Prehistoric West Africa

2546:. At Uan Derbuaen rockshelter of eastern Tassili, composition six may depict a white ox, under the spell of serpent-related animals, crossing through a U-shaped gate of vegetation, toward a powerful benevolent figure, in order to undo the spell on the ox. Composition six has been interpreted as portraying the Lotori ceremonial rite of Sub-Saharan West African Fulani herders. The annual Lotori ceremonial rite, held by Fulani herders, occurs at a selected location and period of time, and commemorates the ox and its origination in a source of water. The Lotori ceremonial rite promotes good health (e.g., prevent epizooties, prevent illness, prevent sterility) and reproductive success of cattle by having the cattle cross through a gate of vegetation, and thus, the continuity of the pastoral wealth of the nomadic pastoralist Fulani. The interpretation of composition six as portraying the Lotori ceremonial rite, along with other forms of evidence, have been used to support the conclusion that modern Sub-Saharan West African Fulani herders are descended from peoples of the 2773: 851: 3725:. The anthropomorphous depictions (e.g., a red-, black-, and white-colored cow; short-horned and long-horned humpless cattle, which may predate the presence of humped cattle in the northern region of Nigeria and may be at least a thousand years old) at Birnin Kudu are distinct from the reddish colored depictions (e.g., 1 antelope and 2 humpless long-horned cows of outlined and striped rock art design; 1 horse, 1 unidentified portrayal, and 8 humpless long-horned cows of outlined rock art design; 2 men, 2 monkeys, 5 humpless long-horned cows, and 6 unidentified portrayals, and 11 antelopes of solid-colored painted rock art design) at Geji, and the depictions (e.g., humans, animals) at Marghi are associated with initiation and marital rites. 2927:). Later, migratory herding, which is solely reliant on pastoralism, developed, and divergence between modern migratory herders and settled agriculturalists occurred. After 1400 BCE and before 800 BCE the spread of agriculture may have been altered, and greening of the western Sahel occurred amid the 2nd millennium BCE. Spread of domesticated pearl millet may reached Lake Chad, via eastern spread from the Niger River or an alternative avenue from the Central Sahara. Increased dryness began to recur after 800 BCE in West Africa and Central Africa. Amid the 1st millennium BCE, agriculture spread, not only near Lake Chad, but near the Niger Delta, 376: 3729: 738: 729: 3454: 1665: 1280: 31: 913: 2577:, was developed by West African hunter-gatherers, which may have developed as a result of interaction with populations from lake areas to the northeast. With the increased use of grinded stones, and thus, cultural development of utilizing vegetation for food, this resulted in a decreased use of stone projectiles, and thus, decreased hunting cultural practices. By 700 CE, along with Niani having been established, Korounkorokale was embedded within the Kingdom of 1649: 2915:, which was engaged in seasonally among some agricultural herders, and the increased development of cord-wrapped roulette-detailed ceramics in Sub-Saharan Africa, which likely was first developed in the early period of the Holocene in the Central Sahara. While also hunting and gathering, agropastoralists engaged in agriculture on a seasonal basis. Earlier subsistence strategies involved a combined approach (e.g., agriculture, 3709:, Nigeria, there is rock art at the Shira and Geji sites; two rock art traditions at Shira are dark reddish monochrome-colored anthropomorphous and realistic (e.g., lactating cattle and their calves, humans) depictions and Geji has a painted depiction of a horse, which may show that Geji rock art does not date earlier than the 15th century BCE. Other rock art in the northern region of Nigeria includes sites in several 2233:, which supports the conclusions of trade between the regions and their interconnectedness. Wavy-line pottery developed six ceramic subvariants and dotted wavy-line pottery developed three ceramic subvariants; the locations for the earliest development of both 8th millennium BCE potteries were at Sagai and Sarurab in Sudan. Wavy-line pottery spread throughout multiple locations (e.g., mostly in Central Nile; some in 3576:

and tree leaves as well as another possible engraved image of a face; one figure may have a hat and ten figures may have been wielding spears, and there may have been a few butterflies. Floral radiant circles (cupules within circles). At Dokiti, there are hundreds of radiant circles as well as images of what may be woodworms in wood and spindly monkeys. Mortars and grindstones as well as a linear arranged set of

4049:, its findings date between 400 CE and 1400 CE; at the cultural deposit of AK3, which contained three human remains, the dates range between 400 CE and 600 CE. While two out of three human remains were in a fully decomposed state, one of the human remains were able to be determined to be a young adult (17-25 years old) female, who was buried with two copper bracelets - one on each wrist, 13 2903:

have contributed to adept adjustment to the drying of the Sahelian and West Sudanian savanna regions of Sub-Saharan Africa by agropastoralists. Agropastoralists, as early agriculturalists, who likely originated in the Central Sahara, began to migrate southward into these regions around 2200 BCE. Agropastoralists traversed through

2364:, who along with his senior queen, human subjects within his kingdom, and his weapons, were buried in his home under a large mound the size of the house, as described by V. Fernandes. Levtzion also acknowledged the cultural similarities between the monarchic tumuli-building traditions and practices (e.g., monumental 2312:, “the construction of tumuli and the accompanying rituals was a religious endeavor that emanated from the other elements” that he described, such as “sorcerers, sacred groves, idols, offerings to the dead, and the “tombs of their kings.”” Faraji (2022) indicated that the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt, 1374:(Ammotragus lervia) is shown via their presence in Round Head rock art throughout the Central Sahara (e.g., Libyan region of Tadrart Acacus, Algerian region of Tassili n’Ajjer). Barbary sheep were corralled in stone enclosures near Uan Afuda cave. From up to 9500 BP, this continued until the beginning of the 3803:

region, has been found throughout West Africa as late as the end of first millennium CE. In Sopie FkBvl, Liberia, quartz microliths have been dated to 2360 ± 125 BP. Kamabai Shelter, in Sierra Leone, had quartz microliths dated to 1190 ± 95 BP. In Mali, quartz microliths were dated to 1430 ± 80 BP in

1912:

South, Mali, a skull was found. At Ibalaghen, Mali, there was a cranium found, which has been specifically dated between 7000 BP and 4000 BP. At Tin Lalou, Mali, there was a cranium and mandible found, which have been specifically dated between 7000 BP and 4000 BP. At Tamaya Mellet, Niger, there were

1378:

in the Sahara. Between 7500 BCE and 3500 BCE, amid the Green Sahara, undomesticated central Saharan flora were farmed, stored, and cooked, and domesticated animals (e.g., Barbary sheep) were milked and managed, by hunter-gatherers near the Takarkori rockshelter, which is representative of the broader

903:

in the southern region of Ivory Coast, 11,200 ± 200 BP at Iwo Eleru in Nigeria) of West Africa. By 11,000 BP, the late settlement made by Middle Stone Age West Africans and earliest settlement made by Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers emerged in the westernmost region (e.g., Falémé Valley,

556:

phases and interstadial phases, there has been a fairly steady state of humidity and temperature throughout a span of 120,000 years. Additionally, for at least the previous 100,000 years, the presence of flora (e.g., trees) has remained quite consistent. Consequently, this area has remained habitable

462:

399:

3440:

may have been adopted by some West African hunter-gatherers. As West African hunter-gatherers of the Middle Niger became increasingly acculturated and eventually admixed into more numerous, surrounding southward migrating Saharan occupants, some West African hunter-gatherers, further south, may have

2843:

as an additional subsistence strategy. As an adaptation to the desertification of the Sahara amid the Green Sahara period, Saharan herders may have begun increasingly utilizing undomesticated flora near seasonally developed and local water sources (e.g., streams, ponds), and thus, contributed to the

2185:

derived from the same ancient African ancestors. For Rowlands, the role of embodiment and containment of life giving/destructive forces has a certain relevance for understanding the distinctive features of contemporary African politics in the process of sparking an African renaissance to construct a

2176:

in the possession of negative and highly dangerous powers that could be put to ‘good use’ in maintaining order. Both the pharaoh and Bamileke chief authorize executions while mediating between principles of violence and legitimacy. The focus is very distinctively on the king’s body as autochthonous

805:

region of West Africa (e.g., Tiemassas, Senegal). More specifically, by at least 61,000 BP, Middle Stone Age West Africans may have begun to migrate south of the West Sudanian savanna, and, by at least 25,000 BP, may have begun to dwell near the coast of West Africa. Amid aridification in MIS 5 and

3642:

from between the 9th century BCE and 550 BCE. More recently, Bandama and Babalola (2023) have indicated that iron metallurgical development occurred 2631 BCE – 2458 BCE at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136 BCE – 1921 BCE at Oboui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895 BCE – 1370 BCE at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger,

3575:

and barns were utilized by the creators of the engraved petroglyphs. The engraved rock art was composed of floral radiant circles, anthropomorphs, lizards and herbivores, and streaks/striations and a single spiral-headed cat. Anthropomorphs may have been the engraved image of a face composed plant

890:

Iwo Eleru fossils of the late Middle Stone Age), who dwelled in Central Africa, to western Central Africa, to West Africa, were displaced by microlith-using Late Stone Age Africans (e.g., non-archaic human admixed Late Stone Age Shum Laka fossils dated between 7000 BP and 3000 BP) as they migrated

2902:

in West Africa between 4000 BCE and 1000 BCE. Amid the 2nd millennium BCE, agriculture, likely along with cord-wrapped, roulette-detailed ceramics, spread throughout the Sahelian and West Sudanian savanna regions of West Africa. Cultural experience with the desertification of the Green Sahara may

9503: 1711:

With the exception of the guineafowl and very recent experiments with the domestication of local wild species, none of the domestic animals kept in west Africa are indigenous to the region. The first pastoral populations in Africa came from Northeast Africa and gradually migrated Southwest into

3555:

of West Africa. West African agriculturalists likely formed mutual relations with the West African hunter-gatherers. As a result of these relations, West African hunter-gatherers, who also practiced basic agriculture via vegetable cultivation, likely provided West African agriculturalists with

877:

of western Central Africa (e.g., earlier than 32,000 BP at de Maret in Shum Laka, 12,000 BP at Mbi Crater). An excessively dry Ogolian period occurred, spanning from 20,000 BP to 12,000 BP. By 15,000 BP, the number of settlements made by Middle Stone Age West Africans decreased as there was an

3580:

within a cave with a rock in the center, which could have served as a ceremonial altar, were also found at an archaeological site. From a nearby village, potsherds and more fifty stone circles were created and utilized by Neolithic Africans, who were also likely the creators of the engraved

2431:. Between the 6th century CE and 14th century CE, stone tumuli circles, which at a single site usually encircle a burial site of half-meter that is covered by a burial mound, were constructed in Komaland; the precursors for this 3rd millennium BCE tumuli style of Komaland, 899:. Between 16,000 BP and 12,000 BP, Late Stone Age West Africans began dwelling in the eastern and central forested regions (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria; between 18,000 BP and 13,000 BP at Temet West and Asokrochona in the southern region of Ghana, 13,050 ± 230 BP at 147:, migrated into the Central Sahara, which became their primary region of residence by 10,000 BP. The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art, which occupy rockshelters in the same regions (e.g., 3517:

of Punpun were migratory peoples, who settled at the sites seasonally for various reasons (e.g., oil palm production); this is evidenced by the varied way in which flora are situated at the rockshelters. West African hunter-gatherers may have migrated southward near the

1105:(e.g., quartz, sandstone). Amid the early period of the Holocene, West African hunter-gatherers may have had Sahelian stone industries, from Senegal to Niger, which, while it may have derived from a distinct Sub-Saharan African stone tradition, may have derived from the 2541:

cross, a fertility amulet worn by Fulani women, may be associated with the hexagon-shaped carnelian piece of jewelry depicted in the rock art at Tin Felki. At Tin Tazarift, the depiction of a finger may allude to the hand of the mythic figure, Kikala, the first Fulani

2997:

boundary, which may indicate that it served as a type of natural environmental barricade to their greatly mobile hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Increased use of ceramics among West African hunter-gatherers also occurred, as evidenced by ceramics dated to 5370 ± 100 BP in

1298:– migrated, along with their pottery, from Ounjougou, Mali into the Central Sahara. The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of both the Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art, which occupy rockshelters in the same regions (e.g., 3753:

With exception to some parts of West Africa (e.g., Ntereso, Kintampo), prior to the late first millennium BCE, West African hunter-gatherers, who were the most widely spread cultural group of socially organized populations, were likely the only group to populate the

2396:. Among 10,000 burial mounds in Senegambia, 3,000 megalithic burial mounds in Senegambia were constructed between 200 BCE and 100 CE, and 7,000 earthen burial mounds in Senegal were constructed in the 2nd millennium CE. Between 1st century CE and 15th century CE, 3473:

resulted in the migration of Saharan pastoralists and agropastoralists south of the Sahelian region. Consequently, seasonal interaction likely occurred between Saharan pastoralists and agropastoralists and West African hunter-gatherers, who also practiced basic

3799:. West African hunter-gatherers may have even adopted, culturally adapted metallurgical practices, while still maintaining their ancient stone industrial traditions. Cultural continuity, via stone industries of isolated West African hunter-gatherers from the 6969: 1370:) of Niger. Amid the early Sahara, Round Head rock artists, who had a sophisticated culture and engaged in the activity of hunting and gathering, also developed pottery, utilized vegetation, and managed animals. The cultural importance of shepherded 2619:

of crops and animals. Between 5889 BP and 3685 BP, West Africans domesticated pearl millet. Between 5500 BP and 1300 BP, West Africans domesticated the Helmeted guineafowl. Between 3200 BP and 2000 BP, West Africans domesticated African rice.

3534:

region, near Kintampo, may have been unfit for the subsistence techniques of farming domesticated crops (e.g., pearl millet) from the region of North Africa. As a result, subsistence techniques were adapted to the natural environment of the

837:), who may have remained rather isolated in West Africa, and thus, remained distinct from both contemporaneous Africans in the Sahara and from any other African populations amid the transitory period between the Pleistocene and Holocene. 3482:, Daboya) provide an example of group contact in 3500 BP, as evidenced by Punpun microlithic industries that appear in close proximity to Saharan projectile points, beads, stone innovations (e.g., stone arm rings, small stone axes), and 1691:

tradition was brought to its formal conclusion as the Green Sahara underwent desertification. Desertification may have resulted in migrations from the Central Saharan region, where the Round Head paintings are located, toward

3804:

Nyamanko and dated to 1020 ± 105 BP in Korounkorokale. Kariya Wuro, in Nigeria, had quartz microliths dated to 950 ± 30 BP. After having persisted as late as the end of first millennium CE, or 1000 BP, many of the remaining

3486:. Rather than Saharan pastoralists and agropastoralists replacing West African hunter-gatherers, there apparently was a merger of groups, as at Kintampo, there was evidence of adaptation to the subsistence conditions of the 3766:

region of the Middle Niger, led to interaction with populations from further north. Prior to initial encounter with migrating populations from further north, West African hunter-gatherers may have already engaged in basic

3449:

and/or basic vegetable cultivation cultures. Eventually, even these socially organized West African hunter-gatherers, were likely acculturated and admixed into the more numerous, surrounding West Africans from the Sahara.

3932:

In 400 BCE or 300 BCE, as the Green Sahara underwent desertification, agropastoralists migrated in different directions from the eastern region of Mauritania. Some may have migrated southward and became the agropastoral

3428:. As desertification was underway, West African hunter-gatherers of the Middle Niger were likely the first to encounter southward migrating Saharan occupants. Increased interaction may have resulted in the adoption of 3881:

A comparative archeological analysis of artifacts at the Cairo Museum and the Theodore Monod Museum of African art in Dakar, Senegal reveals a deep material culture kinship between contemporary West Africans and the

904:

Senegal) of West Africa. Middle Stone Age West Africans and Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers likely did not become admixed with one another and were culturally and ecologically distinct from one another.

1251:

migrated into and dwelt in Ounjougou alongside earlier residing West Africans in Ounjougou. Among two existing cultural areas, earlier residing West Africans in Ounjougou were of a cultural area encompassing the

3002:, Ghana and ceramics dated to 4180 ± 160 BP in Mbi Crater, Cameroon. While likely still maintaining their hunter-gatherer culture, West African hunter-gatherers may have increasingly utilized local flora (e.g., 3182:

between 3000 BCE and 2500 BCE. The quality of the smelting process being used was not well developed, thereby, indicating that it was not introduced into the Aïr Mountains from an external region, such as the

2823:, throughout West Africa. Saharan roulette-detailed ceramics may be associated with herding cultures from southern Algeria or pre-herding cultures from Niger. After the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE, 7901: 2458:

of Nubia are regarded as precursors for the megalithic burial mounds of Senegambia, Kerma tumuli are regarded as precursors for the stone tumuli circles of Komaland. Based on a founding narrative of the

10799:

Lam, Aboubacry Moussa (2008). "The importance of material fact in the cultural kinship between Egypt and Africa" [L’importance du fait matériel dans la parenté culturelle égypto-africaine].

2352:, 11th century CE and 15th century CE tumuli at El Oualedji and Koï Gourrey contained various bones (e.g., human, horse), human items (e.g., beads, bracelets, rings), and animal items (e.g., bells, 785:

and likely were not present in West Africa before MIS 5. Amid MIS 5, Middle Stone Age West Africans may have migrated across the West Sudanian savanna and continued to reside in the region (e.g.,

1314:, Egypt, which had pottery that resembled Ounjougou pottery, had implements used for grinding like at Ounjougou, and was followed by subsequent ceramic cultures (e.g., Wadi el Akhdar, Sarurab, 2348:). In the lake region of Niger, two human burial sites included funerary rooms with graves that contain various bones (e.g., human, animal) and items (e.g., beads, ornaments, weapons). In the 2083:

and the tumuli may have “served as immense shrines of spiritual power for the populace to ritualize and remember their connection to the ancestral lineage as consecrated in the royal tomb.”

1727:

region of western Central Africa (e.g., Cameroon) by at least 7,300 years ago, though possibly as early as 22,000 years ago. The ancestral sickle cell haplotype to modern haplotypes (e.g.,

982:, while possibly being composed in playfulness, as a form of code, or as an unknown language unrelated to modern Berber languages, may have also been composed in a Nilo-Saharan language. 3013:

At Khant, where people may have started dwelling in 5000 BP, the Neolithic human skeletal remnants of a tall, middle-aged man was found; the remnants possessed traits closer to other

2079:, there may have been “a highly developed corporate ritual in which the family members of the deceased brought various items as offerings and tribute to the ancestors” buried in the 269:. Migration of Saharan peoples south of the Sahelian region resulted in seasonal interaction with and gradual absorption of West African hunter-gatherers, who primarily dwelt in the 2039:

symbol of the sovereign’s return and reunification with the primordial mound upon his death.” Faraji (2022) indicates that there may have been a cultural expectation of “postmortem

8336:

Linseele, Veerle (2013). "From the First Stock Keepers to Specialised Pastoralists in the West African Savannah". In Bollig, Michael; Schnegg, Michael; Wotzka, Hans-Peter (eds.).

2811:

sites of the northern region of Niger stopped being used. Migration of Central Saharan peoples into the Sahelian region of Sub-Saharan Africa is verified via Saharan influenced

1326:(e.g., aquatic plants from lakes, grasses from savanna grasslands) and utilized ceramic pots to process and cook the flora. By 10,000 BP, the primary region of residence for 2581:. West African hunter-gatherers and their ancient cultural traditions may have persisted shortly thereafter, as West African hunter-gatherers became fully acculturated, and 349:

may have been developed independently in West Africa sometime between around 3,000-1,000 BC, with archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces found at sites at

7275:"New data on settlement and environment at the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa: Interdisciplinary investigation at Fatandi V, Eastern Senegal" 3215:

originate and dwell. As such, though rather speculative, by the 2nd millennium BCE, chimpanzees and/or their artistic depictions (e.g., “seated” and “crouched” chimpanzee

3614:

Iron metallurgy may have been developed independently in West Africa. Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have been excavated at sites in the

883: 1175:, the presence of schistosomes expanded into Western Africa and then subsequently to Central and Southern Africa. Whether this was specifically due to the migration of 2388:

as manifestations of a trans-Sahelian common culture and heritage. From the 5th millennium BCE to the 14th century CE, earthen and stone tumuli were developed between

325:

in northern Ghana. After having persisted as late as 1000 BP, or some period of time after 1500 CE, remaining West African hunter-gatherers, many of whom dwelt in the

677:

occurred, which resulted in a decrease in the presence of humidity in the region. Concurrent with the decrease in Saharan humidity, between 3500 BP and 2500 BP, the

8912:"Rediscovering the Links between the Earthen Pyramids of West Africa and Ancient Nubia: Restoring William Leo Hansberry's Vision of Ancient Kush and Sudanic Africa" 882:, and increase in the number of settlements made by Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers. Macrolith-using late Middle Stone Age peoples (e.g., the possibly 1708:

cattle and goats). Meanwhile, as late as 2500 BP in the Central Sahara, some of the creators of the Round Head rock art may have continued to persist as hunters.

497:

climate has fluctuated mostly during stadial phases and interstadial phases, throughout the previous 120,000 years; specifically, stable climate occurred between

3219:

developed between 2300 BCE and 1500 BCE) may have been exchanged in a long-distance trade network from West Africa or Central Africa, through East Africa (e.g.,

187:

followed. Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not. As a result of increasing

8441:"Recent Adaptive Acquisition by African Rainforest Hunter-Gatherers of the Late Pleistocene Sickle-Cell Mutation Suggests Past Differences in Malaria Exposure" 7819: 3522:

region or scattered into smaller groups amid arid seasons. Various activities (e.g., production of local resources) occurred in partially settled areas of the

2241:, Delibo Cave, Chad, Jebel Eghei, Chad, Tibesti, Chad, and Adrar Madet, Niger) in Africa. Dotted wavy-line pottery spread throughout multiple locations (e.g., 2087: 1342:

hunters, who created a refined material culture (e.g., stone tools, decorated pottery) as early as 10,000 BP, also created the engraved Kel Essuf and painted

7632:"The genetic impact of the lake chad basin population in north africa as documented by mitochondrial diversity and internal variation of the L3e5 haplogroup" 3795:). Isolated groups of West African hunter-gatherers may have continually dwelled throughout the region of the Pays Mande mountains after the development of 3847:

who spread concave matting techniques for ceramics into West Africa that originated along the Sudano-Tchadian border. Peoples of the Niger Bend practiced “

9756: 2848:. After 2500 BCE, desertification of the Green Sahara may have resulted in Saharan herders traversing further south in West Africa. In 2000 BCE, amid the 1294:

Following the Ogolian period, between the late 10th millennium BCE and the early 9th millennium BCE, the creators of the Ounjougou pottery – the earliest

3787:

and polished stone production, which then spread further southward onto other West African hunter-gatherers, while others may have acquired knowledge of

3436:

production, which, subsequently, may have led to these cultural practices being further diffused unto other West African hunter-gatherers. Additionally,

1795:, Iraq, where both occur equally. West Africans, bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into the northern region of Iraq (69.5%), 2954:) is the first settling population is challenging. In any case, pottery in Gajiganna shares cultural similarity, across nearby areas of the southern 770:), Toumboura, Senegal (33,000 BP), Laminia, Gambia (24,000 BP – 21,000 BP), Ndiayène Pendao, Senegal (11,600 BP), and Saxonomunya (11,000 BP), near 6403:"Persistence of Middle Stone Age technology to the Pleistocene/Holocene transition supports a complex hominin evolutionary scenario in West Africa" 10595: 4167: 2799:

became increasingly dry after 3500 BCE. Seasonal waterways were the likely migratory route taken, by hunter-gatherers and cattle herders, to the

2117:

speakers, who arrived there as early as the 6th millennium BCE. Some of these civilizations and cultures defined by Sudanic sacral kingship were

1484:. Prior to 5000 BCE, their agricultural practices were spread throughout the woodland savanna, and afterward, were introduced southward into the 10875: 2561:

arrived and began dwelling at the Korounkorokale rockshelter, in Pays Mande, Mali, where they engaged in hunting and fishing. By 4000 BCE, red

10228: 5547: 4917: 1704:. While some migrated south of the Sahara, other Central Saharan hunter-gatherers may have taken on the custom of pastoralism (e.g., herding 2177:

container and a conduit for the dispersal of substances. Rowlands posits that the ancient Egyptians and Sub-Saharan populations such as the

5041: 4111: 8512: 3827:

occurred from the Sahel and Sahara into the West African Savanna, from the first millennium BCE to the first millennium CE, likely due to

3556:

oil-rich and Vitamin A-rich nuts as part of their local food source. Additionally, West African agriculturalists may have acquired forest

2772: 2463:, Faraji (2022) concludes the possibility of the “pre-Islamic rulers of Hausaland” being a “dynasty of female monarchs reminiscent of the 8568:

Blench, Roger (1991). "Contact between Ancient Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa: the evidence of cultivated plants". In Davies, W.V. (ed.).

4644: 874: 8671: 5754:"Mitochondrial DNA D-Loop Diversity of the Helmeted Guinea Fowls in Kenya and Its Implications on HSP70 Gene Functional Polymorphism" 4999: 17: 9944:"High Ancient Genetic Diversity of Human Lice, Pediculus humanus, from Israel Reveals New Insights into the Origin of Clade B Lice" 3530:

regions. After 4500 BP, desertification may have resulted in Saharan peoples migrating toward the south. The southern parts of the

11073:"Dense sampling of ethnic groups within African countries reveals fine-scale genetic structure and extensive historical admixture" 4411: 3043:) via trade between West Africans and North Africans or may have spread into North Africa naturally amid the Green Sahara (e.g., 8188:"Subsistence strategy was the main factor driving population differentiation in the bidirectional corridor of the African Sahel" 6468: 2027:” tradition of monarchic tumuli, which are characterized as “earthen pyramids” or “proto-pyramids.” Faraji (2022) characterized 11230: 3808:

were likely ultimately acculturated and admixed into the larger groups of West African agriculturalists, akin to the migratory

2938:

Due to the complexity of pottery patterns and vastness of the area, where interactions between peoples occurred during the mid-

2210: 1724: 850: 5459: 10895: 10248: 10155: 9720: 9504:"Rehabilitation of the Laboratoire De Carbone 14-Dakar (Senegal) with a Super Low-Level Liquid Scintillation Counting System" 9024: 8987: 8962: 8577: 8345: 8312: 7491: 7129: 6865: 6599: 5519: 4131: 3843:

and is associated with corded roulette ceramics. The other migration from the northeast consisted of iron metallurgists from

2261:) in Africa as well. Both potteries also spread along a north-to-west regional axis (e.g., Wadi Howar, Ennedi Plateau, Chad, 8250: 7165: 5820: 3421:

occupants and Sub-Saharan West African hunter-gatherers increased as Saharan occupants increasingly migrated southward into

10076:"Expansions and Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System (1200/1000 B.C. – 1200/1250 A.D.)" 3747: 3132: 3375:. The engraved cattle pastoral rock art of Dhar Tichitt, which are displayed in enclosed areas that may have been used to 2827:

pearl millet emerged for the first time near the Saharan and Sahelian regional boundary, thereafter, it expanded into the

1488:. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger-Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest. 3371:

bear resemblance (e.g., color markings of the cattle) with the engraved cattle portrayed in the Dhar Tichitt rock art in

2345: 2009: 1310:) as well as have a common resemblance (e.g., traits, shapes). Whether or not Ounjougou ceramic culture spread as far as 774:, Mali. There is also scant evidence of Middle Stone Age settlement at Ounjougou, Mali between 191,000 BP – 130,000 BP. 289:

between 5500 BP and 1300 BP; domestication of field crops occurred throughout various locations in West Africa, such as

5471: 3792: 2815:

that appear in the Sahelian region. Herders from the Sahara expanded, along with their cord-wrapped, roulette-detailed

7086: 11177: 10839: 10684:"Megaliths in Tropical Africa: Social Dynamics and Mortuary Practices in Ancient Senegambia (ca. 1350 BCE - 1500 CE)" 10607: 10425: 10203: 9840: 9776: 9339: 9286: 8927: 8819: 8155: 7956: 7857: 7781: 7723: 7536: 6989: 6554: 6022: 5982: 5840: 5370: 5011: 4937: 4817: 4759: 4664: 4187: 4086: 3461:

projectile point, a very small stone tool. The shape of this one is similar to the ones that have been discovered at

3175: 2005: 1083: 57: 9328:"Saharan legacies: a history of environmental, economic and cultural change in West Africa during the Late Holocene" 7769: 4747: 3387:. The considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between 3294: 6402: 5548:"The Moving Finger: A Rhetorical, Grammatological and Afrinographic Exploration of Nsibidi in Nigeria and Cameroon" 3380: 2403:

without tumuli were constructed. Megalithic and earthen Senegambian tumuli, which may have been constructed by the

1406: 342: 11156: 7101: 3944:

In Itaakpa rockshelter, Nigeria, human remains (e.g., mandible, maxilla), which are similar to human remains from

2981:

Amid the middle of the Holocene, West African hunter-gatherers continued to dwell along the rivers and within the

1555:. The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting in domestication. 11215: 9567:"Watermelon origin solved with molecular phylogenetics including Linnaean material: another example of museomics" 3710: 1217:, Mali. Prior to 9400 BCE, Niger-Congo speakers independently created and used matured ceramic technology (e.g., 1206: 967:

and linguistic divergence began to increase; subsequently, they gradually encountered, assimilated, and absorbed

124:

by 12,000 BP, and migrated northward between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali, Burkina Faso, and Mauritania.

9889:"On the Earliest Representations of Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Were African Apes Traded to Bronze Age Elam?" 6845: 6640:"Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase" 5150: 2471:, which have been dated between the 13th century CE and the 16th century CE, may have connection to tumuli from 2412: 1235:); ethnographically and historically, West African women have been the creators of pottery in most West African 8691: 7579: 6338:"Between continuity and discontinuity: An overview of the West African Paleolithic over the last 200,000 years" 5970: 3755: 3548: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3519: 3286:

as well as speakers of a 'vanished language' to the south as aridity pressed populations into close proximity.

3200: 2982: 1485: 1273: 879: 798: 274: 105: 104:, who migrated into West Africa as an increase in humid conditions resulted in the subsequent expansion of the 10405: 6275:"A question of timing: Spatio-temporal structure and mechanisms of early agriculture expansion in West Africa" 1687:, Central Saharan hunters and herders may have lived together in a common area for a long period of time. The 1334:, may have been the southern region of the Central Sahara. Amid an early period of the Holocene, semi-settled 3805: 3800: 3514: 3506: 3487: 3144: 2558: 1791:

and southern Turkey. Some may have migrated and introduced the Senegal and Benin sickle cell haplotypes into

1402: 1318:), remains to be determined. Between 8200 BCE and 6400 BCE, Central Saharan hunter-gatherers of Libya (e.g., 1248: 1075: 968: 870: 855: 326: 109: 6201:"Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period" 1055:

lineage shared between Yoruba and Mende peoples), the Sub-Saharan African DNA in the Taforalt people of the

777:

Aside the scant evidence, Middle Stone Age West Africans likely dwelled continuously in West Africa between

10650:"Harnessing the Potentials of Rock Art Sites in Birnin Kudu, Jigawa State, Nigeria for Tourism Development" 8513:"Sickle ß-globin haplotypes among patients with sickle cell anemia in Basra, Iraq: A cross-sectional study" 3124: 3109: 4344:"The Middle Stone Age occupations of Tiémassas, coastal West Africa, between 62 and 25 thousand years ago" 887: 11220: 8145: 4074: 1629: 1240: 9373:"Phytolith taphonomy in the middle- to late-Holocene fluvial sediments of Ounjougou (Mali, West Africa)" 7902:"Fossil Man from Asselar (current Mali). Critical study, historical perspective and new interpretations" 6543:"Migration and Urbanization in Nigeria from Pre-colonial to Post-colonial Eras: A Sociological Overview" 3058:

in Cameroon, and, subsequently, around 5000 BP, the Bantu-speaking peoples migrated into other parts of

1775:(77% modern rate of occurrence) and Senegal (100%); they may also have migrated across the Sahara, into 766:), Tiemassas, Senegal (62,000 BP – 25,000 BP), Birimi, Ghana (50,000 BP – 20,000 BP), Missira, Senegal ( 646: 246: 49: 10820:"All that Glitters is Not Gold: Facing the Myths of Ancient Trade between North and Sub-Saharan Africa" 9441:"The Holocene history of the southern Lake Chad Basin: archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence" 5901:

Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".

3140: 1516:) undomesticated animals, constructed stylized (e.g., zig zags, wavy lines) pottery, and fished (e.g., 1394: 517:

sites, has been distinct in terms of culture and environment in comparison to the Falémé River Valley.

10191: 7820:"Stone Age Graveyard reveals Lifestyles of a 'Green Sahara': Two Successive Cultures Thrived Lakeside" 7575:"Coprolites from Rock Shelters: Hunter-Gatherers "Herding" Barbary Sheep in the Early Holocene Sahara" 4982:"Africa over the last 12000 years: how we can interpret the interface of archaeology and linguistics?" 1101:, toward the north of West Africa as far as Mali, Burkina Faso, and Mauritania, as evidenced by their 375: 11225: 9707: 9205:"'Here come the brides': Reading the neolithic paintings from Uan Derbuaen (Tasili-n-Ajjer, Algeria)" 3902: 3872: 3739: 3732: 3635: 3631: 2428: 2365: 354: 346: 4123: 3054:

West African ancestors may have diverged into distinct ancestral groups of modern West Africans and

2911:. Additional adaptations to desertification of the southern Sahara may have been the development of 618:

period; greater rainfall during the summer season resulted in the growth of humid conditions (e.g.,

10408:. In Albarella, Umberto; Rizzetto, Mauro; Russ, Hannah; Vickers, Kim; Viner-Daniels, Sarah (eds.). 3817: 3547:. Successful adaptation to the local ecology seems to have occurred, from the southern part of the 3306: 3255:, into the Near East. Additionally, it may have been traded from West Africa, via pathways through 3063: 3036: 1859: 1732: 101: 56:. West African populations were considerably mobile and interacted with one another throughout the 10535: 10460:

Wai-Ogosu, Bassey (June 1974). "Pleistocene Man In Africa With Special Reference To West Africa".

10135: 9004: 3831:, resulting in significant contributions being made to the overall protohistoric peopling of the 3780: 3668: 3395:

cultures. Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likeness with the oldest ceramics found in

2795:

Herders from the Central Sahara migrated southward toward areas more fit for pastoralism, as the

1398: 143:– by at least 9400 BCE, and along with their pottery, as well as wielding independently invented 10819: 10649: 3813: 715:, sub-spheroids), with unpreserved Acheulean implements (e.g., cleavers, handaxes), is present. 338: 9888: 8249:

Tohamy, Adel Kamel Tohamy Geady; Farag, Handouqa Ibrahim; Ali, Asmaa Abdelalim (October 2022).

6781:"Pleistocene North African genomes link Near Eastern and sub-Saharan African human populations" 3160: 3156: 2114: 2036: 2016: 1878: 1743:

haplotypes) may have first arose in the ancestors of modern West Africans, bearing haplogroups

1676: 1102: 833:

may have admixed with one another, resulting in the development of the Iwo Eleru people (e.g.,

295: 8305:

What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa

7528: 7484:

What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa

5592:"Genomic analyses unveil helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) domestication in West Africa" 4702: 10887: 10304: 10240: 8251:"Economic Life in the Age of the Round Heads in North Africa through Rock Art (7000-3000) BC" 7957:"Archeothanatological Observations on the Human Skeleton from Asselar (Early Holocene, Mali)" 7574: 4853: 4179: 3945: 3783:. After interaction began, some West African hunter-gatherers may have acquired knowledge of 3759: 3523: 3208: 3204: 3196: 3147:, many of whom descend from Niger-Congo speakers, has had considerable influence upon modern 2990: 2832: 2273:

serve as a regional intermediary between the regions of the Nile River and the Niger River.

1955:

in the Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the

1520:). Between 7000 BP and 4500 BP, the Tenerians hunted, fished, herded cattle, and constructed 1048: 786: 270: 10417: 8804:

Droughts, Food And Culture: Ecological Change And Food Security In Africa's Later Prehistory

8799: 6216: 5499: 5086:"Plant behaviour from human imprints and the cultivation of wild cereals in Holocene Sahara" 4929: 2519: 1112:

While the Niger-Congo migration may have been from West Africa into Kordofan, possibly from

11084: 11003: 9955: 9518: 9384: 9125: 8069: 7286: 7109: 6792: 6719: 6708:"Global demographic history of human populations inferred from whole mitochondrial genomes" 6483: 6417: 6349: 6286: 6212: 6160: 5687: 5220: 4355: 2276:

The “Classical Sudanese” monarchic tumuli-building tradition, which lasted in Sudan (e.g.,

2173: 1862: 1748: 1744: 1210: 607: 379: 159:). Hunters in the Central Sahara farmed, stored, and cooked undomesticated central Saharan 97: 8978:

Rowlands, Michael (2003). "The Unity of Africa". In O’Connor, David; Reid, Andrew (eds.).

696:

may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780,000 BP and 126,000 BP (

68:

may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780,000 BP and 126,000 BP (

8: 9127: 7106:

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

4260:"Korounkorokalé revisited: The Pays Mande and the West African microlithic technocomplex" 4259: 3913: 3875: 3762:

regions of West Africa. The expansion of West African hunter-gatherers north, toward the

3557: 3446: 3392: 3329: 3236: 3090: 3067: 2600: 2534: 2480: 1921: 1843: 1343: 1156: 1125: 1032: 317: 286: 254: 11121: 11088: 11072: 11007: 9959: 9600: 9522: 9388: 8368:"Evolutionary history of sickle-cell mutation: implications for global genetic medicine" 8073: 7290: 7113: 6796: 6723: 6487: 6421: 6353: 6290: 6164: 5691: 5224: 4645:"Archaeology, language and the peopling of West Africa: a consideration of the evidence" 4430: 4359: 2989:. West African hunter-gatherer stone industries had little presence to the north of the 1449: 329:

region, were ultimately acculturated and admixed into the larger groups of West African

11191: 11134: 11053: 11040: 10972: 10956: 10909: 10853: 10781: 10721: 10664: 10621: 10573: 10516: 10508: 10477: 10439: 10332: 10324: 10262: 10169: 10113: 10056: 10043: 10011:"A western route of prehistoric human migration from Africa into the Iberian Peninsula" 10010: 9991: 9978: 9943: 9924: 9862: 9846: 9798: 9782: 9734: 9683: 9667: 9620: 9596: 9542: 9484: 9468: 9416: 9353: 9308: 9292: 9242: 9178: 9101: 9085: 9038: 8833: 8775: 8713: 8697: 8649: 8633: 8550: 8486: 8473: 8440: 8421: 8408: 8367: 8281: 8231: 8119: 8106: 8057: 8038: 8025: 7998: 7979: 7937: 7879: 7863: 7795: 7745: 7729: 7675: 7612: 7550: 7403: 7338: 7325: 7274: 7255: 7228:"Ounjougou (Mali): A history of Holocene settlement at the southern edge of the Sahara" 7203: 7143: 7067: 7054: 7029: 7003: 6950: 6926: 6879: 6826: 6761: 6748: 6707: 6685: 6672: 6639: 6605: 6523: 6449: 6383: 6318: 6178: 6096: 6028: 5918: 5875:

Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P. (ed.).

5854: 5801: 5788: 5753: 5729: 5716: 5675: 5639: 5626: 5591: 5559: 5437: 5384: 5252: 5189: 5131: 5004:

A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE

4951: 4889: 4881: 4823: 4773: 4719: 4678: 4550: 4537: 4504: 4458: 4387: 4303: 4287: 4201: 4145: 3728: 3360: 3136: 3082: 3059: 2836: 2757: 2373: 2349: 1823: 1609: 1559: 1429: 1375: 1359: 1187: 1137: 1097:

Between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP, West African hunter-gatherers then likely migrated from

1052: 815: 697: 299:) in the Niger River basin between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria (northern Benin), 69: 11158:

Archaeological investigations of Iron Age sites in the Mema region, Mali (West Africa)

9058:"New research on the Holocene settlement and environment of the Chad Basin in Nigeria" 3505:) and undomesticated flora were availed in rockshelters (e.g., B-sites, K6), near the 1913:

12 individuals found, which have been specifically dated between 7000 BP and 4000 BP.

1608:

speakers may have utilized bows and arrows to hunt, other Niger-Congo speakers (e.g.,

11195: 11183: 11173: 11138: 11126: 11108: 11100: 11057: 11045: 11027: 11019: 10991: 10976: 10964: 10948: 10928: 10913: 10901: 10891: 10857: 10845: 10835: 10785: 10773: 10765: 10745: 10725: 10713: 10705: 10683: 10668: 10625: 10613: 10603: 10577: 10565: 10557: 10520: 10485: 10469: 10443: 10431: 10421: 10386: 10378: 10336: 10266: 10254: 10244: 10209: 10199: 10173: 10161: 10151: 10117: 10105: 10097: 10075: 10060: 10048: 10030: 9983: 9928: 9916: 9908: 9866: 9854: 9836: 9802: 9790: 9772: 9738: 9726: 9716: 9687: 9675: 9659: 9612: 9604: 9588: 9534: 9488: 9476: 9460: 9420: 9408: 9400: 9372: 9357: 9345: 9335: 9327: 9312: 9300: 9282: 9266: 9234: 9226: 9204: 9182: 9170: 9162: 9105: 9093: 9077: 9057: 9042: 9030: 9020: 8983: 8958: 8933: 8923: 8837: 8825: 8815: 8767: 8759: 8717: 8705: 8687: 8653: 8641: 8625: 8573: 8554: 8542: 8534: 8478: 8460: 8425: 8413: 8395: 8387: 8341: 8318: 8308: 8285: 8273: 8235: 8223: 8215: 8207: 8187: 8161: 8151: 8111: 8093: 8085: 8030: 7983: 7941: 7929: 7921: 7883: 7871: 7853: 7799: 7787: 7777: 7749: 7737: 7719: 7667: 7659: 7651: 7616: 7604: 7596: 7554: 7542: 7532: 7516: 7497: 7487: 7460: 7433: 7395: 7387: 7357: 7342: 7330: 7312: 7304: 7259: 7247: 7227: 7207: 7195: 7187: 7147: 7135: 7125: 7121: 7071: 7059: 7007: 6995: 6985: 6942: 6934: 6918: 6899:"Ancient Local Evolution of African mtDNA Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations" 6883: 6871: 6861: 6830: 6818: 6810: 6753: 6735: 6677: 6659: 6609: 6595: 6560: 6550: 6542: 6527: 6515: 6507: 6499: 6441: 6433: 6387: 6375: 6367: 6337: 6322: 6310: 6302: 6274: 6182: 6100: 6088: 6080: 6036: 6018: 5978: 5922: 5858: 5846: 5836: 5793: 5775: 5733: 5721: 5703: 5643: 5631: 5613: 5563: 5551: 5525: 5515: 5467: 5441: 5429: 5414: 5388: 5376: 5366: 5318: 5284: 5256: 5244: 5236: 5193: 5181: 5173: 5123: 5115: 5061: 5053: 5017: 5007: 4955: 4943: 4933: 4893: 4873: 4831: 4813: 4777: 4765: 4755: 4723: 4711: 4682: 4670: 4660: 4554: 4542: 4524: 4450: 4442: 4434: 4391: 4379: 4371: 4343: 4307: 4295: 4279: 4205: 4193: 4183: 4149: 4137: 4127: 4092: 4082: 3949: 3776: 3388: 3333: 3179: 2967: 2718: 2186:

new African history, identity and culture and to reassert the notion of Africanness.

2164:

According to Michael Rowlands, there are basic commonalities between the function of

2102: 2091: 2001: 1968: 1960: 1890: 1870: 1831: 1697: 1688: 1457: 1283: 1024: 1009: 712: 708: 577: 549: 513:. Consequently, the human habitation areas in Jos Plateau, which is only composed of 483: 455: 420: 392: 370: 308: 180: 34: 10944: 9995: 9624: 9546: 9246: 8779: 8490: 8269: 7679: 7407: 6954: 6898: 6765: 5805: 4462: 3290: 2664: 1771:

of Sierra Leone), bearing the Senegal sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into

1759:

of Nigeria), bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated through the

1379:

Sahara; this continued until the beginning of the Pastoral Neolithic in the Sahara.

762:, Mali (71,000 BP – 59,000 BP, 59,000 BP – 28,000 BP), Faleme Valley, Senegal (Late 11165: 11116: 11092: 11035: 11011: 10940: 10883: 10827: 10757: 10695: 10547: 10413: 10316: 10236: 10143: 10087: 10038: 10022: 9973: 9963: 9900: 9828: 9764: 9651: 9578: 9526: 9452: 9392: 9274: 9216: 9154: 9069: 9012: 8807: 8749: 8679: 8615: 8524: 8468: 8452: 8403: 8379: 8265: 8199: 8123: 8101: 8077: 8042: 8020: 8010: 7971: 7913: 7845: 7711: 7643: 7588: 7524: 7377: 7369: 7320: 7294: 7239: 7177: 7117: 7049: 7041: 6977: 6910: 6857: 6853: 6800: 6743: 6727: 6689: 6667: 6651: 6587: 6491: 6453: 6425: 6357: 6294: 6220: 6168: 6070: 6010: 5910: 5828: 5783: 5765: 5711: 5695: 5621: 5603: 5507: 5356: 5232: 5228: 5165: 5135: 5105: 5097: 4925: 4865: 4805: 4652: 4532: 4516: 4426: 4363: 4271: 4175: 4119: 4031: 3604: 3510: 3479: 3462: 3283: 2713: 2648: 2612: 2385: 2270: 2234: 2213:, which was produced between the 8th millennia BCE and the 4th millennia BCE (late 1882: 1847: 1815: 1760: 1351: 1265: 1227: 986: 944: 794: 755: 330: 304: 196: 176: 77: 8620: 8603: 7045: 6846:"Current Trends in Ancient DNA Study: Beyond Human Migration in and Around Europe" 6173: 6148: 3791:. Continued interaction may have resulted in further acculturation (e.g., loss of 3582: 3407: 3167: 2807:. Dwelling in the Sahelian region began to occur as long inhabited settlement and 2684: 2341: 2249:

of Saharan-Sahelian region, interconnecting the regions of the Middle Nile River,

1664: 1636:, of West Africa. In Western Africa, there may have been independent invention of 1279: 1261: 312: 10147: 9968: 9822: 9640:"An archaeobotanical contribution to the history of watermelon Citrullus lanatus" 9016: 8952: 7917: 7839: 7705: 7299: 6579: 6429: 6362: 6002: 5169: 4797: 4367: 4027: 3992: 3864: 3824: 3680: 3652: 3552: 3540: 3376: 3356: 3152: 3148: 3120: 3094: 2986: 2899: 2896: 2849: 2672: 2632: 2582: 2554: 2526: 2468: 2455: 2447: 2443: 2424: 2357: 2337: 2317: 2098: 2072: 2012: 1780: 1684: 1669: 1637: 1633: 1418: 1331: 1191: 1180: 1149: 1133: 1098: 972: 834: 802: 747: 650: 290: 242: 239: 184: 144: 121: 81: 30: 6547:

Migration and Urbanization in Contemporary Nigeria: Policy Issues and Challenges

5511: 3835:. One migration originated from the northwest with the complex societies (e.g., 3832: 1814:

According to Roger Blench, paleobotanical analysis reveals evidence of an early

1712:

Sub-Saharan West Africa during the onset of the mid to late Holocene dry phase.

737: 728: 281:. In West Africa, which may have been a major regional cradle in Africa for the 48:

timespan from the earliest human presence in the region to the emergence of the

9904: 8456: 6655: 6495: 6225: 6200: 6092: 6075: 6058: 5361: 5344: 4520: 3890: 3705:, Nigeria, there are engraved geometric (e.g., triangle) and fish rock art. In 3453: 3433: 3325: 3298: 3244: 3240: 3014: 2872: 2857: 2301: 2242: 2154: 2150: 2142: 2130: 2095: 2020: 1925: 1909: 1625: 1597: 1465: 1347: 1335: 1303: 1195: 1164: 1141: 1056: 892: 830: 693: 584: 521: 427: 258: 249:

between 4000 BCE and 1000 BCE. Though possibly developed as early as 5000 BCE,

231: 216: 152: 113: 65: 11112: 11031: 11015: 10968: 10905: 10849: 10831: 10165: 10034: 9920: 9679: 9655: 9608: 9530: 9480: 9456: 9412: 9304: 9238: 9174: 9147:

Rock Art Research: The Journal of the Australian Rock Art Research Association

9097: 8937: 8771: 8645: 8546: 8464: 8399: 8322: 8219: 8097: 7975: 7933: 7663: 7608: 7592: 7501: 7453:"Penis only for Gods? Sexual Imagery in the Earliest Central Saharan Rock Art" 7391: 7316: 7251: 7243: 7199: 7139: 6999: 6981: 6875: 6814: 6739: 6663: 6591: 6511: 6445: 6379: 6314: 6298: 6040: 6032: 5914: 5779: 5707: 5617: 5529: 5380: 5248: 5185: 5119: 5101: 5021: 4947: 4835: 4827: 4528: 4446: 4383: 4299: 4197: 2427:), which date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE, share cultural similarities with 11209: 11187: 11104: 11023: 10952: 10777: 10769: 10717: 10709: 10569: 10561: 10489: 10473: 10435: 10382: 10258: 10213: 10101: 9912: 9858: 9730: 9663: 9592: 9538: 9464: 9404: 9396: 9349: 9230: 9166: 9081: 9034: 8763: 8709: 8629: 8538: 8391: 8277: 8211: 8165: 8089: 7925: 7875: 7741: 7655: 7600: 7546: 7464: 7437: 7373: 7358:"Earliest direct evidence of plant processing in prehistoric Saharan pottery" 7308: 7191: 6938: 6922: 6564: 6503: 6437: 6371: 6306: 6084: 5850: 5832: 5555: 5433: 5322: 5288: 5240: 5177: 5065: 5057: 4877: 4769: 4715: 4674: 4656: 4438: 4375: 4283: 4141: 4096: 4050: 3921: 3828: 3809: 3396: 3348: 3252: 3248: 3128: 3101: 3078: 3055: 3040: 2999: 2928: 2892: 2777: 2640: 2616: 2592: 2416: 2353: 2333: 2262: 2178: 2134: 2044: 1998: 1964: 1866: 1851: 1819: 1752: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1567: 1521: 1383: 1371: 1355: 1307: 1287: 1253: 1183: 1176: 1121: 1071: 1040: 976: 948: 823: 334: 282: 188: 172: 156: 38: 10617: 10503:

Anquandah, James (2013). "The People Of Ghana: Their Origins And Cultures".

10390: 10320: 10109: 9794: 9296: 9126:

Department of the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas (October 2002).

8829: 8811: 8754: 8737: 7791: 6805: 6780: 5085: 4869: 3509:, in the southern region of central Ghana. West African agriculturalists of 11169: 11130: 11096: 11049: 10761: 10052: 10026: 9987: 9616: 9267:"Weapons, Tools, and Objects: Material Culture Systems In African rock Art" 8482: 8417: 8301:"Round Heads: Religion and spirituality of ancient central Saharan hunters" 8227: 8115: 8034: 7671: 7399: 7334: 7063: 6946: 6822: 6757: 6681: 6519: 6014: 5797: 5770: 5725: 5699: 5676:"Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop domestication" 5635: 5127: 4809: 4546: 4454: 4000: 3988: 3976: 3956: 3836: 3768: 3722: 3706: 3688: 3672: 3656: 3572: 3568: 3494: 3470: 3403: 3384: 3352: 3271: 3256: 3071: 3032: 2947: 2912: 2904: 2845: 2824: 2820: 2796: 2781: 2628: 2608: 2604: 2596: 2484: 2460: 2408: 2404: 2329: 2118: 2040: 2035:

culture of the Nile Valley” and described mound tumuli as being “the first

1776: 1768: 1705: 1601: 1552: 1528: 1497: 1473: 1410: 1272:

and microlith-using West Africans were of a cultural area encompassing the

1232: 1129: 1079: 1044: 1036: 1005: 956: 924: 635: 615: 192: 168: 10536:"Rethinking Food Production in West Africa: The Prehistorical Perspective" 10092: 9221: 8529: 8383: 5608: 4649:

Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses

3937:

peoples, and some may have migrated northward and became the agricultural

3187:. By 1500 BCE, the quality of the smelting process became more developed. 2269:, Egypt) near the Saharan regions of Sudan and Egypt. The tumuli from the 1167:) underwent evolution. Subsequently, there was an expansion alongside the 569:. Furthermore, for the previous 100,000 years, compared to the climate of 505:, and climate fluctuations occurred during the periods and sub-periods of 475:. Furthermore, for the previous 100,000 years, compared to the climate of 412:. Furthermore, for the previous 100,000 years, compared to the climate of 10700: 10552: 9278: 7382: 7182: 6914: 5345:"Alisa LaGamma (Ed.): Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara" 3996: 3984: 3980: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3909: 3906: 3860: 3788: 3718: 3714: 3698: 3695: 3664: 3639: 3623: 3577: 3564: 3475: 3437: 3425: 3422: 3411: 3400: 3321: 3310: 3302: 3279: 3275: 3267: 3220: 3212: 3184: 3116: 3044: 3028: 3024: 2951: 2943: 2932: 2916: 2868: 2865: 2840: 2800: 2788: 2785: 2749: 2745: 2668: 2660: 2656: 2574: 2543: 2381: 2297: 2258: 2254: 2169: 2126: 2110: 1987: 1905: 1886: 1827: 1756: 1716: 1628:), who diverged from the hunters, may have utilized canoes to search for 1605: 1586: 1563: 1544: 1461: 1445: 1441: 1387: 1327: 1315: 1311: 1202: 1145: 1117: 1063: 998: 994: 932: 928: 912: 900: 896: 771: 588: 574: 570: 525: 494: 490: 480: 476: 431: 417: 413: 358: 278: 227: 224: 204: 132: 73: 53: 10960: 10512: 10481: 10328: 9671: 9472: 9089: 8081: 8058:"The African Genome Variation Project shapes medical genetics in Africa" 8015: 6930: 6731: 6149:"Archaeological sites and palaeoenvironments of Pleistocene West Africa" 5110: 4984:. University of Cambridge. pp. 13, 25 – via www.academia.edu. 4885: 4291: 3135:), which is generally associated with being a common trait among modern 2888: 2504: 2309: 2225:

spanned from the savanna region to the eastern Saharan region, and from

2222: 1648: 1295: 140: 9850: 9786: 9158: 9073: 8701: 8203: 7867: 7733: 4275: 4004: 3894: 3840: 3796: 3684: 3589: 3216: 3018: 2966:. Pottery from sites, dated to the second millennium BCE, close to the 2876: 2804: 2761: 2753: 2734: 2615:). West Africa may have been a major regional cradle in Africa for the 2585: 2436: 2389: 2369: 2266: 2246: 2226: 2218: 2122: 2106: 2015:

are recognized by Faraji (2022) as part of and derived from an earlier

1944: 1855: 1839: 1772: 1701: 1540: 1339: 1239:

traditions and their production of ceramics is closely associated with

1168: 1160: 654: 253:

may have also developed in 2000 BCE, as evidenced by depictions of the

235: 208: 10824:

Landscapes, Sources and Intellectual Projects of the West African Past

9583: 9566: 8637: 7647: 3035:(e.g., seeds dated to 5000 BP at Uan Muhuggiag in southwestern Libya, 2197:

traversed the interconnected region of the Middle Nile Valley. In the

7426:"Leading role of male hunters in Central Saharan prehistoric rituals" 3883: 3676: 3483: 3458: 3228: 3108:

ceramic type, and expanded, via Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi, as the

2908: 2861: 2652: 2512: 2250: 2214: 2182: 2032: 1952: 1897: 1826:. The direction of transmission of these crops were from Sub-Saharan 1693: 1517: 1509: 1469: 1453: 1319: 1244: 1214: 1106: 1016: 979: 759: 704: 689: 658: 631: 627: 220: 203:

may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the

136: 117: 61: 10366: 9832: 9142: 8911: 8683: 8300: 7849: 7774:

Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History

7715: 7631: 7479: 7452: 7425: 5310: 5276: 5208: 4981: 4116:

Outsiders and Strangers: An Archaeology of Liminality in West Africa

3104:

may have expanded, via African shores near the Indian Ocean, as the

1027:

between 15,100 cal BP and 13,900 cal BP, and were found to be 63.5%

9768: 9639: 9440: 6057:

Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023).

5940: 4030:(indicated via dental evidence from the skeletal remains) occupied 4016: 3938: 3920:) made between Sub-Saharan West Africans and North Africans (e.g., 3868: 3763: 3663:) and established the cultivation systems in the mid-region of the 3502: 3372: 3337: 3048: 3003: 2971: 2939: 2924: 2853: 2828: 2808: 2624: 2400: 2397: 2308:

into the West African and Sahelian regions of Africa. According to

1956: 1728: 1578: 1513: 1505: 1481: 1437: 1113: 1067: 1028: 960: 952: 811: 797:, Middle Stone Age West Africans began to dwell along parts of the 623: 212: 164: 128: 85: 5000:"Military Convergence And The Bronze Age Civilisations of Eurasia" 3336:, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern 2737:. Domesticating of cowpeas likely began in the region of northern 2189:

Between the 8th millennia BCE and the 4th millennia BCE, riverine

1947:

monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region of

1920:

may have developed in 2000 BCE, as evidenced by depictions of the

845: 10746:"Ceramic Traditions and Ethnicity in the Niger Bend, West Africa" 5977:. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 53–54. 4035: 4023: 4012: 3898: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3784: 3619: 3600: 3442: 3429: 3414:, which spanned from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. 3364: 3316:

In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed from

3086: 2975: 2920: 2816: 2812: 2704: 2680: 2599:, West Africans may have adapted by domesticating animals (e.g., 2578: 2570: 2566: 2508: 2492: 2476: 2472: 2464: 2325: 2321: 2293: 2281: 2238: 2230: 2221:), preceded the emergence of monarchic tumuli; the spread of the 2194: 2190: 2165: 2158: 2138: 2060: 2052: 2028: 1980: 1933: 1917: 1901: 1800: 1751:

or their ancestral haplogroup E1b1a1-M4732. West Africans (e.g.,

1740: 1582: 1532: 1433: 1393:

As early as 11,000 years ago, Sub-Saharan West Africans, bearing

1363: 1236: 1222: 1218: 1091: 1087: 1020: 940: 936: 859: 819: 674: 553: 459: 396: 322: 266: 250: 200: 27:

Prehistory of the West African subregion of the African continent

9761:

Theory of African Music: I. Xylophone playing in southern Uganda

6584:

Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond

6059:"Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa" 5879:. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 51–59. 5151:"Saharan Rock Art, A Reflection Of Climate Change In The Sahara" 3593: 907: 10406:"The exploitation of aquatic resources in Holocene West Africa" 8800:"Palaeoclimate, Food And Culture Change In Africa: An Overview" 7166:"Bura Funerary Urns: Niger Terracottas: An Interpretive Limbo?" 5209:"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules" 3934: 3743: 3615: 3544: 3498: 3418: 3317: 3224: 3007: 2955: 2880: 2780:

remains from third to first millennium BC. The arrows indicate

2699:) likely began in the basin of the Niger River between eastern 2692: 2688: 2636: 2547: 2538: 2530: 2516: 2361: 2289: 2198: 2080: 2075:). Based on artifacts found in the tumuli from West Africa and 2064: 1983: 1976: 1972: 1940: 1874: 1830:

into ancient Egypt. Some of the plants that were analyzed were

1796: 1784: 1764: 1720: 1680: 1652: 1590: 1548: 1501: 1422: 1414: 1269: 1257: 1047:). In addition to having similarity with the remnant of a more 990: 964: 916: 807: 670: 611: 591:

climate has supported continuity in human habitation, from the

528:

climate has supported continuity in human habitation, from the

434:

climate has supported continuity in human habitation, from the

10992:"High-depth African genomes inform human migration and health" 10305:"Oil Palm and Prehistoric Subsistence in West Tropical Africa" 5415:"Milieu et culture matérielle dans le Néolithique sénégambien" 5277:"Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs?" 4412:"Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa" 2839:. In adaptation to desertification, Saharan herders developed 829:

In 35,000 BP, Middle Stone Age West Africans and West African

638:. Between 5500 BP and 4000 BP, the Green Sahara period ended. 11164:. University Microfilms International. p. ii., 112-113. 5825:

Bush Base, Forest Farm: Culture, Environment, and Development

3960: 3844: 3772: 3702: 3627: 3608: 3560:

knowledge and strategies from West African hunter-gatherers.

3368: 3341: 3171: 3105: 3097: 2994: 2963: 2959: 2884: 2738: 2708: 2700: 2644: 2562: 2488: 2451: 2440: 2432: 2420: 2313: 2305: 2296:) until the early period of the 6th century CE as well as in 2285: 2277: 2202: 2076: 2068: 2048: 2024: 1990: 1948: 1908:. At El Guettara, Mali, there were two individuals found. At 1835: 1808: 1792: 1736: 1536: 1382:

Between 11,000 BP and 10,000 BP, the population ancestral to

1367: 1323: 1299: 1172: 955:, persisted along the coasts and in the mountainous areas of 863: 790: 782: 778: 767: 763: 678: 619: 510: 506: 502: 498: 350: 160: 148: 93: 89: 5311:"Rain and rock art in the Sahara: a possible interpretation" 1574:, near what was likely a lake, between 9500 BP and 7000 BP. 1531:

speakers started to collect and domesticate wild millet and

1512:. Between 10,000 BP and 8000 BP, the Kiffians hunted (e.g., 1491: 285:

of crops and animals, Niger-Congo speakers domesticated the

4046: 4042: 4008: 3948:, Cameroon, and, along with ceramics and African oil palm ( 3917: 3260: 3232: 2730: 2722: 2676: 2393: 2377: 2206: 2056: 1994: 1929: 1804: 1788: 1571: 1477: 1039:), which is drawn out, most of all, by West Africans (e.g. 300: 262: 9715:. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis Uppsala. pp. 15–16. 8604:"Problems in the Study of Later Pleistocene Man in Africa" 7030:"The spreading of parasites by human migratory activities" 5500:"African Traditional Media: Looking Back, Looking Forward" 3478:

via vegetable cultivation. Sites in Ghana (e.g., Ntereso,

3190: 2767: 2498: 2304:

until the 14th century CE, notably preceded the spread of

1659: 923:

According to MacDonald (2003), the regional birthplace of

10192:"Chronology, Origins and Evolution of the Round Head Art" 9709:

Demographic History and Adaptation in African Populations

7486:. Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences: 321–323, 325–330. 5941:"Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja" 5819:

Van Beek, Walter E.A.; Banga, Pieteke M. (Mar 11, 2002).

4410:

Schlebusch, Carina M.; Jakobsson, Mattias (May 4, 2018).

3646: 3347:

After migrating from the Central Sahara, by 4000 BP, the

2525:

By at least the 4th millennium BCE, as indicated via the

2356:, plaques). Cultural similarities were also found with a 2146: 1527:

In the steppes and savannah of the Sahara and Sahel, the

1464:

were domesticated as early as 9000 BCE. Two seed plants,

1432:

ushered in expanding rainforest and wooded savannah from

1346:

rock art styles located in the region (e.g., some in the

1059:

culture may be best represented by modern West Africans.

10929:"Itaakpa, a Late Stone Age site in southwestern Nigeria" 3916:, there were equitable transactions of materials (e.g., 3359:

in the Western Sahara. The painted Pastoral rock art of

869:

Earlier than 32,000 BP, or by 30,000 BP, Late Stone Age

711:

economy (e.g., pebble cores, pebble tools, polyhedrons,

10015:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

9942:

Amanzougaghene, Nadia; et al. (October 14, 2016).

9143:"Hand Prints, Footprints And The Imprints Of Evolution" 3927: 3081:, along with their ceramics, expanded into the rest of 2639:; this occurrence may have contributed to the start of 10196:

Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara

9056:

Breunig, Peter; Neumann, Katharina; Neer, Wim (1996).

8672:"The Peoples of West Africa During The Early Iron Age" 8150:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 19–24, 105. 8147:

Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara

7954: 4505:"Continuity of the Middle Stone Age into the Holocene" 4079:

Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara

2978:, also share affinity with the ceramics in Gajiganna. 2129:

from the 13th to 18th century CE, the 14th century CE

10009:

González-Fortes, G.; et al. (January 23, 2019).

7955:

Dumesnil, J.; Valentin, F.; Vialet, A. (April 2018).

4918:"The First Emergence of Ceramic Production in Africa" 3305:

may have migrated into ancient Israel and introduced

2384:; these monarchic tumuli-building practices span the 963:, Niger-Saharan speakers migrated southward into the 681:

underwent an increase in humidity within the region.

10367:"Rock Art Engravings At Banfora Cliffs Burkina Faso" 3701:, there is rock art. At Igbara Oke, in proximity to 3630:(Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of 1268:, Libya/Algeria; Tagalagal, Niger; Temet, Niger) of 814:

may have migrated southward into West Africa (e.g.,

8056:Gurdasani, Deepti; et al. (December 3, 2014). 6976:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 119. 4409: 3643:and 1297 BCE – 1051 BCE at Dekpassanware, in Togo. 1585:-related peoples admixed with the ancestors of the 10990:Choudhury, Ananyo; et al. (28 October 2020). 10817: 10185: 10183: 9827:. University Press of Virginia. pp. 136–137. 9271:Weapons And Tools In Rock Art: A World Perspective 9055: 8957:. University Press of Virginia. pp. 310–316. 7480:"Uweinat Roundhead: Body Proportions and Postures" 5464:Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara 3543:), may have been introduced into what was usually 3379:cattle, is supportive evidence for cattle bearing 1971:, tumuli were present at various locations (e.g., 1132:the helmeted guineafowls by 3000 BCE, and via the 649:, the environment was conducive for the growth of 9332:Archaeology, Societies and Environments in Africa 9265:Holl, Augustin F.C.; Chang, Gao (February 2021). 6778: 6772: 4081:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 45–55. 2844:increased utilization and agricultural spread of 1939:Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern 1604:) were being utilized in West Africa. While some 11207: 10920: 10002: 9565:Chomicki, Guillaume; Renner, Susanne S. (2015). 8570:Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam 7900:Vialet, Amélie; et al. (June–August 2013). 7844:. University Press of Virginia. pp. 64–75. 7710:. University Press of Virginia. pp. 82–84. 7419: 7417: 7087:"Swiss archaeologist digs up West Africa's past" 6779:Van De Loosdrecht, Marieke; et al. (2018). 5975:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 5877:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 4854:"Early Pottery in Northern Africa – An Overview" 3886:civilization that has traversed space and time. 1916:Though possibly developed as early as 5000 BCE, 10926: 10880:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History 10589: 10587: 10505:Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana 10180: 10008: 9935: 9121: 9119: 9117: 9115: 8338:Pastoralism in Africa: Past, Present and Future 7997:Busby, George BJ; et al. (June 21, 2016). 6056: 5996: 5994: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5298: 4696: 4694: 4692: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4172:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History 3406:of Djenne-Djenno was likely established by the 2328:were similar to al-Bakrī’s descriptions of the 878:increase in humid conditions, expansion of the 846:32,000 BP – 20,000 BP (30,000 BCE – 18,000 BCE) 641:During the 1st millennium cal BCE, between the 580:in West Africa has been more steady and humid. 486:in West Africa has been more steady and humid. 423:in West Africa has been more steady and humid. 10198:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 105. 9941: 9887:Urbani, Bernardo; Youlatos, Dionisios (2020). 9886: 9824:The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 9564: 8954:The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 8307:. Royal Academy For Overseas Sciences: 8, 14. 8248: 8139: 8137: 8135: 8133: 7999:"Admixture into and within sub-Saharan Africa" 7841:The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 7707:The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 7478:Noguera, Alessandro Menardi (September 2015). 7226:Huysecom, Eric; et al. (September 2004). 7221: 7219: 7217: 6273:Ozainne, Sylvain; et al. (October 2014). 6268: 6266: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6258: 6256: 5934: 5932: 5466:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 74–75. 4804:. Princeton University Press. pp. 14–17. 4582: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4068: 4066: 3351:of West Africa established their agropastoral 238:, and may be associated with the emergence of 88:), who dwelled throughout West Africa between 10983: 10869: 10867: 10648:Mangut, Joseph; Mangut, Benedicta N. (2012). 10455: 10453: 9434: 9432: 9430: 7817: 7414: 7023: 7021: 7019: 7017: 6637: 6254: 6252: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6244: 6242: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6199:Pausata, Francesco S.R.; et al. (2016). 6003:"African Firsts in the History of Technology" 5818: 4798:"African Firsts in the History of Technology" 4701:Abd-El-Moniem, Hamdi Abbas Ahmed (May 2005). 4700: 2879:; the Thiaroye figure, which was found among 2533:culture may have been present in the area of 1362:) of Algeria, in the region (e.g., Djado) of 1354:) of Libya, in the region (e.g., some in the 1322:, Uan Afuda) gathered a diverse selection of 908:20,000 BP – 10,000 BP (18,000 BCE – 8000 BCE) 120:) earlier than 32,000 BP, dwelled throughout 10818:Magnavita, Sonja; Magnavita, Carlos (2018). 10688:International Journal of Modern Anthropology 10647: 10584: 10540:International Journal of Arts and Humanities 10462:Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 9816: 9814: 9812: 9637: 9631: 9112: 8916:Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 8738:"Genetics and History of Sub-Saharan Africa" 8731: 8729: 8727: 8597: 8595: 8593: 8591: 8589: 8292: 8181: 8179: 8177: 8175: 7833: 7831: 7829: 7521:The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Figurines 7444: 6638:Shriner, Daniel; Rotimi, Charles N. (2018). 6142: 6140: 6138: 6136: 6134: 6132: 6130: 5991: 5896: 5894: 5892: 5890: 5888: 5886: 5669: 5667: 5665: 5663: 5661: 5659: 5657: 5655: 5653: 5295: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5158:Tabona: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología 4922:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology 4689: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4419:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4405: 4403: 4401: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4235: 2515:, the pottery was designed in the custom of 1668:Warrior/Shepherd figures and animals of the 959:. Between 12,000 BP and 10,000 BP, amid the 806:regional change of climate in MIS 4, in the 603:, which spanned the previous 120,000 years. 540:, which spanned the previous 120,000 years. 446:, which spanned the previous 120,000 years. 37:figures and zoomorphic figures, including a 11071:Bird, Nancy; et al. (March 29, 2023). 10593: 10371:INORA: International Newsletter on Rock Art 10233:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics 10140:Encyclopedia of Prehistory Volume 1: Africa 9701: 9699: 9697: 9638:Van Der Veen, Marijke; et al. (2004). 9560: 9558: 9556: 9260: 9258: 9256: 9009:Encyclopedia of Prehistory Volume 1: Africa 8996: 8678:. Cambridge University Press. p. 335. 8130: 7813: 7811: 7809: 7763: 7761: 7759: 7573:Rotunno, Rocco; et al. (Jul 9, 2019). 7266: 7214: 6586:. Cambridge University Press. p. 446. 6128: 6126: 6124: 6122: 6120: 6118: 6116: 6114: 6112: 6110: 6007:Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE 5929: 5590:Shen, Quan-Kuan; et al. (1 May 2021). 5200: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4802:Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE 4651:. Routledge. pp. 39–40, 43–44, 49–50. 4561: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4124:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199697748.001.0001 4063: 3263:in the 2nd century CE, into the Near East. 2942:, specifying which linguistic group (e.g., 2588:and pottery traditions became predominant. 2454:. While the stele-circled burial mounds of 1632:in and along the river systems, toward the 11150: 11148: 10864: 10811: 10643: 10641: 10639: 10637: 10635: 10527: 10496: 10450: 10360: 10358: 10356: 10354: 10352: 10350: 10348: 10346: 10298: 10296: 9882: 9880: 9878: 9876: 9763:. University of Chicago Press. p. 9. 9438: 9427: 9198: 9196: 9194: 9192: 9134: 8905: 8903: 8901: 8899: 8897: 8895: 8893: 8891: 8889: 8887: 8885: 8883: 8881: 8879: 8877: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8869: 8867: 8365: 7568: 7566: 7564: 7159: 7157: 7027: 7014: 6633: 6631: 6629: 6627: 6625: 6623: 6621: 6619: 6410:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 6394: 6233: 6194: 6192: 6052: 6050: 6009:. Princeton University Press. p. 19. 5747: 5745: 5743: 5453: 5451: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5035: 5033: 5031: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4348:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 4168:"The Stone Age Archaeology of West Africa" 4053:, 11 stone beads, and a fully intact pot. 2895:, may be associated with the emergence of 2047:of the West African Sahel (e.g., northern 985:As of 19,000 years ago, Africans, bearing 135:speakers independently created pottery in 11120: 11039: 10989: 10873: 10739: 10737: 10735: 10699: 10551: 10533: 10502: 10459: 10397: 10294: 10292: 10290: 10288: 10286: 10284: 10282: 10280: 10278: 10276: 10189: 10129: 10127: 10091: 10042: 9977: 9967: 9809: 9750: 9748: 9582: 9264: 9220: 8865: 8863: 8861: 8859: 8857: 8855: 8853: 8851: 8849: 8847: 8793: 8791: 8789: 8753: 8742:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8735: 8724: 8676:The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 2 8619: 8601: 8586: 8528: 8506: 8504: 8502: 8500: 8472: 8407: 8298: 8192:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8185: 8172: 8143: 8105: 8055: 8049: 8024: 8014: 7895: 7893: 7826: 7450: 7423: 7381: 7324: 7298: 7181: 7053: 6804: 6747: 6701: 6699: 6671: 6580:"The Linguistic Prehistory of the Sahara" 6571: 6466: 6460: 6361: 6224: 6172: 6074: 5883: 5787: 5769: 5715: 5673: 5650: 5625: 5607: 5360: 5343:Holl, Augustin F. C. (11 February 2021). 5308: 5274: 5263: 5206: 5109: 4975: 4973: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4965: 4642: 4536: 4398: 4257: 4072: 3889:Contrary to the popular academic myth of 3539:region, and local crops (e.g., oil palm, 3235:). Another possibility (as via report of 2860:of Thiaroye," may have been the earliest 2819:culture and the agricultural practice of 2729:) likely began in the region of northern 1675:As cattle pastoralism (also known as the 1492:10,000 BP – 7500 BP (8000 BCE – 5500 BCE) 1155:According to Steverding (2020), Near the 219:of Thiaroye," may have been the earliest 10412:. Oxford University Press. p. 447. 10403: 9694: 9553: 9253: 9002: 8977: 8665: 8663: 8572:. British Museum Press. pp. 47–67. 8335: 7948: 7806: 7776:. Temple University Press. p. 235. 7756: 7699: 7697: 7695: 7693: 7691: 7689: 7523:. Oxford University Press. p. 108. 7272: 7225: 6706:Miller, Eleanor F.; et al. (2018). 6549:. University of Lagos Press. p. 6. 6335: 6329: 6147:Cerasoni, Jacopo Niccolò (Apr 1, 2022). 6146: 6107: 5947:. Nsukka, Nigeria: University of Nigeria 5812: 5541: 5539: 5493: 5491: 5489: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5148: 5142: 5084:Mercuri, Anna Maria (January 29, 2018). 4915: 4900: 4847: 4845: 4752:The Global Prehistory of Human Migration 4469: 4337: 4212: 4161: 4159: 3867:, interregional (or even long-distance) 3727: 3675:rice, utilizing irrigation systems with 3452: 3399:, which have been dated to 250 BCE. The 3278:came into frequent contact with diverse 2771: 1715:Amid the Green Sahara, the mutation for 1663: 1647: 1278: 911: 849: 374: 29: 11145: 10927:Allsworth-Jones, Philip (August 2012). 10675: 10657:Journal of Tourism and Heritage Studies 10632: 10343: 10220: 9873: 9705: 9370: 9364: 9325: 9319: 9189: 9140: 9049: 8511:Yaseen, Noor Taha; et al. (2020). 8361: 8359: 8357: 7572: 7561: 7529:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675616.001.0001 7477: 7471: 7163: 7154: 7099: 7093: 7084: 7078: 6967: 6961: 6616: 6467:Bergström, Anders; et al. (2021). 6272: 6198: 6189: 6047: 5971:"Early iron in West and Central Africa" 5938: 5751: 5740: 5585: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5573: 5457: 5448: 5338: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5083: 5072: 5028: 4784: 4741: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4733: 4704:A New Recording Of Mauritanian Rock Art 4335: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4118:. Oxford University Press. p. 38. 4011:) admixed with one another in northern 3592:net weights were used at Kolima South, 3191:4500 BP – 3500 BP (2500 BCE – 1500 BCE) 3139:, spread throughout Africa. Due to the 2935:, and the southern region of Cameroon. 2768:5500 BP – 4500 BP (3500 BCE – 2500 BCE) 2725:. Domesticating of pearl millet (e.g., 2553:Following the northward expansion from 2499:6500 BP – 5500 BP (4500 BCE – 3500 BCE) 1660:7500 BP – 6500 BP (5500 BCE – 4500 BCE) 1643: 1128:, may have traversed into West Africa, 321:) in northern Mali and Mauritania, and 100:), were gradually replaced by incoming 14: 11208: 11154: 10888:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.285 10874:McDougall, E. Ann (25 February 2019). 10732: 10364: 10273: 10241:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.397 10226: 10124: 9745: 8909: 8844: 8797: 8786: 8567: 8510: 8497: 8439:Laval, Guillaume; et al. (2019). 8366:Esoh, Kevin; Wonkam, Ambroise (2021). 8242: 7899: 7890: 7629: 7623: 7514: 7508: 7273:Chevrier, Benoît; et al. (2020). 6705: 6696: 6577: 6540: 6534: 6400: 6336:Chevrier, Benoît; et al. (2018). 5968: 5874: 4993: 4991: 4979: 4962: 4502: 4180:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137 4174:. Oxford University Press. p. 1. 4165: 3959:speakers may have migrated across the 3793:West African hunter-gatherer languages 3746:) were constructed for the purpose of 3647:3500 BP – 2500 BP (1500 BCE – 500 BCE) 2211:dotted wavy line and wavy line pottery 1535:between 8000 BCE and 6000 BCE. Later, 1179:, into Western Africa as well as the 11064: 10743: 10418:10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780199686476.013.52 10410:The Oxford Handbook of Zooarchaeology 10302: 10133: 9820: 9754: 9501: 9495: 8950: 8669: 8660: 8438: 8432: 8186:Nováčková, Jana; et al. (2020). 7996: 7990: 7837: 7767: 7703: 7686: 7355: 7349: 6896: 6890: 6843: 6837: 6000: 5964: 5962: 5870: 5868: 5752:Murunga, Philip; et al. (2018). 5536: 5504:African Media Space and Globalization 5498:Akpan, Unwana Samuel (Aug 24, 2023). 5497: 5480: 5412: 5395: 5039: 4930:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.66 4851: 4842: 4795: 4710:. University of London. p. 221. 4341: 4156: 4109: 3655:speakers may have first domesticated 3211:of Central Africa are the areas that 2105:. It is likely that it spread to the 1051:Sub-Saharan African lineage (e.g., a 718: 664: 596: 562: 533: 514: 468: 439: 405: 11070: 10681: 10067: 9893:International Journal of Primatology 9644:Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 9502:Ndeye, Maurice; et al. (2004). 9371:Garnier, Aline; et al. (2013). 9202: 8354: 8340:. Berghahn Books. pp. 145–170. 8144:Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013). 5900: 5589: 5570: 5342: 5329: 4745: 4730: 4314: 4103: 4075:"Round Head Paintings and Landscape" 4073:Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013). 3928:2500 BP – 1500 BP (500 BCE – 500 CE) 3599:In the mid-4th millennium BP, four " 3089:ceramic type may have expanded into 2875:statuette, created in the region of 2631:underwent the process of becoming a 2439:are regarded by Faraji (2022) to be 1877:, found in ancient Egypt during the 1066:speakers may have migrated from the 840: 684: 669:By 4500 BP, sources of water in the 642: 600: 592: 566: 558: 537: 529: 472: 464: 443: 435: 409: 401: 234:statuette, created in the region of 10798: 10073: 8299:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015). 7085:Bradley, Simon (January 18, 2007). 6205:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5275:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015). 4997: 4988: 4643:MacDonald, Kevin C. (Sep 2, 2003). 4431:10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759 4166:Scerri, Eleanor (26 October 2017). 3738:Between 1350 BCE and 1500/1600 CE, 3626:: dating to 2000 BC at the site of 2346:Ancient Egyptian funerary practices 1350:, some in the Tadrart, some in the 1004:Around 18,000 BP, the ancestors of 552:Valley zone, with the exception of 458:Valley zone, with the exception of 449: 395:Valley zone, with the exception of 24: 10600:Food Culture in Sub-Saharan Africa 8445:American Journal of Human Genetics 7356:Dunne, Julie; et al. (2016). 6897:Frigi, Sabeh; et al. (2010). 6644:American Journal of Human Genetics 6469:"Origins of modern human ancestry" 5959: 5865: 5506:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 32. 4342:Niang, Khady; et al. (2020). 3901:-driven capture, enslavement, and 3563:As early as 4000 BP, the engraved 3367:and engraved Pastoral rock art of 2871:; it may have particularly been a 2691:are field crops that originate in 2663:served as a cradle for field crop 1566:may have occupied Asselar, in the 895:, to western Central Africa, into 758:West Africans may have dwelled at 543: 386: 230:; it may have particularly been a 25: 11242: 10882:. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. 10227:Vydrin, Valentin (30 July 2018). 10190:Soukopova, Jitka (Jan 16, 2013). 10080:Journal of World-Systems Research 9326:Ozainne, Sylvain (January 2014). 9130:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 7515:Barich, Barbara (December 2018). 6974:Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa 6541:Eborka, Kennedy (February 2021). 6279:Journal of Archaeological Science 5545: 5149:Aïn-Séba, Nagète (June 3, 2022). 5006:. Routledge. p. Unnumbered. 4980:Blench, Roger (21 October 2017). 4852:Jesse, Friederike (25 Oct 2010). 4748:"Sub-Saharan Africa: Linguistics" 3115:As a result of the migrations of 3017:of the Neolithic era than modern 2958:, most of all, with northwestern 2479:. Tumuli have also been found at 2467:of Meroitic Kush.” The tumuli of 1444:speakers independently developed 1440:. Between 9000 BCE and 5000 BCE, 1247:. Amid the tenth millennium BCE, 1124:), accompanied by undomesticated 1070:region of West Africa, along the 58:population history of West Africa 10792: 9334:. Archaeopress. pp. 13–20. 8910:Faraji, Salim (September 2022). 8258:Journal of Aswan Faculty of Arts 7122:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9856-1 5460:"Pre-Islamic Artistic Patronage" 5207:Soukopova, Jitka (August 2017). 4754:. Wiley Blackwell. p. 100. 4041:At the Akumbu mound complex, in 3818:Central African hunter-gatherers 3417:By 4000 BP, interaction between 3383:significance for the peoples of 2748:hunters may have traversed from 2711:). Domesticating of rice (e.g., 2125:, Kwarafara which dominated the 2043:” associated with tumuli in the 1986:-building is shared by both the 1979:). The prehistoric tradition of 1136:, traversed into other parts of 951:speakers, who are identified as 736: 727: 557:for human populations, from the 463:for human populations, from the 400:for human populations, from the 343:Central African hunter-gatherers 10945:10.1179/0093469012Z.00000000017 10876:"Saharan Peoples and Societies" 10602:. Greenwood Press. p. 16. 8971: 8944: 8561: 8329: 8270:10.21608/mkasu.2022.133968.1041 7451:Soukopova, Jitka (March 2017). 7424:Soukopova, Jitka (March 2016). 6968:Welmers, WM E. (Aug 21, 2017). 5550:. Ohio University. p. 15. 4916:Huysecom, Eric (30 July 2020). 4746:Ness, Immanuel (Nov 10, 2014). 3810:Bantu-speaking agriculturalists 3247:, to the eastern region of the 2695:. Domesticating of yams (e.g., 2511:. Occurring in the era of Mega 1577:During the early period of the 943:period. In 20,000 BP, amid the 335:Bantu-speaking agriculturalists 10309:Journal of African Archaeology 10142:. Springer. pp. 245–259. 9011:. Springer. pp. 319–322. 7818:UChicago News (Aug 14, 2008). 7580:Journal of African Archaeology 6858:10.1007/978-981-15-1614-6_10-1 6578:Blench, Roger (Feb 14, 2019). 5233:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2016.12.011 4858:Journal of African Archaeology 4503:Scerri, Eleanor M. L. (2021). 3952:), are dated to 2210 ± 80 BP. 1779:, and from North Africa, into 1031:, were also found to be 36.5% 989:, likely traversed across the 353:, Nigeria (Eze-Uzomaka 2009), 211:of West Africa. In 2000 BCE, " 13: 1: 11231:Archaeology of Western Africa 10303:Logan, Amanda (25 Oct 2006). 10074:Kea, Ray (26 November 2004). 9445:African Archaeological Review 9062:African Archaeological Review 9005:"West African Late Stone Age" 8982:. UCL Press. pp. 31–46. 8621:10.1525/aa.1975.77.1.02a00030 7046:10.1080/21505594.2020.1809963 6850:The Handbook of Mummy Studies 6401:Scerri, Eleanor M.L. (2017). 6174:10.1080/17445647.2022.2052767 6063:African Archaeological Review 5758:BioMed Research International 5349:African Archaeological Review 4998:Roy, Kaushik (Sep 15, 2021). 4264:African Archaeological Review 4056: 3955:Between 2000 BP and 1500 BP, 3806:West African hunter-gatherers 3515:West African hunter-gatherers 3507:Guinean forest-savanna mosaic 3145:music of the African diaspora 2559:West African hunter-gatherers 2094:found numerous examples of a 1787:, and a region near northern 1761:northeastern region of Africa 1504:, there were two groups: the 1409:), may have migrated through 1401:, L1b1a6a, L1b1a8, L1b1a9a1, 1249:microlith-using West Africans 1109:stone tradition of Cameroon. 871:West African hunter-gatherers 856:West African hunter-gatherers 707:, in Mali, a yet-to-be-dated 673:had dried, and subsequently, 610:transformed the landscape of 163:, underwent domestication of 110:West African hunter-gatherers 10933:Journal of Field Archaeology 10682:Holl, Augustin F.C. (2020). 10148:10.1007/978-1-4615-1193-9_19 9969:10.1371/journal.pone.0164659 9203:Holl, Augustin F.C. (2017). 9017:10.1007/978-1-4615-1193-9_27 8806:. Springer. pp. 11–26. 7918:10.1016/j.anthro.2013.06.002 7519:. In Insoll, Timothy (ed.). 7300:10.1371/journal.pone.0243129 7028:Steverding, Dietmar (2020). 6430:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.01.003 6363:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.11.027 5596:Genome Biology and Evolution 5213:Journal of Arid Environments 5170:10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15 4368:10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102658 4110:Haour, Anne (Jul 25, 2013). 4034:, in the northern region of 3983:-related populations (e.g., 2342:monarchic funerary practices 1904:" skeletal remains found in 1274:forest region of West Africa 1201:In the 10th millennium BCE, 7: 11155:Togola, Tereba (May 1993). 10235:. Oxford University Press. 10136:"Saharo-Sudanese Neolithic" 9821:Ehret, Christopher (2002). 9273:. Oxbow Books. p. 30. 9141:Achrati, Ahmed (May 2008). 8951:Ehret, Christopher (2002). 8736:Excoffier, Laurent (1987). 8517:Iraqi Journal of Hematology 7838:Ehret, Christopher (2002). 7768:Ehret, Christopher (2001). 7704:Ehret, Christopher (2002). 6852:. Springer. pp. 1–16. 6001:Ehret, Christopher (2023). 5903:Journal of World Prehistory 5821:"The Dogon and their trees" 5512:10.1007/978-3-031-35060-3_1 5040:Ahmed, Achrati (May 2020). 4924:. Oxford University Press. 4796:Ehret, Christopher (2023). 2856:Woman", also known as the " 2133:civilization, northeast of 1763:into the western region of 1012:, grew in population size. 215:Woman", also known as the " 183:of the Central Sahara, the 10: 11247: 10594:Osseo-Asare, Fran (2005). 9905:10.1007/s10764-020-00169-0 9439:MacEachern, Scott (2012). 8457:10.1016/j.ajhg.2019.02.007 7164:Gilbert, Michelle (2020). 7108:. Springer. pp. 1–6. 6712:Royal Society Open Science 6656:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003 6496:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5 6226:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049 6076:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6 5362:10.1007/s10437-020-09419-1 4521:10.1038/s41598-020-79418-4 3588:From 1700 BCE to 500 BCE, 3493:Domesticated crops (e.g., 3141:Trans-Atlantic slave trade 2529:of Tassili n’Ajjer, Proto- 2419:). Sudanese tumuli (e.g., 2368:) of West Africa, such as 1589:, possibly in the western 1472:(African groundnuts) were 931:speakers spanned from the 368: 364: 11016:10.1038/s41586-020-2859-7 10832:10.1163/9789004380189_003 10826:. Brill. pp. 25–45. 10404:Linseele, Veerle (2017). 10365:Legros, Baptiste (2016). 9656:10.1007/s00334-004-0039-6 9531:10.1017/S0033822200039424 9457:10.1007/s10437-012-9110-3 9128:"The Fulani/Fulbe People" 8602:Rightmire, G. P. (1975). 7976:10.3166/S13219-017-0199-4 7593:10.1163/21915784-20190005 7244:10.1017/S0003598X00113237 7102:"Ceramics in West Africa" 6982:10.1515/9783111562520-006 6844:Jeong, Choongwon (2020). 6592:10.1017/9781108634311.014 6299:10.1016/J.JAS.2014.07.025 5915:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6 5827:. Routledge. p. 66. 5309:Soukopova, Jitka (2020). 5102:10.1038/s41477-017-0098-1 4258:MacDonald, Kevin (1997). 3823:According to Anne Mayor, 3077:From Western Africa, the 3027:, which may originate in 2059:) and Nile Valley (e.g., 1390:grew in population size. 818:, Mauritania; Tiemassas, 626:) and the savanna (e.g., 46:prehistory of West Africa 18:Prehistory of West Africa 10534:Okoroafor, S.I. (2018). 9601:newphytologist.205.2.526 9397:10.1177/0959683612463102 9003:McIntosh, Susan (2001). 8372:Human Molecular Genetics 7822:. University of Chicago. 7636:Annals of Human Genetics 7374:10.1038/nplants.2016.194 6342:Quaternary International 5973:. In Breunig, P. (ed.). 5969:Eggert, Manfred (2014). 5833:10.4324/9780203036129-10 5674:Scarcelli, Nora (2019). 5413:Thiam, Mandiomé (2012). 4657:10.4324/9780203202913-11 4007:, Nilo-Saharan-speaking 3064:Central African Republic 2776:West African sites with 1733:Central African Republic 1683:since 7500 BP, amid the 1551:were also collected and 1366:, and the region (e.g., 969:West African populations 333:, akin to the migratory 10321:10.3213/1612-1651-10072 9755:Kubik, Gerhard (1994). 9706:Vicente, Mário (2020). 9209:Trabajos de Prehistoria 8980:Ancient Egypt in Africa 8812:10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2 8755:10.1002/ajpa.1330300510 8670:Mauny, Raymond (1975). 8608:American Anthropologist 6806:10.1126/science.aar8380 6217:2016E&PSL.434..298P 5458:LaGamma, Alisa (2020). 4870:10.3213/1612-1651-10171 3781:Canarium schweinfurthii 3638:sites are known in the 3603:" individuals occupied 3490:region of West Africa. 3469:Desertification of the 3037:Tutankhamun burial tomb 3031:, may have spread into 2101:that originated in the 1767:. West Africans (e.g., 1221:, pots) to contain and 11216:History of West Africa 11170:10.30861/9781407301785 11097:10.1126/sciadv.abq2616 10762:10.1179/eth.2010.2.1.5 10134:Smith, Andrew (2001). 10027:10.1098/rspb.2018.2288 7770:"Sudanic Civilization" 7630:Soares, Pedro (2013). 7100:Gijanto, Liza (2014). 6015:10.2307/j.ctv34kc6ng.5 5700:10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947 4810:10.2307/j.ctv34kc6ng.5 3999:-related populations ( 3735: 3466: 3079:Bantu-speaking peoples 3056:Bantu-speaking peoples 2792: 2717:) likely began in the 2336:. A characteristic of 2121:, located east of the 2115:Nilo-Saharan languages 1677:African cattle complex 1672: 1656: 1330:speakers, who wielded 1291: 1184:Bantu-speaking peoples 1159:, schistosomes (e.g., 1103:microlithic industries 1082:, resulting in modern 920: 866: 383: 296:Dioscorea praehensilis 139:, Mali – the earliest 102:Late Stone Age peoples 41: 10093:10.5195/JWSR.2004.286 9222:10.3989/TP.2016.12170 8798:Hassan, F.A. (2002). 8530:10.4103/ijh.ijh_20_19 5939:Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. 3775:as well as utilizing 3740:Senegambian megaliths 3733:Senegambian megaliths 3731: 3571:began to be created. 3456: 2991:West Sudanian savanna 2891:fragments and atop a 2835:regional boundary of 2833:West Sudanian savanna 2775: 2366:Senegambian megaliths 2245:, Niger Plateau, and 2153:city-states, and the 2088:West African cultures 2006:early dynastic period 1679:) had endured in the 1667: 1651: 1282: 971:that persisted along 915: 884:archaic human admixed 873:were dwelling in the 853: 787:West Sudanian savanna 378: 369:Further information: 361:, Oboui, and others. 33: 10744:Mayor, Anne (2010). 10701:10.4314/IJMA.V2I15.1 10553:10.4314/ijah.v7i2.11 9279:10.2307/j.ctv13pk6wz 7183:10.1162/afar_a_00515 6970:"Niger-Congo, Mande" 6915:10.3378/027.082.0402 5771:10.1155/2018/7314038 3618:region of southeast 3389:Round Head paintings 3125:polyrhythmic culture 3093:. Additionally, the 2603:) and plants (e.g., 2332:tumuli practices of 1896:Approximated to the 1524:-designed ceramics. 1428:In West Africa, the 1211:subsistence strategy 1126:helmeted guineafowls 987:haplogroup E1b1a-V38 608:West African monsoon 380:West African monsoon 98:Last Glacial Maximum 11089:2023SciA....9.2616B 11008:2020Natur.586..741C 9960:2016PLoSO..1164659A 9523:2004Radcb..46..117N 9389:2013Holoc..23..416G 8384:10.1093/hmg/ddab004 8082:10.1038/nature13997 8074:2015Natur.517..327G 8016:10.7554/eLife.15266 7291:2020PLoSO..1543129C 7114:2008ehst.book.....S 6797:2018Sci...360..548V 6732:10.1098/rsos.180543 6724:2018RSOS....580543M 6488:2021Natur.590..229B 6422:2017JArSR..11..639S 6354:2018QuInt.466....3C 6291:2014JArSc..50..359O 6165:2022JMaps..18..630C 5692:2019SciA....5.1947S 5609:10.1093/gbe/evab090 5225:2017JArEn.143...10S 4360:2020JArSR..34j2658N 3971:, and admixed with 3914:classical antiquity 3876:social organization 3748:ancestral reverence 3501:, large amounts of 3410:progenitors of the 3393:Sub-Saharan African 3330:Strait of Gibraltar 3237:Hanno the Navigator 3203:of West Africa and 3091:Southeastern Africa 3068:African Great Lakes 2987:coastal West Africa 2897:complexly organized 2727:Cenchrus americanus 2601:Helmeted guineafowl 2555:coastal West Africa 2507:began to appear in 2340:sometimes includes 2145:empire, built from 2086:In his analysis of 2045:funerary traditions 1951:. These megalithic 1922:West African script 1818:connection between 1689:Round Head painting 1570:region of northern 1486:West African forest 1358:, most abundant in 1205:speakers developed 1186:, into the rest of 1157:African Great Lakes 1099:coastal West Africa 1084:Mauritanian peoples 1033:Sub-Saharan African 973:coastal West Africa 886:or late-persisting 880:West African forest 854:Representations of 746:Iwo Eleru site and 585:Atakora mountainous 522:Atakora mountainous 428:Atakora mountainous 318:Cenchrus americanus 287:helmeted guineafowl 255:West African script 240:complexly organized 122:coastal West Africa 106:West African forest 35:Round Head rock art 11221:Prehistoric Africa 10021:(1895): 20182288. 9159:10.1007/BF01956304 9074:10.1007/BF01956304 8204:10.1002/ajpa.24001 4509:Scientific Reports 4276:10.1007/BF02968406 4112:"Wealth-in-people" 3897:) engaging in the 3871:, and sometimes – 3736: 3711:villages of Marghi 3671:speakers may have 3467: 3432:and production of 3178:was independently 3137:cultures of Africa 3083:Sub-Saharan Africa 3060:Sub-Saharan Africa 2900:pastoral societies 2837:Sub-Saharan Africa 2793: 2429:Senegambian tumuli 2374:Inland Niger Delta 2350:Inland Niger Delta 1824:Sub-Saharan Africa 1719:originated in the 1673: 1657: 1644:Pastoral Neolithic 1560:Holocene Wet Phase 1430:Holocene Wet Phase 1376:Pastoral Neolithic 1292: 1188:Sub-Saharan Africa 1138:Sub-Saharan Africa 1053:basal West African 921: 888:early modern human 867: 698:Middle Pleistocene 665:Pastoral Neolithic 606:In 15,000 BP, the 384: 243:pastoral societies 195:, Central Saharan 70:Middle Pleistocene 42: 10897:978-0-19-027773-4 10250:978-0-19-938465-5 10229:"Mande Languages" 10157:978-1-4615-1193-9 9722:978-91-513-0889-0 9584:10.1111/nph.13163 9026:978-0-306-46255-9 8989:978-1-84472-000-2 8964:978-0-8139-2084-9 8579:978-0-7141-0962-6 8378:(R1): R119–R128. 8347:978-0-85745-909-1 8314:978-90-756-5260-4 8068:(7534): 327–332. 7648:10.1111/ahg.12040 7493:978-90-756-5260-4 7131:978-94-007-3934-5 6867:978-981-15-1614-6 6791:(6388): 548–552. 6601:978-1-108-47408-5 6482:(7845): 229–237. 5521:978-3-031-35060-3 5046:Rock Art Research 4133:978-0-19-969774-8 3950:Elaeis guineensis 3777:Elaeis guineensis 3334:Iberian Peninsula 3295:early Islamic era 2968:Mandara Mountains 2962:and northwestern 2754:Yellow Nile River 2719:Inner Niger Delta 2092:Christopher Ehret 1969:Predynastic Egypt 1871:vigna unguiculata 1832:citrullus lanatus 1395:macrohaplogroup L 1296:pottery in Africa 1286:figure wearing a 1074:, and introduced 1025:radiocarbon dated 709:Lower Paleolithic 371:Climate of Africa 357:(Holl 2009), the 309:Inner Niger Delta 181:Round Head Period 141:pottery in Africa 112:occupied western 16:(Redirected from 11238: 11226:Stone Age Africa 11200: 11199: 11163: 11152: 11143: 11142: 11124: 11083:(13): eabq2616. 11077:Science Advances 11068: 11062: 11061: 11043: 10987: 10981: 10980: 10924: 10918: 10917: 10871: 10862: 10861: 10815: 10809: 10808: 10796: 10790: 10789: 10750:Ethnoarchaeology 10741: 10730: 10729: 10703: 10679: 10673: 10672: 10654: 10645: 10630: 10629: 10596:"Western Africa" 10591: 10582: 10581: 10555: 10531: 10525: 10524: 10500: 10494: 10493: 10457: 10448: 10447: 10401: 10395: 10394: 10362: 10341: 10340: 10300: 10271: 10270: 10224: 10218: 10217: 10187: 10178: 10177: 10131: 10122: 10121: 10095: 10071: 10065: 10064: 10046: 10006: 10000: 9999: 9981: 9971: 9954:(10): e0164659. 9939: 9933: 9932: 9884: 9871: 9870: 9818: 9807: 9806: 9752: 9743: 9742: 9714: 9703: 9692: 9691: 9635: 9629: 9628: 9586: 9562: 9551: 9550: 9508: 9499: 9493: 9492: 9451:(2–3): 253–271. 9436: 9425: 9424: 9368: 9362: 9361: 9323: 9317: 9316: 9262: 9251: 9250: 9224: 9200: 9187: 9186: 9138: 9132: 9131: 9123: 9110: 9109: 9053: 9047: 9046: 9000: 8994: 8993: 8975: 8969: 8968: 8948: 8942: 8941: 8907: 8842: 8841: 8795: 8784: 8783: 8757: 8733: 8722: 8721: 8667: 8658: 8657: 8623: 8599: 8584: 8583: 8565: 8559: 8558: 8532: 8508: 8495: 8494: 8476: 8436: 8430: 8429: 8411: 8363: 8352: 8351: 8333: 8327: 8326: 8296: 8290: 8289: 8255: 8246: 8240: 8239: 8183: 8170: 8169: 8141: 8128: 8127: 8109: 8053: 8047: 8046: 8028: 8018: 7994: 7988: 7987: 7970:(1–2): 102–106. 7961: 7952: 7946: 7945: 7897: 7888: 7887: 7835: 7824: 7823: 7815: 7804: 7803: 7765: 7754: 7753: 7701: 7684: 7683: 7627: 7621: 7620: 7570: 7559: 7558: 7512: 7506: 7505: 7475: 7469: 7468: 7448: 7442: 7441: 7421: 7412: 7411: 7385: 7353: 7347: 7346: 7328: 7302: 7285:(12): e0243129. 7270: 7264: 7263: 7238:(301): 589–591. 7223: 7212: 7211: 7185: 7161: 7152: 7151: 7097: 7091: 7090: 7082: 7076: 7075: 7057: 7040:(1): 1177–1191. 7025: 7012: 7011: 6965: 6959: 6958: 6894: 6888: 6887: 6841: 6835: 6834: 6808: 6776: 6770: 6769: 6751: 6703: 6694: 6693: 6675: 6635: 6614: 6613: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6538: 6532: 6531: 6473: 6464: 6458: 6457: 6407: 6398: 6392: 6391: 6365: 6333: 6327: 6326: 6270: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6196: 6187: 6186: 6176: 6144: 6105: 6104: 6078: 6054: 6045: 6044: 5998: 5989: 5988: 5966: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5936: 5927: 5926: 5898: 5881: 5880: 5872: 5863: 5862: 5816: 5810: 5809: 5791: 5773: 5749: 5738: 5737: 5719: 5680:Science Advances 5671: 5648: 5647: 5629: 5611: 5587: 5568: 5567: 5543: 5534: 5533: 5495: 5478: 5477: 5455: 5446: 5445: 5419: 5410: 5393: 5392: 5364: 5340: 5327: 5326: 5306: 5293: 5292: 5272: 5261: 5260: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5155: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5113: 5081: 5070: 5069: 5037: 5026: 5025: 4995: 4986: 4985: 4977: 4960: 4959: 4913: 4898: 4897: 4849: 4840: 4839: 4793: 4782: 4781: 4743: 4728: 4727: 4709: 4698: 4687: 4686: 4640: 4559: 4558: 4540: 4500: 4467: 4466: 4416: 4407: 4396: 4395: 4339: 4312: 4311: 4255: 4210: 4209: 4163: 4154: 4153: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4070: 4032:Rop rock shelter 3667:. Subsequently, 3661:Oryza glaberrima 3457:An example of a 3441:continued their 3284:Northeast Africa 3282:immigrants from 3119:speakers (e.g., 3100:ceramic type of 2778:archaeobotanical 2744:Before 5500 BP, 2714:Oryza glaberrima 2707:(e.g., northern 2649:Fertile Crescent 2565:, used to paint 2527:painted rock art 2386:Sudanian savanna 2271:kingdom of Kerma 2235:Hoggar Mountains 2209:Valley regions, 2157:founders of the 1999:Ancient Egyptian 1883:ricinus communis 1848:King Tutankhamun 1816:material culture 1725:northwest forest 1600:, canoes (e.g., 1228:Digitaria exilis 1198:) is uncertain. 1120:speakers (e.g., 1023:, who have been 945:Late Pleistocene 795:Late Pleistocene 756:Middle Stone Age 740: 731: 719:Middle Stone Age 597:Middle Stone Age 563:Middle Stone Age 534:Middle Stone Age 515:Middle Stone Age 469:Middle Stone Age 450:Middle Stone Age 440:Middle Stone Age 406:Middle Stone Age 331:agriculturalists 311:region of Mali, 305:oryza glaberrima 197:hunter-gatherers 177:Kel Essuf Period 92:(71,000 BP) and 82:Iwo Eleru people 78:Middle Stone Age 21: 11246: 11245: 11241: 11240: 11239: 11237: 11236: 11235: 11206: 11205: 11204: 11203: 11180: 11161: 11153: 11146: 11069: 11065: 10988: 10984: 10925: 10921: 10898: 10872: 10865: 10842: 10816: 10812: 10797: 10793: 10742: 10733: 10694:(15): 404–405. 10680: 10676: 10652: 10646: 10633: 10610: 10592: 10585: 10532: 10528: 10501: 10497: 10458: 10451: 10428: 10402: 10398: 10363: 10344: 10301: 10274: 10251: 10225: 10221: 10206: 10188: 10181: 10158: 10132: 10125: 10072: 10068: 10007: 10003: 9940: 9936: 9885: 9874: 9843: 9833:10.2307/3559333 9819: 9810: 9779: 9753: 9746: 9723: 9712: 9704: 9695: 9636: 9632: 9571:New Phytologist 9563: 9554: 9506: 9500: 9496: 9437: 9428: 9369: 9365: 9342: 9324: 9320: 9289: 9263: 9254: 9201: 9190: 9139: 9135: 9124: 9113: 9054: 9050: 9027: 9001: 8997: 8990: 8976: 8972: 8965: 8949: 8945: 8930: 8908: 8845: 8822: 8796: 8787: 8734: 8725: 8694: 8684:10.2307/1869016 8668: 8661: 8600: 8587: 8580: 8566: 8562: 8509: 8498: 8437: 8433: 8364: 8355: 8348: 8334: 8330: 8315: 8297: 8293: 8253: 8247: 8243: 8184: 8173: 8158: 8142: 8131: 8054: 8050: 7995: 7991: 7959: 7953: 7949: 7906:L'Anthropologie 7898: 7891: 7860: 7850:10.2307/3559333 7836: 7827: 7816: 7807: 7784: 7766: 7757: 7726: 7716:10.2307/3559333 7702: 7687: 7628: 7624: 7571: 7562: 7539: 7513: 7509: 7494: 7476: 7472: 7449: 7445: 7422: 7415: 7354: 7350: 7271: 7267: 7224: 7215: 7162: 7155: 7132: 7098: 7094: 7083: 7079: 7026: 7015: 6992: 6966: 6962: 6895: 6891: 6868: 6842: 6838: 6777: 6773: 6704: 6697: 6636: 6617: 6602: 6576: 6572: 6557: 6539: 6535: 6471: 6465: 6461: 6405: 6399: 6395: 6334: 6330: 6271: 6234: 6197: 6190: 6153:Journal of Maps 6145: 6108: 6055: 6048: 6025: 5999: 5992: 5985: 5967: 5960: 5950: 5948: 5937: 5930: 5899: 5884: 5873: 5866: 5843: 5817: 5813: 5750: 5741: 5686:(5): eaaw1947. 5672: 5651: 5588: 5571: 5544: 5537: 5522: 5496: 5481: 5474: 5456: 5449: 5417: 5411: 5396: 5373: 5341: 5330: 5307: 5296: 5273: 5264: 5205: 5201: 5164:(22): 309–310. 5153: 5147: 5143: 5082: 5073: 5038: 5029: 5014: 4996: 4989: 4978: 4963: 4940: 4914: 4901: 4850: 4843: 4820: 4794: 4785: 4762: 4744: 4731: 4707: 4699: 4690: 4667: 4641: 4562: 4501: 4470: 4414: 4408: 4399: 4340: 4315: 4256: 4213: 4190: 4164: 4157: 4134: 4108: 4104: 4089: 4071: 4064: 4059: 4028:agriculturalist 4022:In 1990 BP, a " 3930: 3865:iron metallurgy 3649: 3636:Iron metallurgy 3622:in what is now 3361:Tassili n'Ajjer 3328:), through the 3239:) is that, via 3193: 3153:popular culture 3121:Bantu expansion 3095:Eastern African 2850:Later Stone Age 2784:diffusion into 2770: 2697:D. praehensilis 2635:and became the 2591:As a result of 2535:Tassili n’Ajjer 2501: 2469:Durbi Takusheyi 2456:C-Group culture 2448:A-Group culture 2338:divine kingship 2183:proto cosmogony 2174:Bamiléké people 2141:, the medieval 2099:sacral kingship 1993:and the Middle 1842:, found in the 1781:Southern Europe 1685:Pastoral period 1670:Pastoral period 1662: 1646: 1638:bows and arrows 1558:Amid the early 1494: 1466:black-eyed peas 1419:southern Europe 1360:Tassili n'Ajjer 1332:bows and arrows 1192:Southern Africa 1150:Southern Africa 1134:Bantu expansion 1094:inheriting it. 1076:haplogroup L2a1 1010:Gambian peoples 910: 848: 843: 841:Later Stone Age 835:Iwo Eleru skull 816:Baie du Levrier 810:and the Sahel, 789:, West African 753: 752: 751: 750: 748:Iwo Eleru skull 743: 742: 741: 733: 732: 721: 687: 685:Early Stone Age 667: 643:Later Stone Age 601:Later Stone Age 593:Early Stone Age 567:Later Stone Age 559:Early Stone Age 546: 544:Later Stone Age 538:Later Stone Age 530:Early Stone Age 473:Later Stone Age 465:Early Stone Age 452: 444:Later Stone Age 436:Early Stone Age 410:Later Stone Age 402:Early Stone Age 389: 387:Early Stone Age 373: 367: 347:Iron metallurgy 185:Pastoral Period 171:and shepherded 145:bows and arrows 80:peoples (e.g., 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11244: 11234: 11233: 11228: 11223: 11218: 11202: 11201: 11178: 11144: 11063: 10982: 10939:(3): 163–177. 10919: 10896: 10863: 10840: 10810: 10791: 10731: 10674: 10631: 10608: 10583: 10526: 10495: 10468:(2): 357–368. 10449: 10426: 10396: 10342: 10315:(2): 212–213. 10272: 10249: 10219: 10204: 10179: 10156: 10123: 10086:(3): 737–738. 10066: 10001: 9934: 9899:(4): 654–663. 9872: 9841: 9808: 9777: 9769:10.2307/768111 9757:"Introduction" 9744: 9721: 9693: 9650:(4): 213–217. 9630: 9577:(2): 526–532. 9552: 9517:(1): 117–122. 9494: 9426: 9363: 9340: 9318: 9287: 9252: 9188: 9133: 9111: 9068:(2): 111–145. 9048: 9025: 8995: 8988: 8970: 8963: 8943: 8928: 8843: 8820: 8785: 8723: 8692: 8659: 8585: 8578: 8560: 8496: 8451:(3): 553–561. 8431: 8353: 8346: 8328: 8313: 8291: 8241: 8198:(3): 496–508. 8171: 8156: 8129: 8048: 7989: 7947: 7912:(3): 345–361. 7889: 7858: 7825: 7805: 7782: 7755: 7724: 7685: 7642:(6): 513–523. 7622: 7560: 7537: 7507: 7492: 7470: 7443: 7413: 7348: 7265: 7213: 7153: 7130: 7092: 7077: 7013: 6990: 6960: 6909:(4): 367–384. 6889: 6866: 6836: 6771: 6695: 6650:(4): 547–556. 6615: 6600: 6570: 6555: 6533: 6459: 6393: 6328: 6232: 6188: 6106: 6069:(3): 531–543. 6046: 6033:j.ctv34kc6ng.5 6023: 5990: 5983: 5958: 5928: 5909:(4): 415–438. 5882: 5864: 5841: 5811: 5739: 5649: 5569: 5546:Hales, Kevin. 5535: 5520: 5479: 5473:978-1588396877 5472: 5447: 5394: 5371: 5355:(2): 373–377. 5328: 5294: 5262: 5199: 5141: 5071: 5027: 5012: 4987: 4961: 4938: 4899: 4841: 4828:j.ctv34kc6ng.5 4818: 4783: 4760: 4729: 4688: 4665: 4560: 4468: 4397: 4313: 4270:(3): 192–196. 4211: 4188: 4155: 4132: 4102: 4087: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4055: 3993:Bantu-speakers 3929: 3926: 3891:North Africans 3801:forest-savanna 3771:production of 3648: 3645: 3553:coastal region 3551:region to the 3488:forest-savanna 3434:polished stone 3340:, of southern 3326:Central Africa 3299:ancient Israel 3266:From 4500 BP, 3245:Gulf of Guinea 3241:maritime trade 3192: 3189: 3112:ceramic type. 2929:Senegal Valley 2905:Tilemsi Valley 2769: 2766: 2647:. Akin to the 2500: 2497: 2302:Central Africa 2243:Ennedi Plateau 1943:, tumuli with 1926:Ikom monoliths 1910:Karkarichinkat 1900:, there were " 1661: 1658: 1645: 1642: 1581:, in 9000 BP, 1493: 1490: 1476:, followed by 1417:, mostly into 1336:Epipaleolithic 1260:, Niger/Chad; 1256:region (e.g., 1225:grains (e.g., 1207:pyrotechnology 1196:Central Africa 1165:S. haematobium 1142:Central Africa 1062:In 15,000 BP, 1057:Iberomaurusian 909: 906: 893:Central Africa 847: 844: 842: 839: 831:archaic humans 745: 744: 735: 734: 726: 725: 724: 723: 722: 720: 717: 694:archaic humans 686: 683: 666: 663: 647:Early Iron Age 614:and began the 595:, through the 561:, through the 545: 542: 532:, through the 467:, through the 451: 448: 438:, through the 404:, through the 388: 385: 366: 363: 327:forest-savanna 259:Ikom monoliths 114:Central Africa 72:). During the 66:archaic humans 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11243: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11213: 11211: 11197: 11193: 11189: 11185: 11181: 11179:9781407301785 11175: 11171: 11167: 11160: 11159: 11151: 11149: 11140: 11136: 11132: 11128: 11123: 11118: 11114: 11110: 11106: 11102: 11098: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11082: 11078: 11074: 11067: 11059: 11055: 11051: 11047: 11042: 11037: 11033: 11029: 11025: 11021: 11017: 11013: 11009: 11005: 11002:(7831): 747. 11001: 10997: 10993: 10986: 10978: 10974: 10970: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10942: 10938: 10934: 10930: 10923: 10915: 10911: 10907: 10903: 10899: 10893: 10889: 10885: 10881: 10877: 10870: 10868: 10859: 10855: 10851: 10847: 10843: 10841:9789004380189 10837: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10821: 10814: 10806: 10803:(in French). 10802: 10795: 10787: 10783: 10779: 10775: 10771: 10767: 10763: 10759: 10755: 10751: 10747: 10740: 10738: 10736: 10727: 10723: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10707: 10702: 10697: 10693: 10689: 10685: 10678: 10670: 10666: 10662: 10658: 10651: 10644: 10642: 10640: 10638: 10636: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10615: 10611: 10609:9780313324888 10605: 10601: 10597: 10590: 10588: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10554: 10549: 10545: 10541: 10537: 10530: 10522: 10518: 10514: 10510: 10506: 10499: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10467: 10463: 10456: 10454: 10445: 10441: 10437: 10433: 10429: 10427:9780199686476 10423: 10419: 10415: 10411: 10407: 10400: 10392: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10376: 10372: 10368: 10361: 10359: 10357: 10355: 10353: 10351: 10349: 10347: 10338: 10334: 10330: 10326: 10322: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10306: 10299: 10297: 10295: 10293: 10291: 10289: 10287: 10285: 10283: 10281: 10279: 10277: 10268: 10264: 10260: 10256: 10252: 10246: 10242: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10223: 10215: 10211: 10207: 10205:9781443845793 10201: 10197: 10193: 10186: 10184: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10137: 10130: 10128: 10119: 10115: 10111: 10107: 10103: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10085: 10081: 10077: 10070: 10062: 10058: 10054: 10050: 10045: 10040: 10036: 10032: 10028: 10024: 10020: 10016: 10012: 10005: 9997: 9993: 9989: 9985: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9961: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9938: 9930: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9914: 9910: 9906: 9902: 9898: 9894: 9890: 9883: 9881: 9879: 9877: 9868: 9864: 9860: 9856: 9852: 9848: 9844: 9842:9780813920856 9838: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9825: 9817: 9815: 9813: 9804: 9800: 9796: 9792: 9788: 9784: 9780: 9778:9780226456911 9774: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9751: 9749: 9740: 9736: 9732: 9728: 9724: 9718: 9711: 9710: 9702: 9700: 9698: 9689: 9685: 9681: 9677: 9673: 9669: 9665: 9661: 9657: 9653: 9649: 9645: 9641: 9634: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9590: 9585: 9580: 9576: 9572: 9568: 9561: 9559: 9557: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9536: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9505: 9498: 9490: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9462: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9446: 9442: 9435: 9433: 9431: 9422: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9406: 9402: 9398: 9394: 9390: 9386: 9382: 9378: 9374: 9367: 9359: 9355: 9351: 9347: 9343: 9341:9781407312972 9337: 9333: 9329: 9322: 9314: 9310: 9306: 9302: 9298: 9294: 9290: 9288:9781789254914 9284: 9280: 9276: 9272: 9268: 9261: 9259: 9257: 9248: 9244: 9240: 9236: 9232: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9214: 9210: 9206: 9199: 9197: 9195: 9193: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9144: 9137: 9129: 9122: 9120: 9118: 9116: 9107: 9103: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9079: 9075: 9071: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9052: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9028: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9006: 8999: 8991: 8985: 8981: 8974: 8966: 8960: 8956: 8955: 8947: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8929:9780964995864 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8906: 8904: 8902: 8900: 8898: 8896: 8894: 8892: 8890: 8888: 8886: 8884: 8882: 8880: 8878: 8876: 8874: 8872: 8870: 8868: 8866: 8864: 8862: 8860: 8858: 8856: 8854: 8852: 8850: 8848: 8839: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8821:0-306-46755-0 8817: 8813: 8809: 8805: 8801: 8794: 8792: 8790: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8765: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8732: 8730: 8728: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8677: 8673: 8666: 8664: 8655: 8651: 8647: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8631: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8613: 8609: 8605: 8598: 8596: 8594: 8592: 8590: 8581: 8575: 8571: 8564: 8556: 8552: 8548: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8507: 8505: 8503: 8501: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8435: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8362: 8360: 8358: 8349: 8343: 8339: 8332: 8324: 8320: 8316: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8295: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8252: 8245: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8225: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8182: 8180: 8178: 8176: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8157:9781443845793 8153: 8149: 8148: 8140: 8138: 8136: 8134: 8125: 8121: 8117: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8052: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8008: 8004: 8000: 7993: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7958: 7951: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7923: 7919: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7903: 7896: 7894: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7859:9780813920856 7855: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7842: 7834: 7832: 7830: 7821: 7814: 7812: 7810: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7783:9781566398329 7779: 7775: 7771: 7764: 7762: 7760: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7727: 7725:9780813920856 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7708: 7700: 7698: 7696: 7694: 7692: 7690: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7626: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7581: 7576: 7569: 7567: 7565: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7538:9780199675616 7534: 7530: 7526: 7522: 7518: 7511: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7447: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7420: 7418: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7384: 7383:11380/1121484 7379: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7362:Nature Plants 7359: 7352: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7269: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7222: 7220: 7218: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7160: 7158: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7133: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7096: 7088: 7081: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7024: 7022: 7020: 7018: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6991:9783111562520 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6964: 6956: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6903:Human Biology 6900: 6893: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6775: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6718:(8): 180543. 6717: 6713: 6709: 6702: 6700: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6634: 6632: 6630: 6628: 6626: 6624: 6622: 6620: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6574: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6556:9789785435160 6552: 6548: 6544: 6537: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6470: 6463: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6404: 6397: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6332: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6269: 6267: 6265: 6263: 6261: 6259: 6257: 6255: 6253: 6251: 6249: 6247: 6245: 6243: 6241: 6239: 6237: 6227: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6195: 6193: 6184: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6137: 6135: 6133: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6125: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6115: 6113: 6111: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6053: 6051: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6024:9780691244105 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5997: 5995: 5986: 5984:9783937248462 5980: 5976: 5972: 5965: 5963: 5946: 5942: 5935: 5933: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5897: 5895: 5893: 5891: 5889: 5887: 5878: 5871: 5869: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5842:9781134919567 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5660: 5658: 5656: 5654: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5586: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5576: 5574: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5542: 5540: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5494: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5486: 5484: 5475: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5454: 5452: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5416: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5372:9781588396877 5368: 5363: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5305: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5152: 5145: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5090:Nature Plants 5087: 5080: 5078: 5076: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5013:9781000432121 5009: 5005: 5001: 4994: 4992: 4983: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4939:9780190854584 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4912: 4910: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4846: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4819:9780691244105 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4761:9781118970591 4757: 4753: 4749: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4706: 4705: 4697: 4695: 4693: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4666:9780203202913 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4413: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4338: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4189:9780190277734 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4160: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4088:9781443845793 4084: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4067: 4062: 4054: 4052: 4051:cowrie shells 4048: 4044: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4020: 4018: 4015:and northern 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3979:. In 710 CE, 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3925: 3923: 3922:Carthaginians 3919: 3915: 3911: 3910:West Africans 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3885: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3829:aridification 3826: 3821: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3697: 3692: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3669:West Atlantic 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3651:In 1500 BCE, 3644: 3641: 3637: 3634:(Holl 2009). 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3597: 3595: 3591: 3586: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3561: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3448: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3424: 3420: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3402: 3398: 3397:Djenne-Djenno 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3349:Mande peoples 3345: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3314: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3303:West Africans 3300: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3253:Incense Route 3250: 3249:Mediterranean 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3188: 3186: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3168:Aïr Mountains 3164: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3102:Lake Victoria 3099: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3041:ancient Egypt 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3009: 3005: 3001: 3000:Bosumpra Cave 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2765: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2665:domestication 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2641:domesticating 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2621: 2618: 2617:domestication 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2593:aridification 2589: 2587: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2496: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2417:Mande peoples 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2334:ancient Ghana 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2263:Jebel Uweinat 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2037:architectural 2034: 2031:as the “last 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2017:architectural 2014: 2011: 2010:Meroitic Kush 2007: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1989: 1985: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1965:ancient Egypt 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1861: 1858:, found in a 1857: 1853: 1852:cajanus cajan 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1820:ancient Egypt 1817: 1812: 1810: 1807:(52.1%), and 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1671: 1666: 1654: 1650: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1522:pointillistic 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1384:Yoruba people 1380: 1377: 1373: 1372:Barbary sheep 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1352:Jebel Uweinat 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1289: 1288:Barbary sheep 1285: 1281: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1209:and employed 1208: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1182: 1178: 1177:Yoruba people 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1072:Senegal River 1069: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1013: 1011: 1008:, along with 1007: 1002: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 983: 981: 978: 977:Libyco-Berber 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 949:Niger-Saharan 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 927:speakers and 926: 919:in 12,000 BCE 918: 914: 905: 902: 898: 894: 889: 885: 881: 876: 872: 865: 861: 857: 852: 838: 836: 832: 827: 825: 824:Senegal River 821: 817: 813: 809: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 775: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 749: 739: 730: 716: 714: 710: 706: 701: 699: 695: 691: 682: 680: 676: 672: 662: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 639: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 604: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 555: 551: 541: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 518: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 487: 485: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 461: 457: 447: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 424: 422: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 398: 394: 381: 377: 372: 362: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 319: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 297: 292: 288: 284: 283:domestication 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 241: 237: 233: 229: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 189:aridification 186: 182: 178: 174: 173:Barbary sheep 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 125: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 40: 39:Barbary sheep 36: 32: 19: 11157: 11080: 11076: 11066: 10999: 10995: 10985: 10936: 10932: 10922: 10879: 10823: 10813: 10804: 10800: 10794: 10753: 10749: 10691: 10687: 10677: 10663:(1): 36–37. 10660: 10656: 10599: 10546:(2): 84–93. 10543: 10539: 10529: 10507:(15): 1–25. 10504: 10498: 10465: 10461: 10409: 10399: 10374: 10370: 10312: 10308: 10232: 10222: 10195: 10139: 10083: 10079: 10069: 10018: 10014: 10004: 9951: 9947: 9937: 9896: 9892: 9823: 9760: 9708: 9647: 9643: 9633: 9574: 9570: 9514: 9510: 9497: 9448: 9444: 9380: 9377:The Holocene 9376: 9366: 9331: 9321: 9297:j.ctv13pk6wz 9270: 9212: 9208: 9153:(1): 23–33. 9150: 9146: 9136: 9065: 9061: 9051: 9008: 8998: 8979: 8973: 8953: 8946: 8919: 8915: 8803: 8745: 8741: 8675: 8614:(1): 28–52. 8611: 8607: 8569: 8563: 8523:(1): 23–29. 8520: 8516: 8448: 8444: 8434: 8375: 8371: 8337: 8331: 8304: 8294: 8261: 8257: 8244: 8195: 8191: 8146: 8065: 8061: 8051: 8006: 8002: 7992: 7967: 7963: 7950: 7909: 7905: 7840: 7773: 7706: 7639: 7635: 7625: 7587:(1): 76–94. 7584: 7578: 7520: 7517:"The Sahara" 7510: 7483: 7473: 7456: 7446: 7429: 7365: 7361: 7351: 7282: 7278: 7268: 7235: 7231: 7173: 7170:African Arts 7169: 7105: 7095: 7080: 7037: 7033: 6973: 6963: 6906: 6902: 6892: 6849: 6839: 6788: 6784: 6774: 6715: 6711: 6647: 6643: 6583: 6573: 6546: 6536: 6479: 6475: 6462: 6413: 6409: 6396: 6345: 6341: 6331: 6282: 6278: 6208: 6204: 6156: 6152: 6066: 6062: 6006: 5974: 5949:. Retrieved 5945:Academia.edu 5944: 5906: 5902: 5876: 5824: 5814: 5761: 5757: 5683: 5679: 5599: 5595: 5503: 5463: 5425: 5421: 5352: 5348: 5314: 5280: 5216: 5212: 5202: 5161: 5157: 5144: 5111:11567/979083 5093: 5089: 5049: 5045: 5042:"RAR Review" 5003: 4921: 4861: 4857: 4801: 4751: 4703: 4648: 4512: 4508: 4422: 4418: 4351: 4347: 4267: 4263: 4171: 4115: 4105: 4078: 4040: 4021: 4001:Nilo-Saharan 3997:East African 3989:Berom people 3981:West African 3977:Berom people 3957:Nilo-Saharan 3954: 3943: 3931: 3888: 3880: 3873:hierarchical 3837:Dhar Tichitt 3822: 3769:agricultural 3752: 3737: 3723:Jigawa State 3707:Bauchi State 3693: 3673:domesticated 3660: 3657:African rice 3650: 3613: 3598: 3587: 3573:Rockshelters 3569:Burkina Faso 3562: 3495:pearl millet 3492: 3471:Green Sahara 3468: 3416: 3404:civilization 3385:Dhar Tichitt 3353:civilization 3346: 3344:) occurred. 3315: 3288: 3274:speakers in 3272:Nilo-Saharan 3265: 3257:North Africa 3251:, along the 3194: 3165: 3114: 3076: 3072:South Africa 3053: 3033:North Africa 3023: 3019:Senegambians 3012: 2980: 2948:Nilo-Saharan 2937: 2913:transhumance 2846:pearl millet 2825:domesticated 2821:pearl millet 2797:Green Sahara 2794: 2782:pearl millet 2760:), into the 2752:, along the 2743: 2726: 2712: 2703:and western 2696: 2685:pearl millet 2629:Green Sahara 2622: 2609:African rice 2605:Pearl millet 2597:Green Sahara 2590: 2552: 2524: 2503:By 6300 BP, 2502: 2485:Burkina Faso 2461:Hausa people 2413:Sosse people 2409:Serer people 2405:Wolof people 2275: 2193:and savanna 2188: 2163: 2085: 2041:resurrection 1988:West African 1938: 1915: 1895: 1891:Pre-Dynastic 1860:12th Dynasty 1813: 1777:North Africa 1714: 1710: 1706:domesticated 1674: 1602:Dufuna canoe 1595: 1576: 1557: 1553:domesticated 1545:castor beans 1529:Nilo-Saharan 1526: 1498:Green Sahara 1495: 1474:domesticated 1427: 1411:North Africa 1392: 1381: 1293: 1290:-styled mask 1233:pearl millet 1226: 1200: 1154: 1130:domesticated 1111: 1096: 1080:North Africa 1061: 1014: 1006:Mende people 1003: 984: 957:North Africa 939:, after the 925:Nilo-Saharan 922: 868: 828: 776: 754: 702: 688: 668: 651:pearl millet 640: 636:North Africa 616:Green Sahara 605: 582: 550:Falémé River 547: 519: 488: 456:Falémé River 453: 425: 393:Falémé River 390: 316: 313:pearl millet 294: 193:Green Sahara 175:. After the 169:domesticated 126: 96:(29,000 BP, 45: 43: 9511:Radiocarbon 8748:: 151–194. 6416:: 639–646. 6285:: 359–368. 6211:: 298–307. 6093:10004759980 5951:12 December 5602:(evab090). 5283:: 116–120. 4425:: 405–428. 3985:Niger-Congo 3973:Niger-Congo 3969:West Africa 3965:East Africa 3907:Sub-Saharan 3861:agriculture 3789:pastoralism 3719:Birnin Kudu 3715:Borno State 3699:West Africa 3696:Sub-Saharan 3679:, near the 3665:Niger River 3640:Nok culture 3565:petroglyphs 3558:subsistence 3476:agriculture 3438:pastoralism 3426:West Africa 3423:Sub-Saharan 3412:Bozo people 3401:egalitarian 3391:and modern 3381:ritualistic 3332:, into the 3322:West Africa 3311:West Africa 3289:During the 3280:Afroasiatic 3276:West Africa 3268:Niger-Congo 3227:, into the 3221:Elmenteitan 3213:chimpanzees 3185:Nile Valley 3117:Niger-Congo 3045:Pleistocene 3029:West Africa 3025:Watermelons 2952:Afroasiatic 2944:Niger-Congo 2933:Jos Plateau 2917:pastoralism 2869:West Africa 2866:Sub-Saharan 2864:created in 2841:agriculture 2801:Niger River 2789:West Africa 2786:sub-Saharan 2750:West Africa 2746:Kordofanian 2671:in Africa. 2669:agriculture 2661:West Africa 2657:Niger River 2623:During the 2575:pictographs 2544:pastoralist 2450:of ancient 2382:Nile Valley 2324:culture of 2298:West Africa 2259:Niger River 2237:, southern 2205:and Middle 2127:Benue River 2111:West Africa 2103:Middle Nile 2051:, northern 1906:West Africa 1889:, found in 1887:castor bean 1879:5th Dynasty 1828:West Africa 1749:E1b1a1-U175 1745:E1b1a1-L485 1717:sickle cell 1702:Nile Valley 1698:Niger Delta 1655:in 5000 BCE 1606:Niger-Congo 1587:Igbo people 1564:Asselar man 1541:watermelons 1496:During the 1462:raffia palm 1446:agriculture 1442:Niger-Congo 1388:Esan people 1328:Niger-Congo 1316:Nabta Playa 1312:Bir Kiseiba 1203:Niger-Congo 1146:East Africa 1118:Niger-Congo 1064:Niger-Congo 933:Nile Valley 929:Niger-Congo 901:Bingerville 897:West Africa 692:tool-using 589:Pleistocene 575:Pleistocene 571:East Africa 526:Pleistocene 495:Pleistocene 491:Jos Plateau 481:Pleistocene 477:East Africa 432:Pleistocene 418:Pleistocene 414:East Africa 359:Nok culture 279:West Africa 247:West Africa 228:West Africa 225:Sub-Saharan 223:created in 205:Niger River 199:and cattle 133:Niger-Congo 127:During the 84:, possibly 74:Pleistocene 64:tool-using 54:West Africa 11210:Categories 11113:9819554112 11032:8691160009 10969:8512530440 10906:1013546425 10850:1041204346 10166:1256699813 10035:8005228830 9921:8635835414 9680:5659397444 9609:5711282323 9481:5659238881 9413:9536619776 9383:(3): 416. 9305:1236250756 9239:7179753558 9215:(2): 222. 9175:7128530168 9098:5655045351 8938:1343909954 8772:5152094223 8693:0521215927 8646:5549127284 8547:8663256900 8465:8022398015 8400:9356325126 8323:1091181355 8220:8531048875 8098:9018039409 8009:: e15266. 7934:5130630043 7664:6998015647 7609:8197143305 7502:1091181355 7457:Expression 7430:Expression 7392:6915697539 7317:9530421458 7252:1156688873 7200:8515828212 7140:1111738181 7000:1039697513 6876:1182512815 6815:9579960874 6740:7856278064 6664:8158698745 6512:8911705938 6446:6919828990 6380:8017132446 6315:5900680643 6041:1330712064 5780:8754386965 5708:8291779404 5618:9123485061 5530:1395910241 5428:: 13–121. 5381:1111945095 5315:Expression 5281:Expression 5249:7044514678 5186:1201160646 5120:1187338100 5052:(1): 109. 5022:1261367188 4948:1312757953 4864:(2): 223. 4836:1330712064 4529:8878081728 4447:7824108813 4384:8709222767 4354:: 102658. 4300:5547019636 4198:1013546425 4057:References 4005:Ethiopians 4003:-speaking 3987:-speaking 3975:-speaking 3895:Garamantes 3841:Mauritania 3833:Niger Bend 3825:migrations 3814:encounters 3812:and their 3797:metallurgy 3590:Terracotta 3307:head louse 3291:Copper Age 3217:statuettes 3170:region of 2877:Senegambia 2805:Chad Basin 2762:Nuba Hills 2758:Wadi Howar 2735:Mauritania 2721:region of 2659:region of 2586:metallurgy 2437:Senegambia 2398:megalithic 2390:Senegambia 2380:, and the 2370:Senegambia 2320:, and the 2267:Gilf Kebir 2247:Wadi Howar 2227:Mauritania 2219:Bronze Age 2217:and early 2123:Lake Tchad 2107:Niger Bend 1945:megalithic 1893:contexts. 1856:pigeon pea 1840:watermelon 1773:Mauritania 1723:or in the 1700:, and the 1518:fish hooks 1344:Round Head 1340:Mesolithic 1284:Round Head 1241:creativity 1169:Nile River 1161:S. mansoni 862:region of 793:). In the 587:zone, the 524:zone, the 493:zone, the 430:zone, the 339:encounters 337:and their 236:Senegambia 209:Chad Basin 11196:129143321 11188:213478595 11139:257834341 11105:2375-2548 11058:226039427 11024:0028-0836 10977:129163416 10953:0093-4690 10914:159184437 10858:201331821 10786:128409342 10778:664696189 10770:1944-2890 10756:(1): 20. 10726:236340668 10718:794897415 10710:1737-8176 10669:111030419 10626:127693175 10578:158336846 10570:830041004 10562:2227-5452 10521:164834951 10490:561101013 10474:0018-2540 10444:134346912 10436:951645070 10383:1022-3282 10337:162363559 10267:240363385 10259:964555101 10214:826685273 10174:127574765 10118:147397386 10102:1076-156X 10061:104296971 9929:220076390 9913:0164-0291 9867:130341334 9859:318419921 9803:128578932 9739:215413163 9731:1651-6214 9688:129058509 9664:0939-6314 9593:0028-646X 9539:307792537 9489:162290540 9465:0263-0338 9421:128776387 9405:0959-6836 9358:133443175 9350:890935192 9313:244880238 9231:0082-5638 9183:128003222 9167:0813-0426 9106:162196033 9082:0263-0338 9043:127349726 9035:852789668 8922:: 49–67. 8838:126608903 8764:0002-9483 8718:143521252 8710:828737806 8654:162607361 8630:0002-7294 8555:216082225 8539:2072-8069 8426:231640941 8392:0964-6906 8286:250636445 8278:2735-4164 8236:210192706 8212:0002-9483 8166:826685273 8090:0028-0836 7984:202851961 7964:Lavoisier 7942:129102995 7926:0003-5521 7884:130341334 7876:318419921 7800:160513624 7750:130341334 7742:318419921 7656:0003-4800 7617:198731047 7601:2191-5784 7555:164464991 7547:944462988 7465:2499-1341 7438:2499-1341 7432:: 68-71. 7368:: 16194. 7343:228088701 7309:1932-6203 7260:129493039 7232:Antiquity 7208:210872397 7192:0001-9933 7176:: 66–75. 7148:160716376 7072:221383467 7034:Virulence 7008:133735359 6939:706674857 6923:0018-7143 6884:226555687 6831:206666517 6610:197854997 6565:986792367 6528:231883210 6504:0028-0836 6438:2352-409X 6388:134069175 6372:1040-6182 6323:128794167 6307:0305-4403 6183:247914897 6101:261858183 6085:0263-0338 5923:161611760 5859:126989016 5851:252799202 5734:155124324 5644:234783117 5564:135240385 5556:961832645 5442:160637192 5434:884501689 5389:233887452 5323:2499-1341 5317:: 79-90. 5289:2499-1341 5257:132225521 5241:0140-1963 5219:: 10–14. 5194:249349324 5178:2530-8327 5096:(2): 73. 5066:809603634 5058:0813-0426 4956:225392406 4894:162209490 4878:2191-5784 4778:160957067 4770:890071926 4724:130112115 4716:500051500 4683:163304839 4675:815644445 4555:231583475 4515:(1): 70. 4439:1527-8204 4392:228826414 4376:2352-409X 4308:161691927 4284:0263-0338 4206:133758803 4150:127485241 4142:855890703 4097:826685273 3946:Shum Laka 3941:peoples. 3884:Pharaonic 3681:Casamance 3677:mangroves 3484:livestock 3459:microlith 3447:gathering 3243:from the 3229:Near East 3151:forms of 2909:Ounjougou 2873:fertility 2862:statuette 2653:Near East 2557:refugia, 2513:Lake Chad 2487:, and at 2401:monuments 2354:harnesses 2251:Lake Chad 2215:Neolithic 2033:pharaonic 1997:regions. 1981:monarchic 1967:. During 1953:monuments 1898:Neolithic 1811:(80.8%). 1694:Lake Chad 1630:resources 1510:Tenerians 1482:kola nuts 1470:voandzeia 1454:Dioscorea 1413:and into 1320:Takarkori 1264:, Niger; 1245:fertility 1215:Ounjougou 1181:migratory 1116:, Sudan, 1107:Shum Laka 1017:Taforalts 980:epigraphy 953:Mechtoids 858:from the 826:Valley). 760:Ounjougou 713:spheroids 705:Ounjougou 690:Acheulean 659:Lake Chad 632:shrubland 628:grassland 599:, to the 565:, to the 536:, to the 471:, to the 442:, to the 408:, to the 307:) in the 232:fertility 221:statuette 137:Ounjougou 118:Shum Laka 62:Acheulean 11131:36989356 11122:10058250 11050:33116287 10961:24408518 10807:: 58–67. 10618:58527114 10513:43855009 10482:41857018 10391:25651555 10329:43135404 10110:30416027 10053:30963949 9996:14033603 9988:27741281 9948:PLOS ONE 9795:32124730 9672:23419585 9625:17329916 9617:25358433 9547:55779486 9473:23321047 9247:54009832 9090:25130590 8830:51874863 8780:85930326 8491:73503158 8483:30827499 8418:33461216 8228:31930493 8116:25470054 8035:27324836 7792:44493265 7680:24672148 7672:25069842 7408:28162195 7400:27991880 7335:33296412 7279:PLOS ONE 7064:32862777 6955:27594333 6947:21082907 6931:41466688 6823:29545507 6766:52289534 6758:30225046 6682:29526279 6520:33568824 6348:: 3–22. 6159:(4): 4. 5806:54463512 5798:30539018 5764:: 1–12. 5726:31114806 5636:34009300 5128:29379157 4886:43135518 4547:33431997 4463:19155657 4455:29727585 4292:25130625 4017:Cameroon 4009:Chadians 3939:Haratine 3869:commerce 3764:Sahelian 3691:rivers. 3624:Igboland 3605:Kintampo 3596:, Mali. 3583:rock art 3511:Kintampo 3503:oil palm 3480:Kintampo 3463:Kintampo 3373:Akreijit 3338:Portugal 3324:or West- 3049:Holocene 3015:Sudanese 3004:palm oil 2972:Cameroon 2940:Holocene 2925:foraging 2854:Thiaroye 2829:Sahelian 2809:funerary 2625:Holocene 2520:ceramics 2446:and the 2360:king of 2322:Nobadian 2310:al-Bakrī 2203:Sahelian 2181:share a 2179:Bamiléké 2168:and the 2166:Pharaohs 2161:empire. 2025:Sahelian 2013:pyramids 2002:pyramids 1961:pyramids 1957:mastabas 1729:Cameroon 1634:seacoast 1610:Atlantic 1596:By 8000 1579:Holocene 1514:harpoons 1508:and the 1506:Kiffians 1458:Oil palm 1438:Cameroon 1114:Kordofan 1068:Sahelian 1029:Natufian 961:Holocene 947:, Proto- 822:; Lower 812:Aterians 657:area of 624:wetlands 271:savannas 213:Thiaroye 165:antelope 129:Holocene 86:Aterians 50:Iron Age 11085:Bibcode 11041:7759466 11004:Bibcode 10377:: 1–6. 10044:6364581 9979:5065229 9956:Bibcode 9851:3559333 9787:2844378 9519:Bibcode 9385:Bibcode 8702:1869016 8474:6407493 8409:8117455 8124:4463627 8107:4297536 8070:Bibcode 8043:6885967 8026:4915815 7868:3559333 7734:3559333 7326:7725507 7287:Bibcode 7110:Bibcode 7055:7549983 6793:Bibcode 6785:Science 6749:6124094 6720:Bibcode 6690:4636822 6673:5985360 6484:Bibcode 6454:4768764 6418:Bibcode 6350:Bibcode 6287:Bibcode 6213:Bibcode 6161:Bibcode 5789:6258102 5717:6527260 5688:Bibcode 5627:8214406 5422:Antropo 5221:Bibcode 5136:3302383 4538:7801626 4356:Bibcode 4036:Nigeria 4024:Negroid 4013:Nigeria 3963:, from 3912:during 3899:chariot 3893:(e.g., 3857:herding 3853:hunting 3849:fishing 3785:pottery 3760:savanna 3742:(e.g., 3620:Nigeria 3601:Negroid 3578:cupules 3524:savanna 3443:hunting 3430:pottery 3419:Saharan 3365:Algeria 3357:Tichitt 3320:(e.g., 3231:(e.g., 3205:savanna 3197:savanna 3180:smelted 3166:In the 3155:(e.g., 3149:Western 3127:(e.g., 3087:Kalundu 3062:(e.g., 2983:forests 2976:Nigeria 2921:hunting 2893:tumulus 2889:ceramic 2817:ceramic 2813:pottery 2705:Nigeria 2681:sorghum 2651:of the 2595:of the 2583:Malinke 2579:Kangaba 2571:jewelry 2567:pottery 2517:Saharan 2509:Konduga 2505:pottery 2493:Nigeria 2477:Makuria 2473:Ballana 2465:kandake 2425:C-Group 2358:Malinke 2344:(e.g., 2326:Ballana 2294:Nobadia 2282:Makuria 2239:Algeria 2231:Red Sea 2229:to the 2223:pottery 2199:Saharan 2195:herders 2191:farmers 2172:of the 2159:Wagadou 2155:Soninké 2143:Songhay 2139:Nigeria 2096:Sudanic 2061:Ballana 2053:Nigeria 2029:Nobadia 2021:Sudanic 2004:of the 1934:Nigeria 1918:Nsibidi 1902:Negroid 1803:(73%), 1801:Lebanon 1799:(80%), 1741:Senegal 1583:Khoisan 1568:Saharan 1533:sorghum 1448:(e.g., 1434:Senegal 1421:(e.g., 1407:L3d1b1a 1399:L1b1a11 1397:(e.g., 1364:Nigeria 1356:Tadrart 1308:Tadrart 1237:ceramic 1219:pottery 1190:(e.g., 1171:. From 1140:(e.g., 1092:Tunisia 1088:Berbers 1035:(e.g., 1021:Morocco 993:, from 941:Aterian 937:Maghreb 935:to the 875:forests 860:Dahomey 820:Senegal 803:coastal 675:drought 653:in the 583:In the 578:climate 554:stadial 548:In the 520:In the 489:In the 484:climate 460:stadial 454:In the 426:In the 421:climate 397:stadial 391:In the 365:Climate 323:cowpeas 275:forests 267:Nigeria 251:Nsibidi 201:herders 191:of the 157:Tadrart 116:(e.g., 11194: 11186: 11176: 11137: 11129: 11119: 11111: 11103: 11056: 11048: 11038: 11030: 11022: 10996:Nature 10975: 10967: 10959: 10951: 10912: 10904: 10894: 10856: 10848: 10838: 10784: 10776: 10768: 10724: 10716: 10708: 10667: 10624: 10616: 10606: 10576: 10568: 10560: 10519: 10511: 10488: 10480: 10472: 10442: 10434: 10424: 10389: 10381: 10335: 10327: 10265: 10257: 10247: 10212: 10202: 10172: 10164: 10154: 10116: 10108: 10100: 10059: 10051: 10041: 10033: 9994: 9986: 9976: 9927: 9919: 9911: 9865: 9857: 9849: 9839: 9801: 9793: 9785: 9775: 9737: 9729: 9719: 9686: 9678: 9670: 9662: 9623: 9615: 9607: 9599: 9591: 9545: 9537: 9487: 9479: 9471: 9463: 9419: 9411: 9403: 9356: 9348: 9338: 9311: 9303: 9295: 9285: 9245: 9237: 9229: 9181: 9173: 9165: 9104: 9096: 9088: 9080: 9041: 9033: 9023: 8986: 8961: 8936: 8926: 8836: 8828: 8818: 8778: 8770: 8762: 8716: 8708: 8700: 8690: 8652: 8644: 8638:674067 8636: 8628: 8576: 8553: 8545: 8537: 8489: 8481: 8471: 8463: 8424: 8416: 8406: 8398: 8390: 8344: 8321: 8311: 8284: 8276: 8234: 8226: 8218: 8210: 8164: 8154: 8122: 8114: 8104: 8096: 8088: 8062:Nature 8041: 8033: 8023: 7982: 7940: 7932: 7924: 7882: 7874: 7866: 7856: 7798: 7790: 7780: 7748: 7740: 7732: 7722: 7678: 7670: 7662: 7654: 7615: 7607: 7599: 7553: 7545: 7535: 7500: 7490: 7463: 7459:: 69. 7436: 7406: 7398: 7390: 7341: 7333: 7323: 7315: 7307: 7258: 7250: 7206: 7198: 7190: 7146: 7138: 7128: 7089:. 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