8–6.6 541: 539: 530: 527: 525:bluish white 524: 521: 519: 516: 515: 511: 508: 506: 497: 495: 486: 484: 475: 472: 469: 466: 464: 461: 460: 457: 452: 447: 444: 438: 435: 429: 426: 420: 417: 411: 405: 402: 399: 398: 395: 393: 389: 385: 381: 371: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 352:color indices 349: 345: 342:Other modern 340: 338: 337:Morgan–Keenan 328: 326: 322: 318: 314: 303: 301: 297: 296: 291: 287: 283: 282: 277: 273: 270:, class 269: 267: 266:main-sequence 262: 259:, class 258: 257: 252: 249:, class 248: 244: 241:, class 240: 239: 234: 231:, class 230: 229: 224: 221:, class 220: 219: 214: 210: 206: 202: 197: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 170: 165: 164: 159: 158: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 108: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 41: 37: 33: 19: 10494:White dwarfs 10484:Brown dwarfs 10467:Most distant 10415:Most massive 10393:Proper names 10353:Photographic 10306:Solar System 10284:observations 10211:Star systems 10034:Stellar wind 10017:Chromosphere 9990:Oscillations 9870:Helium flash 9720:Hypothetical 9698:X-ray binary 9637:Compact star 9472:Bright giant 9355: 9225:Henyey track 9203:Herbig Ae/Be 9092: 9083:by P. Coelho 9008: 9004: 8985: 8930: 8926: 8920: 8908:. Retrieved 8898: 8858:(1): 1–130. 8855: 8851: 8845: 8802: 8798: 8792: 8765: 8761: 8719: 8715: 8709: 8700: 8688:. Retrieved 8681: 8672: 8619: 8615: 8604: 8553: 8549: 8484: 8480: 8419: 8415: 8351: 8347: 8322:. Retrieved 8318: 8309: 8264: 8260: 8250: 8234: 8189: 8185: 8174: 8131: 8127: 8120: 8077: 8071: 8008: 8004: 7950: 7946: 7940: 7928:. Retrieved 7924:the original 7920:www.nasa.gov 7919: 7910: 7901: 7876:. Retrieved 7825: 7821: 7811: 7768: 7764: 7754: 7745: 7732: 7689: 7685: 7678: 7645: 7639: 7596: 7592: 7552: 7548: 7542: 7497: 7493: 7483: 7438: 7434: 7424: 7397: 7393: 7383: 7366: 7362: 7356: 7329: 7325: 7315: 7298: 7294: 7288: 7276:. Retrieved 7274:. ESA/Hubble 7271: 7262: 7250:. Retrieved 7246:the original 7241: 7217:. Retrieved 7207: 7195:. Retrieved 7185: 7168: 7164: 7158: 7125: 7121: 7115: 7090: 7086: 7080: 7049: 7043: 7018: 7014: 7008: 6994: 6982:. Retrieved 6978: 6969: 6942: 6936: 6926: 6914:. Retrieved 6910: 6900: 6867: 6863: 6850: 6833: 6827: 6800: 6796: 6786: 6777: 6772: 6755: 6751: 6724:. Retrieved 6720: 6710: 6681: 6605: 6601: 6591: 6564: 6560: 6550: 6533: 6529: 6523: 6498: 6494: 6488: 6476:. Retrieved 6472: 6463: 6454: 6437: 6433: 6427: 6418: 6401: 6397: 6391: 6363: 6356: 6328: 6286: 6274:. Retrieved 6270: 6241: 6237: 6231: 6222: 6210:. Retrieved 6206: 6197: 6185:. Retrieved 6181: 6172: 6160:. Retrieved 6156: 6115: 6111: 6094: 6090: 6081: 6072: 6063: 6039: 6032: 6018: 5999: 5993: 5985: 5982: 5974: 5966: 5963: 5955: 5928: 5924: 5914: 5871: 5867: 5805: 5801: 5795: 5752: 5748: 5696: 5692: 5685: 5642: 5638: 5617:. Retrieved 5610: 5570: 5560: 5515: 5511: 5478: 5471: 5428: 5422: 5416: 5371: 5367: 5357: 5327:(1): 31–81. 5324: 5320: 5314: 5271: 5267: 5260: 5215: 5211: 5201: 5158: 5154: 5118: 5114: 5104: 5061: 5057: 5051: 5008: 5004: 4994: 4982:. Retrieved 4937: 4933: 4927: 4902: 4896: 4884:. Retrieved 4880: 4870: 4858:. Retrieved 4854: 4844: 4827: 4821: 4794: 4790: 4780: 4763: 4757: 4734: 4682: 4678: 4672: 4660:. Retrieved 4656: 4647: 4630: 4626: 4562: 4558: 4534:26 September 4532:. Retrieved 4528:the original 4518: 4499: 4493: 4479: 4467:. Retrieved 4463: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4371: 4367: 4342:. Retrieved 4330: 4317: 4305:. Retrieved 4301: 4292: 4272: 4259: 4250: 4212: 4199: 4140: 4132: 4120:Solar System 4116: 4109: 4094: 4080: 4071: 4067:white dwarfs 4064: 4053:Neutron star 4030: 4022: 4018: 4016: 3956: 3916: 3900: 3893: 3891: 3837: 3825: 3806:carbon stars 3802: 3789: 3781: 3744: 3730:bands added. 3696: 3677:carbon stars 3676: 3674: 3669:R Sculptoris 3647: 3639:triple-alpha 3636: 3583: 3482: 3463: 3444: 3436: 3390: 3378:brown dwarfs 3375: 3339: 3315: 3275:Brown dwarfs 3273: 3265:brown dwarfs 3258: 3240: 3231: 3226: 3224: 3209: 3170: 3158: 3129: 3110: 3070: 3069: 3047: 3043:brown dwarfs 3024: 3009: 2928: 2927: 2907: 2876: 2828:Beta Aquilae 2792:Beta Aquarii 2772: 2771: 2764: 2751: 2747: 2741: 2691:Iota Piscium 2659: 2658: 2637: 2633: 2631: 2564: 2563: 2544: 2465: 2464: 2445: 2437:stellar mass 2418:Balmer lines 2407: 2380: 2368: 2356: 2311: 2310: 2306: 2298:stellar wind 2294:Balmer lines 2267: 2252: 2237: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2148: 2141: 2126: 2105:sg: subgiant 2099:sd: subdwarf 2094: 2085: 2077: 2068: 2053: 1975: 1966: 1947: 1937: 1928: 1926: 1890: 1867: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1831: 1827: 1794: 1756:carbon stars 1660: 1655: 1654:created the 1649: 1641: 1629: 1315: 1301: 1299: 1293: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1271: 1264: 1257: 1250:van Maanen 2 1245:white dwarfs 1238: 1234: 1225: 1210: 1206: 1148:Beta Leporis 1068: 1059:Description 1044: 1042: 1037: 1023: 1018: 1014: 1010: 974: 970: 968: 957: 951: 946:Meghnad Saha 931:photospheric 928: 913: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 861: 857: 853: 847: 531:2.1–16 425:solar masses 410:chromaticity 379: 377: 367: 363: 362:ltraviolet, 359: 341: 336: 334: 321:"red" dwarfs 315:such as the 309: 295:white dwarfs 293: 289: 285: 279: 275: 271: 264: 260: 254: 250: 246: 245:for regular 242: 236: 232: 226: 222: 216: 215:is used for 212: 208: 198: 194:Brown dwarfs 189: 185: 181: 178:white dwarfs 173: 167: 161: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 109: 100: 52: 46: 36: 18:B-class star 10694:Outer space 10547:Brown dwarf 10323:Circumpolar 10201:Kraft break 10181:Color index 10156:Metallicity 10116:Designation 10085:Cosmic dust 10007:Photosphere 9773:Dark-energy 9748:Electroweak 9733:Black dwarf 9664:Radio-quiet 9647:White dwarf 9533:White dwarf 9183:Bok globule 9097:Brady Haran 8933:: L24–L27. 8805:: 159–170. 6945:: 770–784. 5699:(2): L143. 4464:Vendian.org 4061:Exotic star 3934:white dwarf 3932:A and B (a 3741:S-type star 3659:Carbon star 3610:metallicity 3447:micrometers 3294:temperature 3251:Brown dwarf 3215:Slash stars 3102:'s garnet") 2891:supergiants 2879:hypergiants 2810:Mu Herculis 2804:Kappa1 Ceti 2667:Zeta Leonis 2503:Eta Aurigae 2485:Chi Orionis 2325:10 Lacertae 2280: III, 2240:ultraviolet 2212:O-type star 2131:, based on 2083:and so on. 1620:468.6 1183:– B0.5IVpe 1132:Zeta Persei 1127:supergiants 1115:Gamma Cygni 1110:supergiants 1093:supergiants 1075:hypergiants 995:temperature 934:temperature 895:stronomers 663:1.5–5 434:solar radii 319:are white, 235:for bright 228:supergiants 218:hypergiants 97:photosphere 10704:Categories 10509:Candidates 10504:Supernovae 10489:Red dwarfs 10348:Extinction 10136:Kinematics 10131:Luminosity 10109:Properties 10002:Atmosphere 9900:Si burning 9890:Ne burning 9828:White hole 9801:Quasi-star 9728:Blue dwarf 9583:Technetium 9499:Hypergiant 9477:Supergiant 9018:2101.06254 8629:1605.07927 8274:1605.06655 7930:1 November 7771:(2): 128. 6726:14 October 6440:(5): 115. 6383:1013948519 5525:1604.03842 4284:References 4174:Star count 4162:Guest star 4156:Astrograph 4104:See also: 4057:Black hole 3866:He II 3828:Degenerate 3419:See also: 3360:eruption. 3327:atmosphere 3319:substellar 3298:luminosity 3290:luminosity 3261:red dwarfs 3221:Slash star 3090:Betelgeuse 3084:Chi Pegasi 3039:Betelgeuse 3012:red dwarfs 2988:See also: 2972:61 Cygni A 2966:Rho Boötis 2897:, whereas 2893:, such as 2856:See also: 2838:G8IIIab – 2786:Eta Boötis 2720:See also: 2618:See also: 2584:Eta Leonis 2553: II, 2549: II, 2531:See also: 2410:supergiant 2391:spiral arm 2341:Blue giant 2335:See also: 2276: IV, 2259:wavelength 2222:Blue giant 2216:See also: 2065:(c): sharp 1897:Wolf–Rayet 1738:Betelgeuse 1682:, such as 1582:Shell star 1306:HD 93129 B 1083:– B3-4Ia+ 1034:dwarf star 1030:giant star 999:luminosity 899:requently 839:Very weak 784:Very weak 608:5–25 443:bolometric 348:UBV system 105:ionization 10670:Astronomy 10440:Brightest 10338:Magnitude 10318:Pole star 10239:Symbiotic 10234:Eclipsing 10166:Starlight 9967:Structure 9957:Supernova 9950:Micronova 9945:Recurrent 9930:Symbiotic 9915:p-process 9910:r-process 9905:s-process 9895:O burning 9885:C burning 9865:CNO cycle 9808:Gravastar 9344:Hypernova 9334:Supernova 9309:Dredge-up 9282:Blue loop 9275:super-AGB 9258:Red clump 9235:Evolution 9193:Protostar 9173:Accretion 9165:Formation 9043:231627588 8890:122286998 8868:CiteSeerX 8664:118446190 8656:0067-0049 8622:(1): 10. 8596:118435904 8588:0067-0049 8563:1008.3591 8519:0004-637X 8494:0806.1059 8454:0004-6256 8429:0812.0364 8396:119283917 8388:0035-8711 8361:1401.5982 8301:118577918 8267:(3): 78. 8199:0806.0067 8141:0802.4387 8087:0901.4093 8018:1309.1422 7960:0811.0429 7778:1308.5372 7670:122318616 7562:0704.1522 7534:118455138 7507:1105.4757 7448:1203.3303 7219:26 August 7150:123149047 7066:cite book 6911:Space.com 6892:122127697 6702:680222523 6640:118337277 6615:1110.1384 6608:(1). 88. 6348:276340686 6314:cite book 6306:855909920 5762:0907.1033 5731:119122481 5706:1002.3293 5619:1 January 5552:119259952 5518:(2): 31. 5463:119284418 5438:0910.1288 5408:119428437 5349:122700080 5306:119417105 5252:119096173 5225:0911.1335 5168:0908.1461 5071:1007.2744 5018:1311.5087 5011:(2). 40. 4984:2 January 4940:: 29–50. 4886:31 August 4860:31 August 4717:118847528 4692:1312.6222 4685:(1). 10. 4442:118836634 4417:1010.2204 4392:(☉)=4.75. 4307:31 August 4078:diagram. 3998:Variable 3859:He I 3785:Chi Cygni 3773:s-process 3769:zirconium 3643:s-process 3489:deuterium 3409:protostar 3255:Red dwarf 3096:Mu 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