66:
539:
220:
503:, Daboya) provide an example of group contact in 3500 BP, as evidenced by Punpun microlithic industries that appear in close proximity to Saharan projectile points, beads, stone innovations (e.g., stone arm rings, small stone axes), and livestock. Rather than Saharan pastoralists and agropastoralists replacing West African hunter-gatherers, there apparently was a merger of groups, as at Kintampo, there was evidence of adaptation to the subsistence conditions of the
430:, was developed by West African hunter-gatherers, which may have developed as a result of interaction with populations from lake areas to the northeast. With the increased use of grinded stones, and thus, cultural development of utilizing vegetation for food, this resulted in a decreased use of stone projectiles, and thus, decreased hunting cultural practices. By 700 CE, along with Niani having been established, Korounkorokale was embedded within the Kingdom of
611:. After interaction began, some West African hunter-gatherers may have acquired knowledge of pottery and polished stone production, which then spread further southward onto other West African hunter-gatherers, while others may have acquired knowledge of pastoralism. Continued interaction may have resulted in further acculturation (e.g., loss of West African hunter-gatherer languages).
499:(4000 BP – 3500 BP) resulted in the migration of Saharan pastoralists and agropastoralists south of the Sahelian region. Consequently, seasonal interaction likely occurred between Saharan pastoralists and agropastoralists and West African hunter-gatherers, who also practiced basic agriculture via vegetable cultivation. Sites in Ghana (e.g., Ntereso,
307:
Central Africa, to western
Central Africa, into West Africa. Between 16,000 BP and 12,000 BP, Late Stone Age West Africans began dwelling in the eastern and central forested regions (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria; between 18,000 BP and 13,000 BP at Temet West and Asokrochona in the southern region of Ghana, 13,050 ± 230 BP at
620:
Nigeria, had quartz microliths dated to 950 ± 30 BP. After having persisted as late as the end of first millennium CE, or 1000 BP, many of the remaining West
African hunter-gatherers were likely ultimately acculturated and admixed into larger groups of West African agriculturalists, akin to the migratory
846:
is hypothesized to have originated in a homeland of Bantu-speaking peoples located around western
Cameroon, a part of which Shum Laka is viewed as being of importance in the early period of this expansion. By 3000 BP, the Bantu expansion is hypothesized to have already begun. Yet, the sampled ancient
581:
West
African agriculturalists likely formed mutual relations with the West African hunter-gatherers. As a result of these relations, West African hunter-gatherers likely provided West African agriculturalists with oil-rich and Vitamin A-rich nuts as part of their local food source. Additionally, West
311:
in the southern region of Ivory Coast, 11,200 ± 200 BP at Iwo Eleru in
Nigeria) of West Africa. By 11,000 BP, the late settlement made by Middle Stone Age West Africans and earliest settlement made by Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers emerged in the westernmost region (e.g., Falémé Valley,
306:
Iwo Eleru fossils of the late Middle Stone Age), who dwelled in
Central Africa, western Central Africa, and West Africa, were displaced by microlith-using Late Stone Age Africans (e.g., non-archaic human admixed Late Stone Age Shum Laka fossils dated between 7000 BP and 3000 BP) as they migrated from
530:
and West
African hunter-gatherers of Punpun were migratory peoples, who settled at the sites seasonally for various reasons (e.g., oil palm production); this is evidenced by the varied way in which flora are situated at the rockshelters. West African hunter-gatherers may have migrated southward near
450:
may have been adopted by some West
African hunter-gatherers. As West African hunter-gatherers of the Middle Niger became increasingly acculturated and eventually admixed into more numerous, surrounding southward migrating Saharan occupants, some West African hunter-gatherers, further south, may have
614:
Isolated groups of West
African hunter-gatherers may have continually dwelled throughout the region of the Pays Mande mountains after the development of metallurgy. West African hunter-gatherers may have even adopted, culturally adapted metallurgical practices, while still maintaining their ancient
258:
region of West Africa (e.g., Tiemassas, Senegal). More specifically, by at least 61,000 BP, Middle Stone Age West
Africans may have begun to migrate south of the West Sudanian savanna, and, by at least 25,000 BP, may have begun to dwell near the coast of West Africa. Amid aridification in MIS 5 and
112:, 12,000 BP at Mbi Crater). Between 16,000 BP and 12,000 BP, Late Stone Age West Africans began dwelling in the eastern and central forested regions (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria; between 18,000 BP and 13,000 BP at Temet West and Asokrochona in the southern region of Ghana, 13,050 ± 230 BP at
282:
are presumed to have admixed with one another, resulting in the development of the Iwo Eleru people (e.g., Iwo Eleru skull), who may have remained isolated in West Africa, and thus distinct from both contemporaneous Africans in the Sahara and from any other African populations amid the transitory
441:
By 4000 BP, interaction between Saharan occupants and Sub-Saharan West African hunter-gatherers increased as Saharan occupants increasingly migrated southward into Sub-Saharan West Africa. As desertification was underway, West African hunter-gatherers of the Middle Niger were likely the first to
619:
region, has been found throughout West Africa as late as the end of first millennium CE. Kamabai Shelter, in Sierra Leone, had quartz microliths dated to 1190 ± 95 BP. In Mali, quartz microliths were dated to 1430 ± 80 BP in Nyamanko and dated to 1020 ± 105 BP in Korounkorokale. Kariya Wuro, in
598:
regions of West Africa. The expansion of West African hunter-gatherers north, toward the Sahelian region of the Middle Niger, led to interaction with populations from further north. Prior to initial encounter with migrating populations from further north, West African hunter-gatherers may have
104:(e.g., non-archaic human admixed Late Stone Age Shum Laka fossils dated between 7000 BP and 3000 BP) as they migrated from Central Africa, to western Central Africa, into West Africa. Earlier than 32,000 BP, or by 30,000 BP, Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers were dwelling in the
383:. Amid the tenth millennium BCE, microlith-using West Africans migrated into and dwelt in Ounjougou alongside earlier residing West Africans in Ounjougou. Among two existing cultural areas, earlier residing West Africans in Ounjougou were of a cultural area encompassing the
294:, 12,000 BP at Mbi Crater). An excessively dry Ogolian period occurred, spanning from 20,000 BP to 12,000 BP. By 15,000 BP, the number of settlements made by Middle Stone Age West Africans decreased due to the increasingly humid conditions, expansion of the West African
479:
boundary, which may indicate that it served as a type of natural environmental barricade to their greatly mobile hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Increased use of ceramics among West African hunter-gatherers also occurred, as evidenced by ceramics dated to 5370 ± 100 BP in
589:
With exception to some parts of West Africa (e.g., Ntereso, Kintampo), prior to late first millennium BCE, West African hunter-gatherers, who were the most widely spread cultural group of socially organized populations, were likely the only group to populate the
155:, West African hunter-gatherers likely dwelt in more open areas of West Africa. Migration of Saharan peoples south of the Sahelian region resulted in seasonal interaction and gradual absorption of West African hunter-gatherers, who primarily dwelt in the
459:
and/or basic vegetable cultivation cultures. Eventually, even these socially organized West African hunter-gatherers, were likely acculturated and admixed into the more numerous, surrounding West Africans from the Sahara.
838:
than to the ancient Shum Laka foragers. Modern Cameroonian hunter-gatherers, while partly descended, are not largely descended from the Shum Laka foragers, due to the apparent absence of descent from Basal West Africans.
312:
Senegal) of West Africa. Middle Stone Age West Africans and Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers probably did not become admixed with one another and were culturally and ecologically distinct from one another.
780:– distributed among both modern West and Central African agriculturalists and hunter-gatherers. One earlier Shum Laka forager was of haplogroup B and one later Shum Laka forager haplogroup B2b, which, together, as
1555:
484:, Ghana and ceramics dated to 4180 ± 160 BP in Mbi Crater, Cameroon. While likely still maintaining their hunter-gatherer culture, West African hunter-gatherers may have increasingly utilized local flora (e.g.,
862:
are generally recognized as being the earliest divergent modern human group, having diverged from other groups around 250,000 BP - 200,000 BP, as a result of the sampling of the ancient Shum Laka foragers,
570:
region, and local crops (e.g., oil palm, yams), may have been introduced into what was usually farmed. Successful adaptation to the local ecology seems to have occurred, from the southern part of the
238:, and likely were not present in West Africa before MIS 5. Amid MIS 5, Middle Stone Age West Africans may have migrated across the West Sudanian savanna and continued to reside in the region (e.g.,
328:(e.g., quartz, sandstone). Amid the early period of the Holocene, West African hunter-gatherers may have had Sahelian stone industries, from Senegal to Niger, which derived either from a distinct
434:. West African hunter-gatherers and their ancient cultural traditions may have persisted shortly thereafter, as West African hunter-gatherers became fully acculturated, and
116:
in the southern region of Ivory Coast, 11,200 ± 200 BP at Iwo Eleru in Nigeria) of West Africa. West African hunter-gatherers resided at the Nigerian sites of Iwo Eleru and
1614:"New data on settlement and environment at the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa: Interdisciplinary investigation at Fatandi V, Eastern Senegal"
811:– or, an admixture composed of a modern western Central African hunter-gatherer component, a modern West African component, existing locally before 8000 BP, and a modern
299:
93:
851:
speakers are greatly distinct from the ancient Shum Laka foragers, thus, showing that the ancient Shum Laka foragers were not the ancestral source population for modern
674:). For the Dogon, even before the Tellem, there were groups (e.g., Yeban, Andoumboulou) that were even more ancient. Water-based economic (e.g., fishing) peoples (e.g.,
772:
The mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome haplogroups found in the ancient Shum Laka foragers were Sub-Saharan African haplogroups. Two earlier Shum Laka foragers were of
139:
regions were limited, as evidenced by West African hunter-gatherer microlithic cultural continuity. West African hunter-gatherers likely were the sole occupants of the
712:
of Ivory Coast), there is oral history of their ancestors encountering West African pygmies. Given the varying heights among modern West Africans who dwell within the
414:
refugia, West African hunter-gatherers arrived and began dwelling at Korounkorokale, in Pays Mande, Mali, where they engaged in hunting and fishing. By 4000 BCE, red
716:
region, this may indicate that admixing had occurred between West African pygmies and the southward migrating ancestors of modern West Africans incoming from the
298:, and greater the number of settlements made by Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers. Macrolith-using late Middle Stone Age peoples (e.g., the possibly
769:
foragers from the early period of the Stone to Metal Age, in 8000 BP, and two Shum Laka foragers from the late period of the Stone to Metal Age, in 3000 BP.
640:
According to early European literature of the 16th century CE, West African pygmies dwelled throughout West Africa (e.g., Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Liberia).
100:
Iwo Eleru fossils of the late Middle Stone Age), who dwelled in Central Africa, western Central Africa, and West Africa, were displaced by microlith-using
446:
production, which, subsequently, may have led to these cultural practices being further diffused unto other West African hunter-gatherers. Additionally,
830:
The two earlier Shum Laka foragers from 8000 BP and two later Shum Laka foragers from 3000 BP show 5000 years of population continuity in region. Yet,
167:. After having persisted as late as 1000 BP, or some period of time after 1500 CE, remaining West African hunter-gatherers, many of whom dwelt in the
212:), Toumboura, Senegal (33,000 BP), Laminia, Gambia (24,000 BP – 21,000 BP), Ndiayène Pendao, Senegal (11,600 BP), and Saxonomunya (11,000 BP), near
1728:"Persistence of Middle Stone Age technology to the Pleistocene/Holocene transition supports a complex hominin evolutionary scenario in West Africa"
1045:
566:(e.g., pearl millet) from the region of northern Africa. As a result, subsistence techniques were adapted to the natural environment of the
733:
2379:
682:), who are reputed to be one of the Niger River's first settlers, recognized that there were even earlier settled peoples – “red men.”
287:
105:
59:
558:
regions. After 4500 BP, desertification may have resulted in Saharan peoples migrating toward the south. The southern parts of the
38:
between 16,000 BP and 12,000 BP until as late as 1000 BP or some period of time after 1500 CE. West African hunter-gatherers are
2506:
65:
1969:
2005:
1232:
171:
region, were ultimately acculturated and admixed into larger groups of West African agriculturalists, akin to the migratory
615:
stone industrial traditions. Cultural continuity, via stone industries of isolated West African hunter-gatherers from the
442:
encounter southward migrating Saharan occupants. Increased interaction may have resulted in the adoption of pottery and
2511:
1926:
216:, Mali. There is also scant evidence of Middle Stone Age dwelling at Ounjougou, Mali between 191,000 BP – 130,000 BP.
2399:
2350:
2289:
1846:
1252:
1065:
859:
1834:
812:
2338:
864:
785:
1941:
685:
The oral history among numerous modern West Africans is that their ancestors were West African pygmies. Among the
463:
Amid the middle of the Holocene, West African hunter-gatherers continued to dwell along the rivers and within the
2491:
831:
816:
804:
355:, Mali. Prior to 9400 BCE, Niger-Congo speakers independently created and used matured ceramic technology (e.g.,
344:
371:); ethnographically and historically, West African women have been the creators of pottery in most West African
713:
694:
591:
571:
567:
559:
555:
532:
464:
404:
295:
251:
160:
144:
136:
616:
523:
504:
168:
1409:
698:
230:
Aside the scant evidence, Middle Stone Age West Africans likely dwelled continuously in West Africa between
1727:
1340:"The Middle Stone Age occupations of Tiémassas, coastal West Africa, between 62 and 25 thousand years ago"
1339:
303:
97:
2496:
376:
286:
Earlier than 32,000 BP, or by 30,000 BP, Late Stone Age West African hunter-gatherers were living in the
147:
regions of West Africa. Unlike Central African hunter-gatherers, who dwell in more secluded areas in the
324:, toward the north in West Africa (as far as Mali, Burkina Faso, and Mauritania), as evidenced by their
776:– broadly distributed throughout modern African populations – and two later Shum Laka foragers were of
2501:
47:
2268:
835:
550:
Various activities (e.g., production of local resources) occurred in partially settled areas of the
2516:
629:
180:
101:
120:, at the Ivorian site of Bingerville, at the Cameroonian site of Shum Laka, at the Malian site of
777:
608:
625:
176:
325:
208:), Tiemassas, Senegal (62,000 BP – 25,000 BP), Birimi, Ghana (50,000 BP – 20,000 BP), Missira (
1793:
2122:
1879:
717:
595:
551:
472:
239:
156:
148:
140:
132:
1949:
1739:
1625:
1489:
1351:
971:
781:
737:
348:
773:
8:
2427:"Korounkorokalé revisited: The Pays Mande and the West African microlithic technocomplex"
2426:
1946:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
749:
583:
456:
329:
39:
2380:"Archaeology, language and the peopling of West Africa: a consideration of the evidence"
1953:
1743:
1629:
1493:
1426:
1355:
1046:"Forest Peoples: Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast): History of to 1800"
975:
803:
The autosomal admixture of the four ancient Shum Laka forager children was ~35% Western
471:. West African hunter-gatherer stone industries had little presence to the north of the
2470:
2454:
2413:
2319:
2303:
2223:
2166:
2150:
2043:
1983:
1907:
1899:
1860:
1810:
1771:
1677:
1664:
1613:
1591:
1556:"Ounjougou (Mali): A history of Holocene settlement at the southern edge of the Sahara"
1529:
1455:
1383:
1266:
1208:
1195:
1162:
1079:
1021:
1008:
959:
808:
320:
Between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP, West African hunter-gatherers then likely migrated from
268:
522:) and undomesticated flora were availed in rockshelters (e.g., B-sites, K6), near the
2474:
2462:
2446:
2417:
2405:
2395:
2356:
2346:
2323:
2311:
2295:
2285:
2215:
2207:
2170:
2158:
2142:
2047:
2035:
2027:
1987:
1975:
1965:
1961:
1911:
1864:
1852:
1842:
1814:
1802:
1763:
1755:
1681:
1669:
1651:
1643:
1595:
1583:
1575:
1533:
1521:
1513:
1505:
1477:
1447:
1439:
1431:
1387:
1375:
1367:
1270:
1258:
1248:
1212:
1200:
1182:
1083:
1071:
1061:
1025:
1013:
995:
987:
644:
604:
562:
region, near Kintampo, may have been unfit for the subsistence techniques of farming
201:
1459:
563:
2438:
2387:
2277:
2227:
2197:
2134:
2017:
1957:
1891:
1775:
1747:
1659:
1633:
1567:
1497:
1421:
1359:
1240:
1190:
1174:
1053:
1003:
979:
847:
Shum Laka foragers – two from 8000 BP and two from 3000 BP – show that most modern
745:
729:
527:
500:
364:
247:
117:
89:
80:
Prior to West African hunter-gatherers, there may have been various peoples (e.g.,
655:
1751:
1638:
1363:
843:
575:
468:
435:
411:
321:
255:
224:
81:
55:
127:
Prior to the Holocene era, interaction between West Africans migrating from the
1501:
1178:
679:
659:
538:
443:
396:
279:
152:
31:
2466:
2202:
2185:
2162:
2039:
1979:
1767:
1655:
1587:
1571:
1517:
1443:
1379:
1186:
999:
983:
219:
2485:
2450:
2409:
2391:
2360:
2299:
2146:
2031:
1856:
1806:
1759:
1647:
1579:
1509:
1435:
1371:
1262:
1244:
1075:
1057:
991:
852:
797:
697:. Among the Malinke, West African pygmies were known as Komo Koudoumi. Among
621:
481:
384:
272:
172:
2315:
2211:
2138:
1895:
960:"Ancient West African foragers in the context of African population history"
526:, in the southern region of central Ghana. West African agriculturalists of
2219:
1673:
1525:
1451:
1204:
1017:
709:
705:
690:
667:
511:
496:
403:
and microlith-using West Africans were of a cultural area encompassing the
368:
2384:
Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses
867:
are shown to have likely diverged at a similar time, if not even earlier.
2022:
848:
686:
675:
447:
427:
340:
308:
213:
164:
113:
51:
35:
2458:
2154:
1903:
2442:
793:
375:
traditions and their production of ceramics is closely associated with
290:
of western Central Africa (e.g., earlier than 32,000 BP at de Maret in
108:
of western Central Africa (e.g., earlier than 32,000 BP at de Maret in
2307:
2270:
The Open Door Policy of Liberia: An Economic History of Modern Liberia
784:, is distributed among modern Central African hunter-gatherers (e.g.,
752:
from the original set(s) of languages spoken by West African pygmies.
650:
766:
543:
380:
352:
333:
291:
197:
121:
109:
689:, in Guinea, West African pygmies were known as the Doki. Among the
92:. Macrolith-using late Middle Stone Age peoples (e.g., the possibly
2281:
519:
485:
264:
250:, Middle Stone Age West Africans began to dwell along parts of the
85:
728:
West African hunter-gatherers may have spoken a set of presently
663:
452:
431:
423:
419:
372:
360:
356:
70:
2386:. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 39–40, 43–44, 48–49.
2083:
2081:
2079:
2077:
693:, West African pygmies were known as Kondrong, who lived in the
2241:
2239:
2237:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2006:"Bura Funerary Urns: Niger Terracottas: An Interpretive Limbo?"
824:
789:
671:
600:
515:
489:
400:
388:
260:
128:
2123:"Oil Palm and Prehistoric Subsistence in West Tropical Africa"
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
278:
In 35,000 BP, Middle Stone Age West Africans and West African
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1410:"Tales of Human Migration,Admixture, and Selection in Africa"
1302:
1300:
1237:
Bush Base, Forest Farm: Culture, Environment, and Development
916:
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
820:
741:
647:, they encountered West African pygmies known as the Tellem.
586:
knowledge and strategies from West African hunter-gatherers.
476:
415:
243:
235:
231:
209:
205:
74:
2234:
2054:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1280:
898:
896:
894:
892:
890:
888:
886:
884:
882:
880:
1948:. Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. pp. 1–6.
1090:
535:
region or scattered into smaller groups amid arid seasons.
50:, the peopling of various parts of Western Africa from the
1688:
819:
component likely from further north in the regions of the
69:
Representations of West African hunter-gatherers from the
1277:
1231:
Van Beek, Walter E.A.; Banga, Pieteke M. (Mar 11, 2002).
877:
392:
124:, and at the Senegalese sites of Fatandi and Toumboura.
200:, Mali (71,000 BP – 59,000 BP, 59,000 BP – 28,000 BP),
1163:"Continuity of the Middle Stone Age into the Holocene"
438:
metallurgy and pottery traditions became predominant.
599:
already engaged in basic agricultural production of
399:, Libya/Algeria; Tagalagal, Niger; Temet, Niger) of
267:
may have migrated southward into West Africa (e.g.,
2343:
The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality
1407:
670:had oral traditions of West African pygmies (e.g.,
651:
Oral Traditions About West African Hunter-Gatherers
196:Middle Stone Age West Africans may have dwelled at
2337:Diop, Cheikh Anta; Cook, Mercer (September 2012).
1408:Schlebusch, Carina M.; Jakobsson, Mattias (2018).
582:African agriculturalists may have acquired forest
2262:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2254:
88:) who continuously occupied West Africa amid the
62:of western Central Africa often goes overlooked.
2483:
1927:"Swiss archaeologist digs up West Africa's past"
1880:"Early Pottery in Northern Africa – An Overview"
1787:
1785:
2266:
2251:
643:In 1500 CE, when the Dogon people entered the
1792:Abd-El-Moniem, Hamdi Abbas Ahmed (May 2005).
1791:
1782:
1230:
765:Ancient DNA was able to be obtained from two
283:period between the Pleistocene and Holocene.
2345:. Chicago Review Press. p. Unnumbered.
1471:
1469:
1414:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
701:, West African pygmies were known as Jinna.
259:regional change of climate in MIS 4, in the
1607:
1605:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1052:. New York London: Routledge. p. 908.
1039:
1037:
1035:
2276:. Im Selbstverlag des Museums. p. I.
2196:(2). Cambridge University Press: 159–218.
1999:
1997:
1732:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
1344:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
1226:
1224:
1222:
2424:
2377:
2339:"Peopling of Africa from the Nile Valley"
2245:
2201:
2116:
2087:
2021:
1719:
1713:
1663:
1637:
1475:
1466:
1425:
1394:
1306:
1194:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1113:
1043:
1007:
953:
951:
949:
920:
546:projectile point, a very small stone tool
131:and West African hunter-gatherers of the
2336:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
1839:The Global Prehistory of Human Migration
1611:
1602:
1553:
1540:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1032:
947:
945:
943:
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
931:
929:
537:
271:, Mauritania; Tiemassas, Senegal; Lower
218:
64:
2190:Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae
2003:
1994:
1939:
1933:
1924:
1918:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1795:A New Recording Of Mauritanian Rock Art
1476:Bergström, Anders; et al. (2021).
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1219:
2484:
1725:
1612:Chevrier, Benoît; et al. (2020).
1160:
957:
44:West African Microlithic Technocomplex
34:earlier than 32,000 BP and dwelled in
2183:
2177:
2120:
2093:
1877:
1871:
1801:. University of London. p. 221.
1337:
1119:
926:
2330:
1832:
1821:
1554:Huysecom, Eric; et al. (2004).
1312:
2378:MacDonald, Kevin C. (Sep 2, 2003).
1925:Bradley, Simon (January 18, 2007).
1427:10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759
410:Following northward expansion from
13:
2121:Logan, Amanda (October 25, 2006).
1478:"Origins of modern human ancestry"
1338:Niang, Khady; et al. (2020).
1044:Fanthorpe, Richard (Jul 4, 2013).
958:Lipson, Mark; et al. (2020).
704:Among modern West Africans (e.g.,
46:. Despite its significance in the
14:
2528:
1835:"Sub-Saharan Africa: Linguistics"
860:Southern African hunter-gatherers
1962:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9856-1
1841:. Wiley Blackwell. p. 100.
865:Central African hunter-gatherers
630:Central African hunter-gatherers
181:Central African hunter-gatherers
2371:
1833:Ness, Immanuel (Nov 10, 2014).
1050:Encyclopedia of African History
805:Central African hunter-gatherer
622:Bantu-speaking agriculturalists
173:Bantu-speaking agriculturalists
2267:Van Der Kraaij, F.P.M (1983).
2127:Journal of African Archaeology
1884:Journal of African Archaeology
1161:Scerri, Eleanor M. L. (2021).
755:
738:northeastern region of Nigeria
191:
1:
2507:Archaeology of Western Africa
2431:African Archaeological Review
1726:Scerri, Eleanor M.L. (2017).
870:
524:Guinean forest-savanna mosaic
336:stone tradition of Cameroon.
332:stone tradition, or from the
186:
20:West African hunter-gatherers
1752:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.01.003
1639:10.1371/journal.pone.0243129
1364:10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102658
834:are more closely related to
723:
405:forest region of West Africa
339:In the 10th millennium BCE,
7:
1233:"The Dogon and their trees"
760:
315:
10:
2533:
2184:Gates, R. Ruggles (1958).
2004:Gilbert, Michelle (2020).
1878:Jesse, Friederike (2010).
1502:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5
1179:10.1038/s41598-020-79418-4
832:modern peoples of Cameroon
635:
510:Domesticated crops (e.g.,
2512:Ancient peoples of Africa
2425:MacDonald, Kevin (1997).
2203:10.1017/s1120962300019466
1942:"Ceramics in West Africa"
1572:10.1017/S0003598X00113237
1239:. Routledge. p. 66.
984:10.1038/s41586-020-1929-1
48:prehistory of West Africa
2392:10.4324/9780203202913-11
1245:10.4324/9780203036129-10
1058:10.4324/9780203483862-10
2139:10.3213/1612-1651-10072
1896:10.3213/1612-1651-10171
609:Canarium schweinfurthii
507:region of West Africa.
495:Desertification of the
359:, pots) to contain and
102:Late Stone Age Africans
2492:History of West Africa
1940:Gijanto, Liza (2014).
853:Bantu-speaking peoples
734:West African languages
547:
326:microlithic industries
227:
77:
2186:"The African Pygmies"
603:as well as utilizing
541:
473:West Sudanian savanna
300:archaic human admixed
240:West Sudanian savanna
222:
94:archaic human admixed
68:
24:West African foragers
2023:10.1162/afar_a_00515
836:modern West Africans
349:subsistence strategy
58:West Africa and the
42:associated with the
28:West African pygmies
1954:2008ehst.book.....S
1744:2017JArSR..11..639S
1630:2020PLoSO..1543129C
1494:2021Natur.590..229B
1356:2020JArSR..34j2658N
976:2020Natur.577..665L
750:descendant language
518:, large amounts of
469:coastal West Africa
412:coastal West Africa
343:speakers developed
330:Sub-Saharan African
322:coastal West Africa
302:or late-persisting
223:Iwo Eleru site and
96:or late-persisting
30:dwelled in western
2497:Prehistoric Africa
2443:10.1007/BF02968406
2248:, p. 193–194.
2090:, p. 195–196.
1167:Scientific Reports
1116:, p. 192–193.
809:Basal West African
778:haplogroup L1c2a1b
748:, may have been a
699:peoples in Liberia
564:domesticated crops
548:
304:early modern human
228:
98:early modern human
78:
1971:978-94-007-3934-5
970:(7792): 665–669.
782:macrohaplogroup B
774:haplogroup L0a2a1
708:of Sierra Leone,
645:Bandiagara Cliffs
605:Elaeis guineensis
16:Stone age peoples
2524:
2502:Stone Age Africa
2478:
2421:
2365:
2364:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2275:
2264:
2249:
2243:
2232:
2231:
2205:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2118:
2091:
2085:
2052:
2051:
2025:
2001:
1992:
1991:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1830:
1819:
1818:
1800:
1789:
1780:
1779:
1723:
1717:
1716:, p. 48–49.
1711:
1686:
1685:
1667:
1641:
1624:(12): e0243129.
1609:
1600:
1599:
1566:(301): 589–591.
1551:
1538:
1537:
1473:
1464:
1463:
1429:
1405:
1392:
1391:
1335:
1310:
1309:, p. 39–40.
1304:
1275:
1274:
1228:
1217:
1216:
1198:
1158:
1117:
1111:
1088:
1087:
1041:
1030:
1029:
1011:
955:
924:
923:, p. 43–44.
918:
746:language isolate
578:of West Africa.
451:continued their
418:, used to paint
397:Acacus Mountains
365:Digitaria exilis
248:Late Pleistocene
204:, Senegal (Late
90:Middle Stone Age
82:Iwo Eleru people
40:archaeologically
2532:
2531:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2517:African Pygmies
2482:
2481:
2402:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2353:
2335:
2331:
2292:
2273:
2265:
2252:
2244:
2235:
2182:
2178:
2119:
2094:
2086:
2055:
2002:
1995:
1972:
1938:
1934:
1923:
1919:
1876:
1872:
1849:
1831:
1822:
1798:
1790:
1783:
1724:
1720:
1712:
1689:
1610:
1603:
1552:
1541:
1474:
1467:
1406:
1395:
1336:
1313:
1305:
1278:
1255:
1229:
1220:
1159:
1120:
1112:
1091:
1068:
1042:
1033:
956:
927:
919:
878:
873:
844:Bantu expansion
763:
758:
726:
653:
638:
318:
269:Baie du Levrier
263:and the Sahel,
242:, West African
225:Iwo Eleru skull
194:
189:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2530:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2480:
2479:
2437:(3): 192–196.
2422:
2400:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2351:
2329:
2290:
2282:10.2307/219159
2250:
2246:MacDonald 1997
2233:
2176:
2133:(2): 212–213.
2092:
2088:MacDonald 1997
2053:
1993:
1970:
1932:
1917:
1870:
1847:
1820:
1781:
1718:
1714:MacDonald 2003
1687:
1601:
1539:
1465:
1393:
1311:
1307:MacDonald 2003
1276:
1253:
1218:
1118:
1114:MacDonald 1997
1089:
1066:
1031:
925:
921:MacDonald 2003
875:
874:
872:
869:
762:
759:
757:
754:
725:
722:
666:) peoples and
652:
649:
637:
634:
617:forest-savanna
576:coastal region
574:region to the
505:forest-savanna
444:polished stone
391:, Niger/Chad;
387:region (e.g.,
363:grains (e.g.,
345:pyrotechnology
317:
314:
280:archaic humans
193:
190:
188:
185:
169:forest-savanna
153:Central Africa
32:Central Africa
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2529:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2401:9780203202913
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2376:
2375:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2352:9781613747360
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2291:9783882990409
2287:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2271:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2247:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1998:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1928:
1921:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1874:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1848:9781118970591
1844:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1796:
1788:
1786:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1683:
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1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
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1640:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1606:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1488:(7845): 232.
1487:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1470:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1254:9781134919567
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1115:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1067:9781135456696
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
954:
952:
950:
948:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
936:
934:
932:
930:
922:
917:
915:
913:
911:
909:
907:
905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
876:
868:
866:
861:
856:
854:
850:
845:
840:
837:
833:
828:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
801:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
770:
768:
753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
721:
719:
715:
711:
707:
702:
700:
696:
695:forest region
692:
688:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
648:
646:
641:
633:
631:
627:
623:
618:
612:
610:
606:
602:
597:
593:
587:
585:
579:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
545:
540:
536:
534:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
508:
506:
502:
498:
493:
491:
487:
483:
482:Bosumpra Cave
478:
474:
470:
466:
461:
458:
454:
449:
445:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
393:AĂŻr Mountains
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
347:and employed
346:
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
313:
310:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
284:
281:
276:
274:
273:Senegal River
270:
266:
262:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
226:
221:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
202:Faleme Valley
199:
184:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
76:
72:
67:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
2434:
2430:
2383:
2372:Bibliography
2342:
2332:
2269:
2193:
2189:
2179:
2130:
2126:
2013:
2010:African Arts
2009:
1945:
1935:
1920:
1887:
1883:
1873:
1838:
1794:
1735:
1731:
1721:
1621:
1617:
1563:
1559:
1485:
1481:
1417:
1413:
1347:
1343:
1236:
1170:
1166:
1049:
967:
963:
857:
841:
829:
817:West African
813:East African
802:
771:
764:
732:Sub-Saharan
727:
703:
684:
668:Dogon people
654:
642:
639:
613:
588:
580:
549:
512:pearl millet
509:
497:Green Sahara
494:
462:
440:
409:
369:pearl millet
338:
319:
285:
277:
229:
195:
126:
79:
43:
27:
23:
19:
18:
1738:: 639–646.
849:Niger-Congo
756:Ancient DNA
584:subsistence
448:pastoralism
428:pictographs
341:Niger-Congo
309:Bingerville
192:Pleistocene
165:West Africa
114:Bingerville
84:, possibly
54:regions of
52:Sub-Saharan
36:West Africa
2486:Categories
2467:5547019636
2163:5919327105
2040:8515828212
1980:1111738181
1890:(2): 223.
1768:6919828990
1656:9530421458
1588:8271919279
1518:8911705938
1444:7824108813
1380:8709222767
1350:: 102658.
1187:8878081728
1000:8545173694
871:References
626:encounters
624:and their
377:creativity
246:). In the
187:Prehistory
177:encounters
175:and their
73:region of
2475:161691927
2451:0263-0338
2418:163304839
2410:815644445
2361:815669913
2324:153916362
2300:0344-4317
2171:162363559
2147:1612-1651
2048:210872397
2032:0001-9933
2016:: 66–75.
1988:160716376
1912:162209490
1865:160957067
1857:890071926
1815:130112115
1807:500051500
1760:2352-409X
1682:228088701
1648:1932-6203
1596:129493039
1580:0003-598X
1560:Antiquity
1534:231883210
1510:0028-0836
1436:1527-8204
1388:228826414
1372:2352-409X
1271:126989016
1263:252799202
1213:231583475
1173:(1): 70.
1084:228146636
1076:858902731
1026:210862788
992:0028-0836
807:and ~65%
767:Shum Laka
736:. In the
724:Languages
544:microlith
457:gathering
395:, Niger;
381:fertility
353:Ounjougou
334:Shum Laka
292:Shum Laka
275:Valley).
198:Ounjougou
122:Ounjougou
110:Shum Laka
2459:25130625
2316:10894915
2220:13532425
2212:81552767
2155:43135404
1904:43135518
1674:33296412
1618:PLOS ONE
1526:33568824
1460:19155657
1452:29727585
1205:33431997
1018:31969706
761:Cameroon
720:region.
528:Kintampo
520:oil palm
501:Kintampo
486:palm oil
316:Holocene
265:Aterians
157:savannas
86:Aterians
2228:8199516
1950:Bibcode
1776:4768764
1740:Bibcode
1665:7725507
1626:Bibcode
1490:Bibcode
1420:: 407.
1352:Bibcode
1196:7801626
1009:8386425
972:Bibcode
730:extinct
718:savanna
680:Sorkawa
664:Malinke
660:Soninke
658:(e.g.,
636:History
596:savanna
552:savanna
465:forests
453:hunting
436:Malinke
432:Kangaba
424:jewelry
420:pottery
373:ceramic
357:pottery
288:forests
256:coastal
161:forests
149:forests
141:savanna
133:savanna
106:forests
71:Dahomey
60:forests
56:coastal
2473:
2465:
2457:
2449:
2416:
2408:
2398:
2359:
2349:
2322:
2314:
2308:219159
2306:
2298:
2288:
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