547:
was constantly tested. The
Convention Army initially took its POW status gracefully, but only because it was under the assumption that it would be sent home within a year. When it became clear that the Americans had no intention of allowing the British to return to Great Britain until the war ended, tensions between the soldiers and the guard escalated, and desertions rose rapidly in number. Propaganda was used by Americans and by captured high-ranking British officials to dissuade troops from deserting, but it largely failed. Many of the prisoners who escaped captivity took American women with them and reared families. A large number of Hessians remained in the US after the war was over because they had married American women. Between the time of the
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522:, the terms stipulated that the troops would be returned to Europe, never to wage war with North America again. Congress saw that condition as an abysmal part of the treaty for one of its greatest victories in the American Revolution and delayed its ratification repeatedly. General Burgoyne grew frustrated with Congress and openly condemned its actions. Congress used Burgoyne's words as evidence that he was planning to renounce the convention and suspended it until Great Britain recognized American independence. The Americans ended up holding the Convention Army for the duration of the war.
33:
475:
70:
169:, were all major cities used to detain American prisoners of war. Facilities there were limited. The occupying army could sometimes be larger than the total civilian population. The surgeon in charge of the New York hospitals housing American prisoners, Francis Mercier, was accused of killing them by poisoning and by assault, and he was ultimately executed for an unrelated murder. An estimated 20,000 Americans were held as prisoner during the war, with almost half dying in captivity.
57:
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status to its adversaries. The
British perception of the Americans as rebels prevented exchange. A degree of mutual acceptance between Congress and the states of the principle of exchange and procedure in its implementing must have been attained by the end of March 1777. Exchange was handled primarily by Congress, instead of state powers. While state and local government had considerable power over parole, the federal government had power of negotiating exchanges.
530:"After spending the next year in camps near Cambridge and Rutland, Massachusetts, they were sent by Congress on an overland odyssey that, by the end of the war, took them down to Virginia, then up to Maryland, into Pennsylvania again, and finally back to Rutland. Almost every step of the way they contended with meagre rations, shortages of fuel, inadequate accommodations, and physical violence."
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be a problem for prison towns. With no official police force and the military's preoccupation with war, local militias and volunteers generally guarded the prisoners of war. Protests in prison towns were common, and people who denied prisoners entry were punished for disobeying the
Continental Congress in the form of fines, jail time, and even property expropriation.
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decent and plentiful medical supplies for their own soldiers and had even fewer reserved for prisoners. Most
American POWs who survived incarceration were held until late 1779, when they were exchanged for British POWs. Prisoners who were extremely ill were often moved to hospital ships, but poor supplies precluded any difference between prison and hospital ships.
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prisoners, the prisoners were put to work to feed themselves. British and German prisoners cultivated gardens; worked for farms and craftsmen; and found other forms of unskilled labor. Local communities attempted to make prison towns as profitable as possible and often helped prisoners find jobs or sent them to other towns and states for work.
537:
Once resources became scarce in
Massachusetts, Congress ordered the army to be moved South. The war effort was very different in the North as contrasted with the South. In 1780, it had become difficult to provide British and German prisoners of war and their guards with food in the South, where their
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In contrast, the lower class in the South was generally much less tolerant of sharing residence with abundant prisoner populations. In
Maryland, the state militia directly and aggressively challenged the Continental Army when it attempted to escort the prisoners of war into the state. The South had a
449:
Even when
British and Hessian prisoners of war were not being held in individual houses, they were still in public view, which caused general fear, resentment, and anger. Prisoners were generally not confined to their quarters and could remain in public for the duration of the day. Security proved to
437:
There were very few
American prisons because the Thirteen Colonies and the Continental Congress were not in a position to create new ones to imprison British and German soldiers. Instead, Congress sent most British and Hessian prisoners to local American towns and ordered local officials to hold them
406:
Edward G. Burrows remarks that although
British and Hessian captives did "fare better on the whole than their American counterparts," there were nevertheless "instances of outrageous cruelty" against them, that "certain state governments had particularly bad records of prisoner abuse", and that there
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troops who had surrendered to the
Americans. Washington ordered his troops to take the prisoners in and "treat them with humanity," which they did. "Let them have no reason to complain of our copying the brutal example of the British army in their treatment of our unfortunate brethren who have fallen
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as a place of incarceration for many thousands of American soldiers and sailors from about 1776 to about 1783. The prisoners of war were harassed and abused by guards who, with little success, offered release to those who agreed to serve in the British Navy. Over 10,000 American prisoners of war died
546:
There were three ways for a prisoner of war to achieve freedom after being captured: desertion, exchange, or parole. Most of the time, a small militia-hired guard was tasked to supervise the imprisonment of captured British and German soldiers. The guard's ability to watch over prisoners efficiently
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The Continental Congress had the sole authority to decide where the prisoners went, and the local towns had little forewarning and no say in the matter. Prison towns found themselves with the burden of providing for hundreds or thousands of prisoners at a time. In towns that could not afford to feed
137:
or hang them, the usual procedure for treason, to avoid unnecessarily risking any public sympathy the British might still enjoy. Great Britain's neglect, in the absence of the expected supplies from Patriots, resulted in starvation and disease. Despite the lack of formal executions, neglect achieved
415:
The British and the Germans shared similar and differing experiences as POWs. The Continental Congress's policies on the treatment of POWs remained the same for all enemy combatants, and so the prisoner system was generally the same for the two nationalities. However, the British troops were valued
584:
was providing food for the Convention Army, but he eventually decided to end his assistance and to place the full economic burden of providing for the prisoners on the US government. In order to compensate for the lack of resources Congress could give to the British and German prisoners, they were
575:
The capture of thousands of British prisoners of war in the hands of the Americans had the effect of further dissuading British officials from hanging colonial prisoners, despite the abandoned hopes for a settlement by this stage, as they feared reprisals on prisoners being held by the Americans.
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Exchange, however, was a very complex and slow process because it involved negotiation and diplomacy between a new and inexperienced nation and a state that absolutely refused to recognize American independence. A major hindrance to exchange was the reluctance of the British to concede non-rebel
445:
The more useful the prisoners of war were, the less economically burdensome they were on the town. A town unable to erect barracks for the prisoners was forced to house them in community churches and even citizens' homes. The Continental Congress's forcing of Americans to quarter prisoners was a
588:
Aside from the official marching of the Convention Army, captured prisoners were paraded through cities after military victories as a form of celebration for the Americans and humiliation for their enemies. The intent of the parades was to boost morale among Americans. The Revolutionary War had
558:
The two other official forms of reaching freedom (parole and exchange) were common among high-ranking officers. Parole specifically dealt with individual prisoners of war, and so the process of being removed from imprisonment or house arrest and placed on parole was very simple and speedy. Most
428:
Loyalists were the most hated POWs. The Continental Congress took the stance that since prisoners of war were enemy combatants, not criminals, the treatment of POWs differed from criminals. However, depending on the state, Loyalists were often treated more like criminals than POWs. Debate waged
255:
The American Revolution was an expensive war, and lack of money and resources led to the horrible conditions of British prison ships. The climate of the South worsened the difficult conditions. The primary cause of death in prison ships was diseases, as opposed to starvation. The British lacked
579:
During the first years of the conflict, the Continental Congress tried to give prisoners of war the same amount of provisions as the soldiers guarding them. However, after the capture of the Convention Army, resources turned scarce and the federal government had to rely on state governments to
533:
Over the course of the revolution, the Convention Army was marched across the colonies. First, it was marched to Massachusetts and remained there for a year, and in 1778, it was moved to Virginia, where it remained for two years. In 1780, it was moved north and gradually dispersed to different
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The reception prisoners received varied by location. Overall, the prisoners staying in Boston were in relative peace, remarking that the general population of Boston was civil and tolerant of them. In Virginia and other southern states, wealthy planters and plantation owners were happy to have
470:
surrendered to the Americans. The Continental Congress was now in the position of holding a massive number of prisoners of war on American soil, an infrequent occurrence until then. It was already struggling to provide for the Continental Army. After Saratoga, it also had to provide for enemy
559:
British and German prisoners of war thus sought parole, but the breaking of parole was common; many used it to make desertion easier. Some British and Hessian prisoners of war were paroled to American farmers. Their labor made up for shortages caused by the number of men serving in the
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were "numerous... complaints over the years from enemy prisoners about bad food, squalor and physical abuse." The treatment of prisoners of war varied from state to state. Provisions among the prisoners also varied but generally ranged from mediocre to bad in the last years of the war.
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to secure their freedom. Other American prisoners were kept in England (Portsmouth, Plymouth, Liverpool, Deal, and Weymouth), Ireland, and Antigua. By late 1782 England and Ireland housed over 1,000 American prisoners, who, in 1783, were moved to France prior to their eventual release.
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The British used obsolete, captured, or damaged ships as prisons. Conditions were appalling, and many more Americans died of neglect in imprisonment than were killed in battle. While the Continental Army named a commissary to supply them, the task was almost impossible.
419:
Americans grew to hate the British more than the better-behaved Germans. The British were more likely to cause disturbances, get into fights, and oppose the guards and the militia, having been more invested in the defeat of the Americans than the Germans were.
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states, cities, and towns for the rest of the war. The marches themselves were brutal on the soldiers, but their lives generally improved once they got to their destinations. The main reasons for the marches across America were security and finance.
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writes that "by the end of 1776, disease and starvation had killed at least half of those taken on Long Island and perhaps two-thirds of those captured at Fort Washington – somewhere between 2,000 and 2,500 men in the space of two months."
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presence had become a security risk. The British had started their official campaigns in the South, which brought the risk of insurrections. The Convention Army was thus ordered to march back North and was dispersed.
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of later centuries, assume that captives will be held and cared for by their captors. One primary difference in the 18th century was that care and supplies for captives were expected to be provided by their own
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386:: "Should any American soldier be so base and infamous as to injure any ... I do most earnestly enjoin you to bring him to such severe and exemplary punishment as the enormity of the crime may require."
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into practice regarding prisoners of war. The Americans believed that all captives should be taken prisoner. On September 14, 1775, Washington, commander of the Northern Expeditionary Force, at camp in
733:
Andros, Thomas. "The old Jersey captive: Or, A narrative of the captivity of Thomas Andros...on board the old Jersey prison ship at New York, 1781. In a series of letters to a friend." W. Peirce. 1833.
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Lang, Patrick J.. "The horrors of the English prison ships, 1776 to 1783, and the barbarous treatment of the American patriots imprisoned on them." Society of the Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick, 1939.
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555:(1783), many of the Convention troops, by then mostly Germans, escaped and took up permanent residence in the United States. The American government did not have the means to prevent this.
2383:
904:
Hawkins, Christopher. "The life and adventures of Christopher Hawkins, a prisoner on board the 'Old Jersey' prison ship during the War of the Revolution." Holland Club. 1858.
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West, Charles E., "Horrors of the prison ships: Dr. West's description of the Wallabout floating dungeons, how captive patriots fared." Eagle Book Printing Department, 1895.
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in 1775, which denied them prisoner-of-war status. However, British strategy in the early conflict included pursuit of a negotiated settlement, and so officials declined to
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Taylor, George. "Martyrs To The Revolution In The British Prison-Ships In The Wallabout Bay." (originally printed 1855) Kessinger Publishing, LLC. October 2, 2007.
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Pope, Johnathan. "Law, Tradition, and Treason: Captured Americans During the American Revolution, 1775--1783" (M.A. Thesis, University of New Brunswick, 2003).
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Lindsay, William R. Treatment of American Prisoners During the Revolution. Emporia State Research Studies Kansas State Teachers College, Volume 23, Number 1
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The loyalist stronghold of St. Augustine, Florida, was also used by the British to detain patriot prisoners. Notable prisoners included Brigadier General
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Revolutionary Incidents of Suffolk and Kings Counties; With an Account of the Battle of Long Island, and the British Prisons and Prison-Ships at New-York
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Dring, Thomas and Greene, Albert. "Recollections of the Jersey Prison Ship" (American Experience Series, No 8). Applewood Books. November 1, 1986.
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Cray, Robert E., Jr. "Commemorating the Prison Ship Dead: Revolutionary Memory and the Politics of Sepulture in the Early Republic, 1776-1808,"
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Burrows, Edwin G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War. Basic Books, New York.
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American prisoners of war tended to be accumulated at large sites, which the British were able to occupy for extended periods of time.
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were imprisoned. The Sugar House next door also became a prison for thousands as the British captured more of Washington's troops from
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Many of the remains became exposed or were washed up and recovered by local residents over the years and later interred nearby in the
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devastating effects on communities, and to see clear examples of US progress and victory helped gain support for the war effort.
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from neglect. Their corpses were often tossed overboard but sometimes were buried in shallow graves along the eroding shoreline.
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Rebel Prisoners at Quebec 1778-1783, Being a List of American Colonists were Held by the British during the Revolutionary War
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prisoners (in Albemarle County, for example), because they could count on an even greater abundance of free or cheap labor.
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1975:
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Prelinger, Catherine M. "Benjamin Franklin and the American prisoners of war in England during the American Revolution."
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The writings of George Washington: Being his correspondence, addresses, messages, and other papers, official and private
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Ranlet, Philip (2000). "In the Hands of the British: The Treatment of American POWs during the War of Independence".
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Cut Off: Colonel Jedediah Huntington's 17th Continental (Conn.) Regiment at the Battle of Long Island August 27, 1776
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Marsteller, P (1894). "Extracts from the Records of the Moravian Congregation at Hebron, Pennsylvania, 1775-1781".
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more than the German mercenaries and thus there are many more examples of British prisoner exchanges than German.
193:, as one of the commissaries, was competing with other agents seeking to gather supplies for Washington's army at
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1995:
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Ranlet, Philip. "In the Hands of the British: The Treatment of American POWs during the War of Independence"
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2005:
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After the Convention Army was captured, the rate of prisoner exchanges increased dramatically as a result.
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into their hands," Washington said. The official stance in the capturing of enemy troops was one of mercy.
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Thomas, Evan. John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American Navy. Simon and Schuster, pages 67,74
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Metzger, Charles H. (1962). The Prisoner in the American Revolution. Loyola University Press, Chicago.
252:. The latter was involved in extensive advocacy efforts to improve the prison conditions on the ships.
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in New York City near Nassau and Cedar Streets is where hundreds of the enlisted men captured at the
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Banks, James Lenox. "Prison ships in the Revolution: New facts in regard to their management." 1903.
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Becker, Laura L (1982). "Prisoners of War in the American Revolution: A Community Perspective".
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A Generous and Merciful Enemy: Life for German Prisoners of War during the American Revolution.
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Captives of Liberty: Prisoners of War and the Politics of Vengeance in the American Revolution
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A Generous and Merciful Enemy: Life for German Prisoners of War during the American Revolution
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throughout the colonies whether to treat Loyalists as enemy soldiers or treasonous citizens.
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1985:
1980:
1729:
1061:, J. & J. Harper, New York (1831) pp. 110–11, 182, regarding prisoners (i.e., Lt. Col.
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Dzurec, David. "Prisoners of War and American Self-Image during the American Revolution."
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and other engagements during the retreat from New York. The site today is the location of
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Becker, Laura L. "Prisoners of War in the American Revolution: A Community Perspective."
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moved from state to state. The marches were largely a result of diminishing provisions.
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1970:
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Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War
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America's Captives: Treatment of POWs from the Revolutionary War to the War on Terror
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on the morning of December 26, 1776, Washington found himself left with hundreds of
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Metzger, Charles H. (1962). The Prisoner in the American Revolution, p. 191-232.
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Annals of Tyron County; or, the Border Warfare of New-York during the Revolution
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Their Distress is Almost Intolerable: The Elias Boudinot Letterbook, 1777-1778
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collective fear of insurrection that emerged because of the slave population.
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1257:(4). The Pennsylvanian Magazine of History and Biography 18, no. 4: 449–462.
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802:"POWs in American History: A Synopsis - Andersonville National Historic Site"
769:
515:
511:
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After British, German, and Canadian troops were defeated, Lieutenant General
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671:"Incidents of the Revolution: Recollections of the Old Sugar House Prison"
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The torture report represents a heartbreaking decline in America's values
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Hell on the East River: British Prison Ships in the American Revolution
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60.3 (1936): 229-241, adventures in capturing British sailors in 1779
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On October 17, 1777, nearly 6,000 British and Hessian soldiers of the
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Florida State Society and the Daughters of the American Revolution.
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provide for prisoners of war. From 1777 to 1778, Lieutenant General
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1873:
804:. Andersonville National Cemetery National Prisoner of War Museum.
312:
1098:
829:"Prisoners of War in St. Augustine During the American Revolution"
498:
A 1789 etching depicting the encampment of the Convention Army at
264:
American prisoners were additionally housed in other parts of the
1919:
961:
Herndon, G. Melvin (1969). "George Mathews, Frontier Patriot".
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were unable to agree about the fate of 5,900 prisoners. In the
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134:
920:
Letters from the Prisons and Prison-ships of the Revolution
754:"Ophthalmology in North America: Early Stories (1491-1801)"
318:
1505:. The Michie Company, Printers, Charlottesville, Va. 1911.
625:, brigadier general, U.S. Congressman, governor of Georgia
240:. Survivors of the British prison ships include the poet
2068:
Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms
1466:
Brewington, Marion V. "The State Ship 'General Greene'."
1620:
Prisoner Exchange and Parole in the American Revolution
369:
During the American Revolution, some officers from the
1679:
1552:. Fleischmanns, New York. Purple Mountain Press. 2009.
1311:
Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 188.
1166:
Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 187.
1157:
Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 188.
1148:
Burrows, Edward G. (2008). Forgotten Patriots, p. 190.
216:, were placed by British authorities in the waters of
1402:
Dabney, William M. (1954). After Saratoga, p. 27-78.
1533:; on British and German prisoners in American hands
1512:. Baltimore. Genealogical Publishing Company. 1911.
1496:Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1954.
1251:The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
260:Prison laborers and other prisoners of the British
1494:After Saratoga: The Story of the Convention Army.
1179:The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
1177:After Saratoga: The Story of the Convention Army.
1051:
104:(POWs) were very different from the standards of
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704:. Westminster, MD: Heritage Books. p. 206.
662:
410:
3516:Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War
1666:
1468:Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
963:The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography
1652:
446:major source of contention among the people.
1540:Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.
3687:New York (state) in the American Revolution
3677:American Revolutionary War prisoners of war
2629:Washington's crossing of the Delaware River
1123:
1099:George Washington and Jared Sparks (1847).
592:
280: – they later chose to join the
27:Overview of POWs in the American Revolution
18:Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War
3506:African Americans in the Revolutionary War
1760:Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
1659:
1645:
1248:
1222:(4). Military Affairs 46, no. 4: 169–173.
1350:. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman .
943:
777:
98:(1775–1783), management and treatment of
1557:The Prisoner in the American Revolution.
669:Hanford, William H. (January 15, 1852).
493:
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319:British, Hessian, and Loyalist prisoners
140:
68:
55:
31:
1559:Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1971.
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108:. Modern standards, as outlined in the
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3511:Dogs in the American Revolutionary War
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268:. Over 100 prisoners were employed as
3423:
3348:
3276:
2847:
2183:
2017:Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania
1678:
1640:
1610:Saratoga Articles of Convention, 1777
1430:The Wallabout Prison-ships, 1776-1783
820:
699:
236:, once the scene of a portion of the
120:
3626:Daughters of the American Revolution
3424:
1976:Declaration of Rights and Grievances
1510:American Prisoners of the Revolution
1502:American Prisoners of the Revolution
1455:; 2002, Heritage Books (paperback),
1280:. Mount Vernon's Ladies' Association
328:
60:Interior of the British prison ship
3621:Children of the American Revolution
3501:Timeline of the American Revolution
1595:(University Press of Kansas, 2010)
487:, 1822; this painting hangs in the
24:
2282:European allies of King George III
2138:British credit crisis of 1772–1773
2073:Committee of Secret Correspondence
1735:No taxation without representation
1422:
1003:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2000.tb01457.x
950:. New York: Leavitt & Company.
944:Onderdonk, Henry Jr., ed. (1849).
461:
25:
3698:
3648:Museum of the American Revolution
1615:Britain's Prison Ships, 1776-1783
1603:
1529:(U of Pennsylvania Press, 2019)
1275:
1128:. Harper & Bros. p. 19.
693:
643:(Philadelphia Mayor, later first
131:declared American forces traitors
3536:Continental Currency dollar coin
3521:Women in the American Revolution
752:Leffler CT, et al. (2017).
635:William Alexander, Lord Stirling
332:
3631:Sons of the American Revolution
1405:
1396:
1383:
1374:
1361:
1340:
1327:
1314:
1305:
1292:
1269:
1242:
1207:
1190:
1169:
1160:
1151:
1142:
1117:
1103:. Benchmark Books. p. 90.
1092:
1081:
1078:, Lawrenceburg, Indiana (1981).
1042:
1033:
981:
954:
937:
907:
898:
881:
864:
855:
432:
183:
3531:Continental currency banknotes
2619:Staten Island Peace Conference
1631:The William and Mary Quarterly
1124:Ron Fridell (September 2007).
839:
794:
758:Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases
736:
727:
718:
551:(1781) and the signing of the
13:
1:
3349:
2325:German supporters of Congress
2023:Massachusetts Circular Letter
1584:62#4 (2000): pp. 731–57
1486:(1999) 56#3 pp. 565–590
655:
505:
489:United States Capitol Rotunda
480:Surrender of General Burgoyne
401:
230:Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument
147:Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument
138:the same results as hanging.
2006:Committees of correspondence
960:
808:. U.S. National Park Service
423:
411:British and German prisoners
205:During the war, at least 16
7:
3643:Charters of Freedom Rotunda
2848:
2674:Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783
2659:Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1781
2433:Capture of Fort Ticonderoga
2088:Declaration of Independence
2053:Second Continental Congress
1411:Dabney, William M. (1954).
1391:Horrors of the Prison Ships
1367:Dabney, William M. (1954).
1333:Dabney, William M. (1954).
1320:Dabney, William M. (1954).
1298:Dabney, William M. (1954).
1175:Dabney, William M. (1954).
127:George III of Great Britain
52:. (Image from about 1830.)
10:
3703:
3682:American Revolutionary War
3526:Financial costs of the war
2033:First Continental Congress
1884:Royal Proclamation of 1763
1829:Second Rockingham ministry
1668:American Revolutionary War
1570:William and Mary Quarterly
1484:William and Mary Quarterly
923:. Thomson Gale (reprint).
833:Historical Marker Database
700:Lewis, Charles H. (2009).
649:Presidential election 1796
541:
525:
322:
178:Salisbury District Brigade
167:Charleston, South Carolina
95:American Revolutionary War
3493:
3462:
3438:
3434:
3419:
3380:Constitutional Convention
3360:Society of the Cincinnati
3355:
3344:
3269:
3164:
3008:
3001:
2946:
2865:
2858:
2854:
2843:
2800:
2722:
2708:
2682:
2649:Carlisle Peace Commission
2611:
2483:Siege of Fort Ticonderoga
2412:
2337:
2290:
2257:
2220:
2213:
2209:
2179:
2148:Hutchinson letters affair
2115:
2098:Articles of Confederation
1958:
1945:Proclamation of Rebellion
1857:
1809:First Rockingham ministry
1786:
1753:All men are created equal
1692:
1688:
1674:
1625:The Exchange of Prisoners
500:Charlottesville, Virginia
209:, including the infamous
50:One Chase Manhattan Plaza
2644:Entry of France into war
2259:Kingdom of Great Britain
770:10.1177/1179172117721902
593:Notable prisoners of war
380:Cambridge, Massachusetts
278:Cape Breton, Nova Scotia
3375:Ratification Day (1784)
2700:Second Anglo-Mysore War
2384:Northern after Saratoga
2364:New York and New Jersey
2038:Continental Association
1935:Conciliatory Resolution
1794:Pitt–Newcastle ministry
1767:Consent of the governed
1479:(NY: Basic Books, 2008)
1451:Boyle, Joseph Lee, ed.
1065:) held at Fort Niagara.
305:Niagara Falls, New York
3636:Sons of the Revolution
3365:Treaty of Paris (1783)
2695:Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
2690:Cherokee–American wars
2303:Franco-American Treaty
2158:Philadelphia Tea Party
2128:Treaty of Paris (1763)
2107:Confederation Congress
1700:American Enlightenment
1572:(1975) 32#2: 261-294.
1519:20.4 (2013): 430-451.
1445:(1982) 46#4: 169-173.
1428:Armbruster, Eugene L.
1057:Campbell, William W.:
613:, later U.S. President
520:Convention of Saratoga
502:
491:
291:prisoners of war from
154:
117:or private resources.
89:
66:
53:
3581:Washington's Birthday
3386:The Federalist Papers
3370:Evacuation Day (1783)
2423:Lexington and Concord
2123:French and Indian War
2063:Olive Branch Petition
1346:Daniel Krebs (1974).
497:
477:
438:under strict parole.
373:attempted to put the
238:Battle of Long Island
144:
72:
59:
42:Battle of Long Island
35:
3586:Jefferson's Birthday
3576:Pulaski Memorial Day
2583:Guilford Court House
2234:Continental Congress
2011:Committees of safety
1986:Daughters of Liberty
1981:Virginia Association
1730:Rights of Englishmen
1555:Metzger, Charles H.
365:American laws of war
2714:colony or location)
2669:Newburgh Conspiracy
2528:Sullivan Expedition
2048:Provincial Congress
1839:Fox–North coalition
1778:Settler colonialism
1725:Freedom of religion
1682:American Revolution
1508:Dandridge, Danske.
1499:Dandridge, Danske.
1492:Dabney, William M.
637:, brigadier general
571:Reaction and impact
382:, wrote to Colonel
174:Griffith Rutherford
38:Middle Dutch Church
3616:Semiquincentennial
3541:Libertas Americana
1971:Stamp Act Congress
1861:Acts of Parliament
1834:Shelburne ministry
1804:Grenville ministry
1591:Springer, Paul J.
1548:Lowenthal, Larry.
1475:Burrows, Edwin G.
1278:"Prisoners of War"
915:Stiles, Henry Reed
679:The New York Times
601:, U.S. Congressman
514:and Major General
503:
492:
389:After winning the
344:. You can help by
222:Brooklyn, New York
220:off the shores of
155:
121:American prisoners
110:Geneva Conventions
90:
67:
54:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3415:
3414:
3402:Shays's Rebellion
3340:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3265:
3264:
3232:Richard Henry Lee
2997:
2996:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2683:Related conflicts
2553:Connecticut Farms
2333:
2332:
2226:Thirteen Colonies
2175:
2174:
2171:
2170:
1389:West, Charles E.
930:978-1-4328-1222-5
893:978-0-548-59217-5
876:978-0-465-00835-3
851:978-0-918222-92-3
711:978-0-7884-4924-6
645:faithless elector
549:Siege of Yorktown
391:Battle of Trenton
362:
361:
16:(Redirected from
3694:
3606:Sesquicentennial
3566:Independence Day
3470:Founding Fathers
3436:
3435:
3421:
3420:
3346:
3345:
3274:
3273:
3006:
3005:
2863:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2845:
2844:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2543:Cape St. Vincent
2218:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2181:
2180:
2153:Boston Tea Party
2078:Halifax Resolves
2028:Suffolk Resolves
1819:Grafton ministry
1814:Chatham ministry
1710:Colonial history
1690:
1689:
1676:
1675:
1661:
1654:
1647:
1638:
1637:
1525:Jones, T. Cole.
1443:Military Affairs
1416:
1409:
1403:
1400:
1394:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1372:
1365:
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1303:
1296:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1216:Military Affairs
1211:
1205:
1194:
1188:
1173:
1167:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1126:Prisoners of War
1121:
1115:
1114:
1096:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1074:McHenry, Chris:
1072:
1066:
1055:
1049:
1046:
1040:
1037:
1031:
1030:
985:
979:
978:
958:
952:
951:
941:
935:
934:
911:
905:
902:
896:
885:
879:
868:
862:
859:
853:
843:
837:
836:
824:
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815:
813:
798:
792:
791:
781:
749:
743:
740:
734:
731:
725:
722:
716:
715:
697:
691:
690:
688:
686:
675:
666:
561:Continental Army
371:Continental Army
357:
354:
336:
329:
289:Continental Army
234:Fort Greene Park
199:Edwin G. Burrows
152:Fort Greene Park
101:prisoners of war
21:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3691:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3652:
3591:Von Steuben Day
3489:
3458:
3430:
3411:
3351:
3328:
3270:Colonial allies
3261:
3160:
2993:
2954:King George III
2942:
2850:
2827:
2796:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2704:
2678:
2607:
2588:Lochry's Defeat
2473:Assunpink Creek
2463:Fort Washington
2408:
2342:
2340:
2329:
2320:Hortalez et Cie
2291:Colonial allies
2286:
2253:
2222:United Colonies
2205:
2167:
2133:Boston Massacre
2111:
2102:Perpetual Union
2058:United Colonies
1991:Sons of Liberty
1954:
1862:
1860:
1859:Related British
1853:
1782:
1684:
1680:Origins of the
1670:
1665:
1606:
1536:Krebs, Daniel.
1425:
1423:Further reading
1420:
1419:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1366:
1362:
1345:
1341:
1335:After Saratoga,
1332:
1328:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1297:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1274:
1270:
1247:
1243:
1228:10.2307/1987609
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1056:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1034:
987:Ranlet, Philip.
986:
982:
959:
955:
942:
938:
931:
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903:
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886:
882:
869:
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821:
811:
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732:
728:
723:
719:
712:
698:
694:
684:
682:
673:
667:
663:
658:
631:, major general
619:, major general
595:
573:
553:Treaty of Paris
544:
528:
508:
468:Convention Army
464:
462:Convention Army
435:
426:
413:
404:
384:Benedict Arnold
367:
358:
352:
349:
342:needs expansion
327:
325:Convention Army
321:
270:forced laborers
262:
186:
150:
123:
46:Fort Washington
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3700:
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3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3596:Minor holidays
3593:
3588:
3583:
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3568:
3563:
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3508:
3503:
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3482:
3477:
3472:
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3464:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3448:
3442:
3440:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3428:
3427:Related topics
3417:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3397:Bill of Rights
3394:
3389:
3382:
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3204:
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2833:
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2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2804:
2802:
2801:Loyal colonies
2798:
2797:
2795:
2794:
2789:
2787:South Carolina
2784:
2779:
2774:
2772:North Carolina
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2724:Rebel colonies
2717:
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2706:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2697:
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2677:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2664:Sint Eustatius
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2624:"First Salute"
2621:
2615:
2613:
2609:
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2595:
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2568:Kings Mountain
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2458:Harlem Heights
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2448:Valcour Island
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2255:
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2236:
2230:
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2215:
2207:
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2204:
2203:
2200:
2197:
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2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2113:
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2110:
2109:
2104:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2083:Lee Resolution
2080:
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2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
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2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2013:
2008:
2003:
2001:Black Patriots
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1955:
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1942:
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1932:
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1886:
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1876:
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1858:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1849:Black Loyalist
1846:
1841:
1836:
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1826:
1824:North ministry
1821:
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1801:
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1604:External links
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1534:
1523:
1517:War in History
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1480:
1473:
1464:
1449:
1438:
1437:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1413:After Saratoga
1404:
1395:
1382:
1373:
1369:After Saratoga
1360:
1339:
1326:
1322:After Saratoga
1313:
1304:
1300:After Saratoga
1291:
1276:Craig, Scott.
1268:
1241:
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1189:
1168:
1159:
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1141:
1134:
1116:
1110:978-1286400098
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997:(4): 731–757.
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969:(3): 320–321.
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250:George Mathews
244:, Congressmen
242:Philip Freneau
191:Elias Boudinot
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106:modern warfare
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3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3571:Patriots' Day
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3546:Commemoration
3544:
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3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
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3509:
3507:
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3496:
3492:
3486:
3485:Yankee Doodle
3483:
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3471:
3468:
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3408:
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3363:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3354:
3347:
3343:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3314:de Rochambeau
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
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3279:
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3268:
3258:
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3248:
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3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
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3190:
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3185:
3183:
3180:
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3170:
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3163:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
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3139:
3137:
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3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
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3099:
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3094:
3092:
3089:
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3007:
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2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2757:New Hampshire
2755:
2753:
2752:Massachusetts
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2727:
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2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2404:Naval battles
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
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2377:
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2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2339:Campaigns and
2336:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
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2201:
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2189:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2143:Gaspee affair
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2108:
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2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1900:
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1887:
1885:
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1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1799:Bute ministry
1797:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1747:Spirit of '76
1745:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1720:Republicanism
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1687:
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1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
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1598:
1594:
1590:
1587:
1583:
1582:The Historian
1579:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1543:
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1507:
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1503:
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1478:
1474:
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1469:
1465:
1462:
1461:0-7884-2210-3
1458:
1454:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1414:
1408:
1399:
1392:
1386:
1377:
1370:
1364:
1357:
1356:9780806143569
1353:
1349:
1343:
1336:
1330:
1323:
1317:
1308:
1301:
1295:
1279:
1272:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1210:
1203:
1202:0-8294-0175-X
1199:
1193:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1163:
1154:
1145:
1137:
1135:9780870139406
1131:
1127:
1120:
1112:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1089:
1084:
1077:
1071:
1064:
1063:William Stacy
1060:
1054:
1045:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
991:The Historian
984:
976:
972:
968:
964:
957:
949:
948:
940:
932:
926:
922:
921:
916:
910:
901:
894:
890:
884:
877:
873:
867:
858:
852:
848:
842:
834:
830:
823:
807:
803:
797:
789:
785:
780:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
748:
739:
730:
721:
713:
707:
703:
696:
681:
680:
672:
665:
661:
650:
646:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
629:John Sullivan
627:
624:
621:
618:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
596:
590:
586:
583:
582:Henry Clinton
577:
568:
564:
562:
556:
554:
550:
539:
535:
531:
523:
521:
517:
516:Horatio Gates
513:
512:John Burgoyne
501:
496:
490:
486:
485:John Trumbull
482:
481:
476:
472:
469:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
430:
421:
417:
408:
399:
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
376:
372:
356:
347:
343:
340:This section
338:
335:
331:
330:
326:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
295:were held by
294:
293:Cherry Valley
290:
286:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
257:
253:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
226:
223:
219:
218:Wallabout Bay
215:
214:
208:
203:
200:
196:
192:
181:
179:
175:
170:
168:
165:in 1777, and
164:
160:
159:New York City
153:
149:
148:
143:
139:
136:
132:
128:
118:
116:
111:
107:
103:
102:
97:
96:
87:
83:
82:Wallabout Bay
80:as moored at
79:
78:
71:
65:
64:
58:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
3611:Bicentennial
3494:Other topics
3480:Liberty Tree
3452:
3445:
3392:Constitution
3384:
3289:Beaumarchais
3177:Samuel Adams
2928:William Howe
2923:Richard Howe
2823:West Florida
2808:East Florida
2782:Rhode Island
2777:Pennsylvania
2710:Involvement
2654:Gordon Riots
2639:Valley Forge
2634:Conway Cabal
2612:Other events
2374:Philadelphia
2272:British Army
2163:Powder Alarm
2093:Model Treaty
2015:
1773:Expansionism
1741:Common Sense
1739:
1630:
1592:
1581:
1569:
1556:
1549:
1537:
1526:
1516:
1509:
1500:
1493:
1483:
1476:
1467:
1452:
1442:
1429:
1412:
1407:
1398:
1390:
1385:
1376:
1368:
1363:
1347:
1342:
1334:
1329:
1321:
1316:
1307:
1299:
1294:
1282:. Retrieved
1271:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1219:
1215:
1209:
1192:
1176:
1171:
1162:
1153:
1144:
1125:
1119:
1100:
1094:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1058:
1053:
1044:
1035:
994:
990:
983:
966:
962:
956:
946:
939:
919:
909:
900:
883:
866:
857:
841:
832:
822:
810:. Retrieved
805:
796:
761:
757:
747:
738:
729:
720:
701:
695:
685:February 11,
683:. Retrieved
677:
664:
641:Samuel Miles
599:Robert Brown
587:
578:
574:
565:
557:
545:
536:
532:
529:
509:
478:
471:combatants.
465:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
433:Prison towns
427:
418:
414:
405:
388:
368:
350:
346:adding to it
341:
309:Fort Chambly
301:Fort Niagara
287:
263:
254:
246:Robert Brown
227:
212:
204:
197:. Historian
195:Valley Forge
187:
184:Prison ships
171:
163:Philadelphia
156:
145:
124:
99:
93:
91:
76:
75:prison ship
62:
29:
3257:Witherspoon
3141:von Steuben
3096:Charles Lee
2813:Nova Scotia
2732:Connecticut
2603:The Saintes
2558:Springfield
2523:Stony Point
2453:Long Island
2438:Bunker Hill
2359:Nova Scotia
1950:Prohibitory
1940:Restraining
1930:Intolerable
1910:Declaratory
1415:, p. 29-30.
1324:, p. 27-78.
1284:November 1,
1204:. p. 31-63.
806:www.nps.gov
617:Charles Lee
375:laws of war
92:During the
86:Long Island
3671:Categories
3601:Centennial
3556:television
3407:Jay Treaty
3304:de Guichen
3212:Huntington
3172:John Adams
3111:Montgomery
3016:Washington
2979:Rockingham
2964:Barrington
2933:Knyphausen
2903:Cornwallis
2762:New Jersey
2593:Chesapeake
2548:Charleston
2503:Germantown
2498:Brandywine
2488:Bennington
2277:Royal Navy
2267:Parliament
2214:Combatants
2187:Combatants
1966:Loyal Nine
1899:Quartering
1869:Navigation
1715:Liberalism
1705:John Locke
1693:Philosophy
1302:, p. 7-26.
656:References
506:Background
402:Grievances
353:April 2008
323:See also:
282:Royal Navy
274:coal mines
115:combatants
3475:Diplomacy
3463:Political
3446:Prisoners
3350:Aftermath
3324:Vergennes
3299:de Grasse
3294:d'Estaing
3284:Louis XVI
3222:Jefferson
3187:Dickinson
3131:St. Clair
3116:Nicholson
3091:Lafayette
3051:Duportail
3021:Alexander
2989:Shelburne
2873:Arbuthnot
2712:(by
2578:Pensacola
2538:Gibraltar
2513:St. Lucia
2478:Princeton
2190:Campaigns
2043:Minutemen
1959:Colonials
1915:Townshend
1844:Loyalists
1787:Royalists
1337:p. 39-40.
1187:p. 39-46.
424:Loyalists
297:Loyalists
88:, in 1782
3439:Military
3192:Franklin
3165:Civilian
3146:Sullivan
3136:Schuyler
3066:Hamilton
3041:Claghorn
3009:Military
3002:Colonial
2984:Sandwich
2947:Civilian
2893:Carleton
2888:Campbell
2883:Burgoyne
2866:Military
2792:Virginia
2767:New York
2747:Maryland
2737:Delaware
2598:Yorktown
2533:Savannah
2508:Monmouth
2493:Saratoga
2399:Yorktown
2389:Southern
2379:Northern
2369:Saratoga
2341:theaters
2202:Colonies
2193:Theaters
1996:Patriots
1906:up i.p.o
1894:Currency
1879:Molasses
1586:in JSTOR
1488:in JSTOR
1263:20083617
1027:46185889
1019:17722377
1011:24451269
917:(1865).
878:. p. 64.
788:28804247
764:: 1–51.
313:Montreal
3561:theater
3319:Suffren
3309:Luzerne
3227:Laurens
3197:Hancock
3182:Carroll
3101:Lincoln
3081:de Kalb
3071:Hopkins
2969:Germain
2959:Amherst
2898:Clinton
2859:British
2849:Leaders
2742:Georgia
2573:Cowpens
2518:Grenada
2468:Trenton
2415:battles
2394:Western
2249:Marines
2196:Battles
1432:(1920)
1371:, p.77.
1236:1987609
1185:3486843
975:4247487
812:May 31,
779:5533269
542:Freedom
526:Marches
395:Hessian
307:and at
176:of the
3453:Turtle
3277:French
3247:Revere
3242:Morris
3237:McKean
3202:Hanson
3126:Rodney
3121:Putnam
3106:Mercer
3061:Greene
3031:Arnold
2938:Rodney
2918:Graves
2908:Fraser
2818:Quebec
2563:Camden
2443:Quebec
2428:Boston
2413:Major
2354:Quebec
2349:Boston
2298:France
2199:Events
2116:Events
1925:Quebec
1597:online
1574:online
1564:online
1542:online
1531:online
1521:online
1459:
1447:online
1434:online
1354:
1261:
1234:
1200:
1183:
1132:
1107:
1025:
1017:
1009:
973:
927:
891:
874:
849:
786:
776:
708:
607:, poet
213:Jersey
77:Jersey
63:Jersey
3207:Henry
3156:Wayne
3076:Jones
3056:Gates
3046:Clark
3036:Barry
3026:Allen
2974:North
2878:Brant
1904:Stamp
1889:Sugar
1259:JSTOR
1232:JSTOR
1023:S2CID
1007:JSTOR
971:JSTOR
674:(PDF)
311:near
303:near
207:hulks
125:King
3551:film
3451:The
3252:Rush
3151:Ward
3086:Knox
2913:Gage
2313:Navy
2308:Army
2244:Navy
2239:Army
2100:and
1874:Iron
1457:ISBN
1352:ISBN
1286:2016
1198:ISBN
1181:OCLC
1130:ISBN
1105:ISBN
1015:PMID
925:ISBN
889:ISBN
872:ISBN
847:ISBN
814:2023
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