140:
Due to attitudes in
Western medicine in the 1940s and 1950s, Native American and Fijian cultures and societies were strongly dissuaded from premastication due to concerns about the hygiene of the practice. However, the lack of knowledge regarding premastication and its prohibition by missionaries and
112:
There is high similarity in the execution of kiss-feeding and human kisses (e.g. French kiss); in the former, the tongue is used to push food from mother to child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter simply forgoes the premasticated food. In
46:
The behaviour was common throughout human history and societies and observed in non-human animals. While premastication is less common in present-day
Western societies, it was commonly practised, and is still done in more traditional cultures. Although the health benefits of premastication are still
203:
in previous generations for similar rationale, with the same societies finding breastfeeding to be a disagreeable practice performed only by the uneducated lower classes or foreign cultures and altering health policies to the detriment of infant health. In the late 1800s the medical community of
216:
The act of premastication is commonly found in all human societies and populations, although it is less prevalent in some than others. The evolution and selective advantage of premastication behaviours is that it supplements the infant diet of breast milk by providing access to more macro- and
225:
The true scope of the benefits of premastication and its prevalence in different societies is still under research, though there appears to be some consensus on the nutritional benefits of the practice. As a comorbidity with caretaker health and education, as well as societal access to proper
221:
in the pre-chewed foods, the benefits conferred outweighed any risks of the practice during the evolution of human behaviour. Furthermore, discouraging premastication as prevention to disease transmission may prove as disastrous an infant public health policy as when infants breastfeeding was
1003:
Van
Esterik, Penny; Williams, Anthony; Fewtrell, Mary S.; Tolboom, Jules J.M.; Lack, Gideon; Penagos, Martin (January 2010), "Commentaries on Premastication: the second arm of infant and young child feeding for health and survival? By Gretel Pelto, Yuanyuan Zhang & Jean-Pierre Habicht",
222:
discouraged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In populations with healthy caregivers, premastication is not correlated with negative health consequences, with potential benefits and pitfalls of this practice greatly depend on the dietary and medical circumstances of the provider and child.
133:, a mother was instructed to give a medical remedy to a child through premastication. In the fifth century A.D. Roman culture, premastication of infants' food by caretakers was also common, though the lack of sanitation along with the practice contributed to infant mortality. Infants in
67:, including predatory social insects. For instance, food begging behaviour observed in young wolves, wild dogs and certain gull species, which involves the young approaching the beak or mouth of the adult with their own whereupon gaping their mouths or nuzzling, the adult would
1050:"Addressing epidemiological and public health analytic challenges in outcome and impact research: a commentary on 'Prechewing Infant Food, Consumption of Sweets and Dairy and Not Breastfeeding are Associated with Increased Diarrhea Risk of Ten Month Old Infants'"
79:
Young orangutans also beg for food by such contact and accordingly their caretakers regurgitate to feed them. Indeed, behaviours of mouth to mouth feeding of premasticated food and ritualized mouth to mouth contact for bonding has been observed in
30:
is the act of chewing food for the purpose of physically breaking it down in order to feed another that is incapable of masticating the food by themselves. This is often done by the mother or relatives of a baby to produce
183:
in fact use mouth to mouth contact primarily for feeding premasticated food, with sexual kissing only observed after the arrival of
Europeans. This form of feeding is believed to have evolved into the modern human acts of
144:
Although less prevalent in modern post-industrial
Western societies, the offering of premasticated foods to infants is found in many traditional cultures and offers their infants numerous benefits. In
71:
portions of food to feed the young. However, in the aforementioned animals, this nuzzling behaviour and other types of mouth-to-mouth contact are also used for bonding, socialization, and courtship.
47:
being actively studied, the practice appears to confer certain nutritional and immunological benefits to the infant, provided that the caretaker is in good health and not infected by pathogens.
850:
Kuhn, Louise; Aldrovandi, Grace M.; Sinkala, Moses; Kankasa, Chipepo; Semrau, Katherine; Mwiya, Mwiya; Kasonde, Prisca; Scott, Nancy; Vwalika, Cheswa; Walter, Jan; Bulterys, Marc (2008-07-10).
226:
healthcare and nutrition, the impacts of premastication on child health requires further studies and trials prior to the introduction of policies encouraging or dissuading its practice.
208:
was embroiled in a debate on premastication, with those supporting the practice arguing its benefits and those against it stating that it is "filthy and repulsive and... barbaric".
907:
Pelto, Gretel H.; Habicht, Jean-Pierre (2011), "Letter to the Editor: Discouraging premastication may do more harm than good: Response to the letter by
Levison et al. 2010",
100:
behaviours of kissing and feeding of premastication foods, either directly or indirectly from the mouth, have their behavioural roots in higher animals and ancestral great
43:
is transferred from the mouth of one individual to another, either directly mouth-to-mouth, via utensils, hands, or is further cooked or processed prior to feeding.
321:
Pelto, Greta; Zhang, Yuanyuan; Habicht, Jean-Pierre (January 2010), "Premastication: the second arm of infant and young child feeding for health and survival?",
179:, the act of premastication has been used by women to remind children and descendants of their obligations to her. Some human cultures such as the people of
55:
Premastication and mouth-to-mouth feeding in humans is postulated to have evolved from the regurgitation of food from parent to offspring or male to female (
414:
Levison, Judy; Gillespie, Susan L.; Montgomery, Elizabeth (2011), "Think twice before recommending pre-masticated food as a source of infant nutrition",
141:
doctors instead caused severe anemia in the infants of the population, or resulted in malnourished infants and children deprived of nourishment.
948:"Prevalence of premastication among children aged 6–36 months and its association with health: A cross-sectional study in eight cities of China"
167:
In many human cultures, the act of premastication and direct mouth-to-mouth feeding is linked with the showing of affection, known as
129:, though the practice likely extends back into prehistoric times to non-human ancestors. For instance, in the Ancient Egyptian
470:
199:
have strong aversions toward premastication, which have been compared to their similar criticisms and aversion towards
728:
576:
535:
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1983), "Chapter 3: A comparative approach to human ethology", in
Rajecki, D. W. (ed.),
296:
946:
Zhao, Ai; Zheng, Wei; Xue, Yong; Li, Hao; Tan, Shengjie; Zhao, Wenzhi; Wang, Peiyu; Zhang, Yumei (2017-04-06).
269:
Holmes, Wendy (2007), "Influences on maternal and child nutrition in the highlands of the northern Lao PDR",
297:"The role of pre-mastication in the evolution of complementary feeding strategies: a bio-cultural analysis"
172:
718:
68:
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and premastication have most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours.
656:
A Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant
Cemetery:Excavation at Poggio Gramignano, Lugnano in Teverina
1110:
686:"Secondary anemia due to prolonged and exclusive milk feeding among Shoshone indian infants"
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micro-nutrients, as well as digestive enzymes. Although disease can be transmitted through
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were fed an assortment of mashed, premasticated food or bread softened with liquids.
56:
40:
816:
Bailey, K. V. (1963), "Premastication of infant food in the New Guinea
Highlands.",
641:
1077:
1061:
1021:
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959:
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879:
863:
797:
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Schwartz, Theodore (1975), "Relations among generations in Time-Limited
Cultures",
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fact, observations across various species and cultures confirms that the act of
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852:"Effects of Early, Abrupt Weaning on HIV-free Survival of Children in Zambia"
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Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Honors Theses
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837:
The One Best Way?: Breastfeeding History, Politics, and Policy in Canada
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963:
612:
Radbill, Samuel X. (October 1981), "Infant Feeding through the Ages",
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32:
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Eberhard, W. (1974) The natural history and behaviour of the wasp
85:
64:
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36:
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Jansen, A. A. J.; Parkinson, Susan; Robertson, A. F. S. (1990),
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Kohl (Sphecidae). Trans. Royal Ent. Soc. London 125(3): 295-328
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97:
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South Pacific Commission, Technical. Information Circular.
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101:
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The Evolution of Childhood: Relationships, Emotion, Mind
716:
463:
Love and hate: the natural history of behavior patterns
1048:
Habicht, Jean-Pierre; Pelto, Gretel H. (2016-05-26).
125:
Written records of premastication have been found in
596:
The Science of Kissing: What Our Lips Are Telling Us
550:Russon, Anne E.; Bard, Kim A.; Parker, Sue Taylor,
35:capable of being consumed by the child during the
669:Forgeng, Jeffrey L.; Singman, Jeffrey L. (1999),
552:Reaching Into Thought:The Minds of the Great Apes
537:Comparing behavior: studying man studying animals
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758:Andrews, Margaret M.; Boyle, Joyceen S. (2008),
762:(5 ed.), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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906:
835:Nathoo, Tasnim; Ostry, Aleck (Jun 1, 2009),
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148:, premastication is still commonly used by
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554:, Cambridge University Press, Nov 26, 1998
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39:process. The chewed food in the form of a
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565:Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (Oct 30, 2007),
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342:
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370:Aggett, Peter (2010), "Premastication",
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571:, Transaction Publishers, p. 138,
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519:
323:Journal of Maternal and Child Nutrition
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156:mothers, and commonly used by women of
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96:. All of this supports the idea that
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654:Soren, David; Soren, Noelle (1999),
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59:) and has been observed in numerous
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856:The New England Journal of Medicine
594:Kirshenbaum, Sheril (Jan 5, 2011),
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461:Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1971),
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428:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2010.00289.x
384:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00226.x
335:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00200.x
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684:Pijoan, M; Elkin, C.A. (1944),
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1006:Maternal & Child Nutrition
952:Maternal & Child Nutrition
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422:(1): 104, author reply 105–6,
416:Maternal & Child Nutrition
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839:, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press
803:10.1525/eth.1975.3.2.02a00150
777:, University Press of America
671:Daily Life in Medieval Europe
486:Social life among the insects
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909:Maternal and Child Nutrition
673:, Greenwood Publishing Group
372:Maternal and Child Nutrition
295:Zhang, Yuanyuan (May 2007),
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1132:
747:, Harvard University Press
626:10.1177/000992288102001001
515:, Harvard University Press
511:Wilson, Edward O. (1980),
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773:Sprott, Julie E. (1992),
658:, L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER
211:
598:, Hachette Digital, Inc.
465:, Aldine Transaction,
499:Trigonopsis cameronii
131:Ebers medical papyrus
63:and animals of other
868:10.1056/NEJMoa073788
693:Journal of Nutrition
488:. 375 pages. London.
484:Wheeler, W.M. 1923.
271:Asia Pac J Clin Nutr
108:Human kiss precursor
121:History and culture
16:Pre-chewing of food
705:10.1093/jn/27.1.67
246:Hygiene hypothesis
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197:Western societies
177:Admiralty Islands
57:courtship feeding
51:Behavioural roots
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94:chimpanzees
69:regurgitate
24:pre-chewing
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257:References
90:orangutans
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236:Baby food
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