History of the Jews in Poland

5348: 8173: 53: 6340: 7236:" was stamped in their identity cards. Numerous restrictions and prohibitions targeting Jews were introduced and brutally enforced. For example, Jews were forbidden to walk on the sidewalks, use public transport, or enter places of leisure, sports arenas, theaters, museums and libraries. On the street, Jews had to lift their hat to passing Germans. By the end of 1941 all Jews in German-occupied Poland, except the children, had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David. Rabbis were humiliated in "spectacles organised by the German soldiers and police" who used their rifle butts "to make these men dance in their praying shawls." The Germans "disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate", made little attempts to set up a collaborationist government in Poland, nevertheless, German 7551: 4543: 7472: 7686: 6764:. This religious-based antisemitism was sometimes joined with an ultra-nationalistic stereotype of Jews as disloyal to the Polish nation. On the eve of World War II, many typical Polish Christians believed that there were far too many Jews in the country, and the Polish government became increasingly concerned with the "Jewish question". According to the British Embassy in Warsaw, in 1936 emigration was the only solution to the Jewish question that found wide support in all Polish political parties. The Polish government condemned wanton violence against the Jewish minority, fearing international repercussions, but shared the view that the Jewish minority hindered Poland's development; in January 1937 Foreign Minister 6609: 7222: 6601:, meant that the situation of Jewish Poles was never very satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Piłsudski's death in May 1935, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy. The Jewish industries were negatively affected by the development of mass production and the advent of department stores offering ready-made products. The traditional sources of livelihood for the estimated 300,000 Jewish family-run businesses in the country began to vanish, contributing to a growing trend toward isolationism and internal self-sufficiency. The difficult situation in the private sector led to enrolment growth in higher education. In 1923 the Jewish students constituted 62.9% of all students of 7851: 7244: 5916: 8327:

confiscated by the Nazis, suggest "abandoned property" was equivalent to "Jewish property". According to Łukasz Krzyżanowski, the state actively sought to gain control over a large number of "abandoned" properties. According to Krzyżanowski, this declaration of "abandoned" property can be seen as the last stage of the expropriation process that began during the German wartime occupation; by approving the status-quo shaped by the German occupation authorities, the Polish authorities became "the beneficiary of the murder of millions of its Jewish citizens, who were deprived of all their property before death". A 1945 memorandum by the

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that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle-workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously as

3913: 7492: 12881:. On 5 October 1935, the Polish delegate in the economic committee of the League of Nations presented the Jewish issue as 'requiring quick preventive measures.' In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the League of Nations as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister Józef Beck.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organizing and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary 7488:

the death penalty. Another law implemented by the Germans was that Poles were forbidden from buying from Jewish shops, and if they did they were subject to execution. Many Jews tried to escape from the ghettos in the hope of finding a place to hide outside of it, or of joining the partisan units. When this proved difficult escapees often returned to the ghetto on their own. If caught, Germans would murder the escapees and leave their bodies in plain view as a warning to others. Despite these terror tactics, attempts at escape from ghettos continued until their liquidation.

5204: 8768: 8672:. The leaders of the Communist party tried to stifle the ongoing protests and unrest by scapegoating the Jews. At the same time there was an ongoing power struggle within the party itself and the antisemitic campaign was used by one faction against another. The so-called "Partisan" faction blamed the Jews who had held office during the Stalinist period for the excesses that had occurred, but the result was that most of the remaining Polish Jews, regardless of their background or political affiliation, were targeted by the communist authorities. 6207: 4848: 7044: 9010: 8856: 7395: 4366:, which, among other things, abolished the ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine right and the law of the land." Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. Two years later Casimir issued another document announcing that he could not deprive the Jews of his benevolence on the basis of "the principle of tolerance which in conformity with God's laws obliged him to protect them". The policy of the government toward the Jews of Poland oscillated under Casimir's sons and successors, 4392: 8948: 6975: 7594: 6090: 7021:

military, suffered equally at the hands of the Soviet occupiers. Whatever initial enthusiasm for the Soviet occupation Jews might have felt was soon dissipated upon feeling the impact of the suppression of Jewish societal modes of life by the occupiers. The tensions between ethnic Poles and Jews as a result of this period has, according to some historians, taken a toll on relations between Poles and Jews throughout the war, creating until this day, an impasse to Polish–Jewish rapprochement.

7790: 5972: 7969: 6504: 6940:. Jews under German occupation were immediately maltreated, beaten, publicly executed, and even burnt alive in the synagogue. As a result 350,000 Polish Jews fled from the German-occupied area to the Soviet area. Upon annexing the region, the Soviet government recognized as Soviet citizens Jews (and other non-Poles) who were permanent residents of the area, while offering refugees the choice of either taking on Soviet citizenship or returning to their former homes. 7815:– the Jews and the Polish bandits succeeded in repelling the participating units, including tanks and armored cars, by a well-prepared concentration of fire. (...) The main Jewish battle group, mixed with Polish bandits, had already retired during the first and second day to the so-called Muranowski Square. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. Its plan was to hold the Ghetto by every means in order to prevent us from invading it. 5734: 6744:, declared an "economic war against Jews", while introducing the term "Christian shop". As a result a boycott of Jewish businesses grew intensively. A national movement to prevent the Jews from kosher slaughter of animals, with animal rights as the stated motivation, was also organized. Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores, and many of them were looted. At the same time, persistent economic boycotts and harassment, including property-destroying 7700: 7145: 5128:, along with others, demanded that the inviolability of their persons and property should be guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that Jews living in the cities should be separated from the Christians, that those of them having no definite occupation should be banished from the kingdom, and that even those engaged in agriculture should not be allowed to possess land. On the other hand, some 4329: 6148: 6846: 8364:

both Jewish and Polish population and massive destruction caused by Nazi Germany, as well as the expansion of Soviet Union and communism into Polish territories after the war, which dictated the property laws for the next 50 years. Poland remains "the only EU country and the only former Eastern European communist state not to have enacted law," but rather "a patchwork of laws and court decisions promulgated from 1945-present." As stated by

4018: 4638:. In part it was also caused due to mass migration of the Jews to Ruthenia and their role perceived by local population and in turn led to multiple Cossack uprisings. The largest one of them started in 1648 and was followed by several conflicts, in which the country lost over a third of its population (over three million people). The Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these large-scale atrocities was the 171: 5621: 5287: 5539: 7289:) were tortured and beaten to death by members of the local population. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, in part due to Jewish leaders' refusal to allow the remains of the Jewish victims to be exhumed and their cause of death to be properly established. The Polish Institute for National Remembrance identified twenty-two other towns that had 179: 5898: 8986:. The synagogue, the sole synagogue in Oświęcim to survive World War II and an adjacent Jewish cultural and educational center, provide visitors a place to pray and to learn about the active pre–World War II Jewish community that existed in Oświęcim. The synagogue was the first communal property in the country to be returned to the Jewish community under the 1997 law allowing for restitution of Jewish communal property. 8757: 1253: 4571:– witnessed the appearance of "a virtual galaxy of sparkling intellectual figures." Jewish academies were established in Lublin, Kraków, Brześć (Brisk), Lwów, Ostróg and other towns. Poland-Lithuania was the only country in Europe where the Jews cultivated their own farmer's fields. The central autonomous body that regulated Jewish life in Poland from the middle of the 16th to mid-18th century was known as the 6801:(the military branch of the Revisionist Zionist movement) in the form of military training and weapons. According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. The training and support by Poland would allow the organisation to mobilise 30,000-40,000 men. 16481: 1264: 8746: 8511:, functioned between 1945 and 1948 until it was absorbed by the CKŻP. Eleven independent political Jewish parties, of which eight were legal, existed until their dissolution during 1949–50. Hospitals and schools were opened in Poland by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and ORT to provide service to Jewish communities. Some Jewish cultural institutions were established including the 6967:

communities tended to rely more on commerce and small-scale businesses, the confiscations of property affected them to a greater degree than the general populace. The Soviet rule resulted in near collapse of the local economy, characterized by insufficient wages and general shortage of goods and materials. The Jews, like other inhabitants of the region, saw a fall in their living standards.

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properties; and completing the restitution process, given that most properties were already occupied, required additional, lengthy processes. The majority of Jewish claimants could not afford the restitution process without financial help, due to the filing costs, legal fees, and inheritance tax. While it is hard to determine the total number of successful reclamations,

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Jewish schools were created in the few towns containing a relatively large Jewish population, many Jewish children were enrolled in Polish state schools. Some state schools, as in the town of Otwock, forbade Jewish children to enroll. In the state schools that did allow Jewish children, there were numerous accounts of beatings and persecution targeting these children.

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Jews who continued living in the ruined ghetto. Many of them survived thanks to the contacts they managed to establish with Poles outside the ghetto. The Uprising inspired Jews throughout Poland. Many Jewish leaders who survived the liquidation continued underground work outside the ghetto. They hid other Jews, forged necessary documents and were active in the

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Soviet war dead. For decades to come, the Soviet authorities refused to accept the fact that thousands of Jews who remained in the USSR opted consciously and unambiguously for Polish nationality. At the end of 1944, the number of Polish Jews in the Soviet and the Soviet-controlled territories has been estimated at 250,000–300,000 people. Jews who escaped to

7032:. As a result of these factors they found it easy after 1939 to participate in the Soviet occupation administration in Eastern Poland, and briefly occupied prominent positions in industry, schools, local government, police and other Soviet-installed institutions. The concept of "Judeo-communism" was reinforced during the period of the Soviet occupation (see 6182:

Yiddish as their first language, and only 12% listed Polish, with the remaining 9% being Hebrew. In contrast, the overwhelming majority of German-born Jews of this period spoke German as their first language. During the school year of 1937–1938 there were 226 elementary schools and twelve high schools as well as fourteen vocational schools with either

6664:) introduced in 1937 in some universities, halved the number of Jews in Polish universities between independence (1918) and the late 1930s. The restrictions were so inclusive that – while the Jews made up 20.4% of the student body in 1928 – by 1937 their share was down to only 7.5%, out of the total population of 9.75% Jews in the country according to 6554:. Economic instability was mirrored by anti-Jewish sentiment in the press; discrimination, exclusion, and violence at the universities; and the appearance of "anti-Jewish squads" associated with some of the right-wing political parties. These developments contributed to a greater support among the Jewish community for Zionist and socialist ideas. 8478:(PPS) and gained its first and only parliamentary seat in its Polish history, plus several seats in municipal councils. Under pressure from Soviet-installed communist authorities, the Bund's leaders 'voluntarily' disbanded the party in 1948–1949 against the opposition of many activists. Stalinist Poland was basically governed by the Soviet 8322:, the 1945 and 1946 laws governing restitution were enacted with the intention of restricting Jewish restitution claims as one of their main goals. The 1946 law carried a deadline of 31 December 1947 (later extended to 31 December 1948), after which unclaimed property devolved to the Polish state; many survivors residing in the USSR or in 8681:. The campaign damaged Poland's reputation abroad, particularly in the U.S. Many Polish intellectuals, however, were disgusted at the promotion of official antisemitism and opposed the campaign. Some of the people who emigrated to the West at this time founded organizations that encouraged anti-Communist opposition inside Poland. 4146:

Christians would be subordinated to them, and forbade them from building more than one prayer house in each town. However, those church decrees required the cooperation of the Polish princes for enforcement, which was generally not forthcoming, due to the profits which the Jews' economic activity yielded to the princes.

14023:. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005): 711–746. "Because of a lack of interest on the part of the Nazi leadership, there was no basis for state collaboration. On the contrary, overtures even by Polish fascists and other staunch anti-Semites were rebuffed by the occupiers." For the follow-up see: abstract of John Connelly 4090:(or Magdeburg Law), a charter given to Jews, among others, that specifically outlined the rights and privileges that Jews had in Poland. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. This made it very attractive for Jewish communities to pick up and move to Poland. 7320:' views of Polish behavior during the War span a wide range, depending on their personal experiences. Some are very negative, based on the view of Christian Poles as passive witnesses who failed to act and aid the Jews as they were being persecuted or liquidated by the Nazis. Poles, who were also victims of 14031:, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005). Quote: John Connelly "suggests that even those cases that Friedrich documents do not make Poland into a collaborationist country. In fact, the Nazis were disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate." The American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, 2005. 8247:. The exact number of Jewish victims is a subject of debate with 327 documented cases, and range, estimated by different writers, from 400 to 2,000. Jews constituted between 2% and 3% of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country, including the Polish Jews who managed to escape the 4443:, or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from 15287:

The most intense battles took place in the east but the fighting was not limited to this region; all over the country, partisans clashed with communist security forces. Repressions increased in the winter of 1945/46 and spring of 1946, when entire villages were burnt. The fighting lasted with varying

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There were people everywhere who were prepared, for whatever motives, to do the Nazis' work for them. And if there was more anti-Semitism in Poland than in many other countries, there was also less collaboration.... The Nazis generally preferred not to count on outbursts of 'emotional anti-Semitism',

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give a larger number of Jews living in contemporary Poland. In the 2011 Polish census, 7,353 Polish citizens declared their nationality as "Jewish," a big increase from just 1,055 during the previous 2002 census. There are likely more people of Jewish ancestry living in Poland but who do not actively

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although not many of them are still active in their original religious role. Stara Synagoga ("Old Synagogue") in Kraków, which hosts a Jewish museum, was built in the early 15th century and is the oldest synagogue in Poland. Before the war, the Yeshiva Chachmei in Lublin was Europe's largest. In 2007

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Many of the properties that were previously owned or by Jews were taken over by others during the war. Attempting to reclaim an occupied property often put the claimant at a risk of physical harm and even death. Many who proceeded with the process were only granted possession, not ownership, of their

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A group of fighters escaped from the ghetto through the sewers and reached the Lomianki forest. About 50 ghetto fighters were saved by the Polish "People's Guard" and later formed their own partisan group, named after Anielewicz. Even after the end of the uprising there were still several hundreds of

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and other international venues, proposing increased emigration quotas and opposing the Partition Plan of Palestine on behalf of Zionist activists. As Jabotinsky envisioned in his "Evacuation Plan" the settlement of 1.5 million East European Jews within 10 years in Palestine, including 750,000 Polish

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enjoyed considerable prominence also, with 90% of small businesses in the city owned and operated by the Jews including tinsmiths, locksmiths, jewellers, tailors, hat makers, hairdressers, carpenters, house painters and wallpaper installers, shoemakers, as well as most of the artisan bakers and clock

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Although many Jews were educated, they were almost completely excluded from government jobs; as a result, the proportion of unemployed Jewish salary earners was approximately four times as great in 1929 as the proportion of unemployed non-Jewish salary earners, a situation compounded by the fact that

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began, Poland had the largest concentration of Jews in Europe although many Polish Jews had a separate culture and ethnic identity from Catholic Poles. Some authors have stated that only about 10% of Polish Jews during the interwar period could be considered "assimilated" while more than 80% could be

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that allegations of pogroms were exaggerated. It identified eight incidents in the years 1918–1919 out of 37 mostly empty claims for damages, and estimated the number of victims at 280. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none was blamed on

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The environment of the Polish Commonwealth, according to Hundert, profoundly affected Jews due to genuinely positive encounter with the Christian culture across the many cities and towns owned by the Polish aristocracy. There was no isolation. The Jewish dress resembled that of their Polish neighbor.

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As soon as the disturbances had ceased, the Jews began to return and to rebuild their destroyed homes; and while it is true that the Jewish population of Poland had decreased, it still was more numerous than that of the Jewish colonies in Western Europe. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of

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on the one hand, and by the neighboring German states on the other. There were, however, among the reigning princes some determined protectors of the Jewish inhabitants, who considered the presence of the latter most desirable as far as the economic development of the country was concerned. Prominent

7782:, rose up in a first Warsaw uprising. Both organizations resisted, with arms, German attempts for additional deportations to Auschwitz and Treblinka. The final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing of one of the most heroic and tragic battles of the war, the 1943 7542:

Since the Nazi terror reigned throughout the Aryan districts, the chances of remaining successfully hidden depended on a fluent knowledge of the language and on having close ties with the community. Many Poles were not willing to hide Jews who might have escaped the ghettos or who might have been in

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During the occupation of Poland, the Germans used various laws to separate ethnic Poles from Jewish ones. In the ghettos, the population was separated by putting the Poles into the "Aryan Side" and the Polish Jews into the "Jewish Side". Any Pole found giving any help to a Jewish Pole was subject to

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estimated that 30% of them identified with the communists whilst engaging in provocations; they prepared lists of Polish "class enemies". Other historians have indicated that the level of Jewish collaboration could well have been less than suggested. Historian Martin Dean has written that "few local

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While most eastern Poles consolidated themselves around the anti-Soviet sentiments, a portion of the Jewish population, along with the ethnic Belarusian and Ukrainian activists had welcomed invading Soviet forces as their protectors. The general feeling among the Polish Jews was a sense of temporary

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Synagogues and churches were not yet closed but heavily taxed. The Soviet ruble of little value was immediately equalized to the much higher Polish zloty and by the end of 1939, zloty was abolished. Most economic activity became subject to central planning and the NKVD restrictions. Since the Jewish

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Jewish refugees under the Soviet occupation had little knowledge about what was going on under the Germans since the Soviet media did not report on the goings-on in territories occupied by their Nazi ally. Many people from Western Poland registered for repatriation back to the German zone, including

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of Poles and Polish Jews alike to the extent that by the end of the 1930s, a substantial portion of Polish Jews lived in grinding poverty. As a result, on the eve of the Second World War, the Jewish community in Poland was large and vibrant internally, yet (with the exception of a few professionals)

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the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Following the revolt, the third and final partition of Poland took place in 1795. The territories which included the great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus they became

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including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians. Under the rule of Władysław II, Polish Jews had increased in numbers and attained prosperity. However, religious persecution gradually increased, as the dogmatic clergy pushed for less official tolerance, pressured by the

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For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of returning Jewish survivors left Poland soon after the war ended. Many left for the West because they did not want to live under a Communist regime. Some left because of the persecution they faced in postwar Poland, and because they did not want to live

7843:). The German forces, which included 2,842 Nazi soldiers and 7,000 security personnel, were not capable of crushing the Jewish resistance in open street combat and after several days, decided to switch strategy by setting buildings on fire in which the Jewish fighters hid. The commander of the ŻOB, 7756:

The population of the ghetto reached 380,000 people by the end of 1940, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. However, the size of the Ghetto was only about 2.4% of the size of the city. The Germans closed off the Ghetto from the outside world, building a wall around it by 16 November 1940. During

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Some Jewish historians have written of the negative attitudes of some Poles towards persecuted Jews during the Holocaust. While members of Catholic clergy risked their lives to assist Jews, their efforts were sometimes made in the face of antisemitic attitudes from the church hierarchy. Anti-Jewish

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The issue of Jewish collaboration with the Soviet occupation remains controversial. Some scholars note that while not pro-Communist, many Jews saw the Soviets as the lesser threat compared to the German Nazis. They stress that stories of Jews welcoming the Soviets on the streets, vividly remembered

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wrote, "The fact that our relations with the Reich are worsening does not in the least deactivate our program in the Jewish question—there is not and cannot be any common ground between our internal Jewish problem and Poland's relations with the Hitlerite Reich." Escalating hostility towards Polish

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there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of 1 September 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population) primarily centered

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Under foreign rule many Jews inhabiting formerly Polish lands were indifferent to Polish aspirations for independence. However, most Polonized Jews supported the revolutionary activities of Polish patriots and participated in national uprisings. Polish Jews took part in the November Insurrection of

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The decade from the Khmelnytsky Uprising until after the Deluge (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish–Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to

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Although traditional narrative holds that as a consequence, the predicament of the Commonwealth’s Jewry worsened, declining to the level of other European countries by the end of the eighteenth century, recent scholarship by Gershon Hundert, Moshe Rosman, Edward Fram, and Magda Teter, suggest that

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from areas occupied by Germany in 1939 were numbering at around 198,000. Over 150,000 of them were repatriated or expelled back to new communist Poland along with the Jewish men conscripted to the Red Army from Kresy in 1940–1941. Their families were murdered in the Holocaust. Some of the soldiers

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While the German policy towards Jews was ruthless and criminal, their policy towards Christian Poles who helped Jews was very much the same. The Germans would often murder non-Jewish Poles for small misdemeanors. Execution for help rendered to Jews, even the most basic kinds, was automatic. In any

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were entering the mainstream of Polish society, though many thought of themselves as a separate nationality within Poland. Most children were enrolled in Jewish religious schools, which used to limit their ability to speak Polish. As a result, according to the 1931 census, 79% of the Jews declared

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and Szania of Belz in the 15th century. For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagiełło's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. Also, Jews from Grodno were in this period owners of villages, manors,

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Decades later, reclaiming pre-war property would lead to a number of controversies, and the matter is still debated by media and scholars as of late 2010s. Dariusz Stola notes that the issues of property in Poland are incredibly complex, and need to take into consideration unprecedented losses of

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In a number of other instances, returning Jews still met with threats, violence, and murder from their Polish neighbors, occasionally in a deliberate and organized manner. People of the community frequently had knowledge of these murders and turned a blind eye or held no sympathy for the victims.

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In August 1943, the Germans mounted an operation to destroy the Białystok ghetto. German forces and local police auxiliaries surrounded the ghetto and began to round up Jews systematically for deportation to the Treblinka extermination camp. Approximately 7,600 Jews were held in a central transit

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Hiding in a Christian society to which the Jews were only partially assimilated was a daunting task. They needed to quickly acquire not only a new identity, but a new body of knowledge. Many Jews spoke Polish with a distinct Yiddish or Hebrew accent, used a different nonverbal language, different

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By the time of the German invasion in 1939, antisemitism was escalating, and hostility towards Jews was a mainstay of the right-wing political forces post-Piłsudski regime and also the Catholic Church. Discrimination and violence against Jews had rendered the Polish Jewish population increasingly

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While the average per capita income of Polish Jews in 1929 was 40% above the national average – which was very low compared to England or Germany – they were a very heterogeneous community, some poor, some wealthy. Many Jews worked as shoemakers and tailors, as well as in the liberal professions;

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increased sevenfold between 1816 and 1921, from around 213,000 to roughly 1,500,000. According to the Polish national census of 1921, there were 2,845,364 Jews living in the Second Polish Republic; but, by late 1938 that number had grown by over 16% to approximately 3,310,000. The average rate of

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issued a "Statute Concerning Jews", meant to accelerate the process of assimilation of the Empire's new Jewish population. The Polish Jews were allowed to establish schools with Russian, German or Polish curricula. However, they were also restricted from leasing property, teaching in Yiddish, and

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massacred tens of thousands of Jews as well as Catholic and Uniate population in the eastern and southern areas of Polish-occupied Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during this period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes

4300:. Traders and artisans jealous of Jewish prosperity, and fearing their rivalry, supported the harassment. In 1423, the statute of Warka forbade Jews the granting of loans against letters of credit or mortgage and limited their operations exclusively to loans made on security of moveable property. 3743:

of the Jews"). Poland became a shelter for Jews persecuted and expelled from various European countries and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. According to some sources, about three-quarters of the world's Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. With the

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With the fall of communism in Poland, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. Many historical issues, especially related to World War II and the 1944–89 period, suppressed by Communist censorship, have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Jedwabne

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The vast majority of the 40,000 Jews in Poland by the late 1960s were completely assimilated into the broader society. However, this did not prevent them from becoming victims of a campaign, centrally organized by the Polish Communist Party, with Soviet backing, which equated Jewish origins with

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states, Poland's Communist government, following the Soviet lead, broke off diplomatic relations with Israel and launched an antisemitic campaign under the guise of "anti-Zionism". However, the campaign did not resonate well with the Polish public, as most Poles saw similarities between Israel's

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Some returning Jews were met with antisemitic bias in Polish employment and education administrations. Post-war labor certificates contained markings distinguishing Jews from non-Jews. The Jewish community in Szczecin reported a lengthy report of complaints regarding job discrimination. Although

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Following the Soviet annexation of over half of Poland at the onset of World War II, all Polish nationals including Jews were declared by Moscow to have become Soviet nationals regardless of birth. Also, all Polish Jews who perished in the Holocaust east of the Curzon Line were included with the

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The number of Polish Jews who survived the Holocaust is difficult to ascertain. The majority of Polish Jewish survivors were individuals who were able to find refuge in the territories of Soviet Union that were not overrun by Germans and thus safe from the Holocaust. It is estimated that between

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for anybody found sheltering and helping Jews. The penalty applied not only to the person who did the helping, but also extended to his or her family, neighbors and sometimes to entire villages. In this way Germans applied the principle of collective responsibility whose purpose was to encourage

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are impressionistic and not reliable indicators of the level of Jewish support for the Soviets. Additionally, it has been noted that some ethnic Poles were as prominent as Jews in filling civil and police positions in the occupation administration, and that Jews, both civilians and in the Polish

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the Second", hundreds of new anti-Jewish measures were enacted. The 1827 decree by Nicolas – while lifting the traditional double taxation on Jews in lieu of army service – made Jews subject to general military recruitment laws that required Jewish communities to provide 7 recruits per each 1000

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The permanent council established at the instance of the Russian government (1773–1788) served as the highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itself with the elaboration of a plan that would make practicable the reorganization of Poland on a more rational basis. The progressive elements in

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in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The

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the first official Rabbi of Poland. By 1551, Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Some power was shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in

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and banished Jews from Lithuania. For several years they took shelter in Poland until he reversed his decision eight years later in 1503 after becoming King of Poland and allowed them back to Lithuania. The next year he issued a proclamation in which he stated that a policy of tolerance befitted

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Judenrat. Sometimes the Judenrat refused to collaborate in which case its members were consequently executed and replaced by the new group of people. Adam Czerniakow who was the head of the Warsaw Judenrat committed suicide when he was forced to collect daily lists of Jews to be deported to the

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on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland. The German army attacked Poland on 1 September 1939. The Soviet Union followed suit by invading eastern Poland on 17 September 1939. The days between the retreat of the Polish army and the entry of the Red Army, September 18–21,

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an increasing percentage of Jews were pushed to live a life separate from the non-Jewish majority. The antisemitic rejection of Jews, whether for religious or racial reasons, caused estrangement and growing tensions between Jews and Poles. It is significant in this regard that in 1921, 74.2% of

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and other Polish sources, however, this may represent an undercount of the actual number of Jews living in Poland, since many are not religious. There are also people with Jewish roots who do not possess adequate documentation to confirm it, due to various historical and family complications.

8866:

Former extermination camps of Auschwitz-Birkenau, Majdanek and Treblinka are open to visitors. At Auschwitz the Oświęcim State Museum currently houses exhibitions on Nazi crimes with a special section (Block Number 27) specifically focused on Jewish victims and martyrs. At Treblinka there is a

7992:

began in 1942, with the opening of the extermination camps of Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, followed by Auschwitz-Birkenau where people were killed in gas chambers and mass executions (death wall). Many died from hunger, starvation, disease, torture or by pseudo-medical experiments. The mass

8663:

and from teaching positions in schools and universities. In 1967–1971 under economic, political and secret police pressure, over 14,000 Polish Jews chose to leave Poland and relinquish their Polish citizenship. Officially, it was said that they chose to go to Israel. However, only about 4,000

7744:

which would be responsible for maintaining order within the Ghetto walls. A number of Jewish policemen were corrupt and immoral. Soon the Nazis demanded even more from the Judenrat and the demands were much crueler. Death was the punishment for the slightest indication of noncompliance by the

6970:

Under the Soviet policy, ethnic Poles were dismissed and denied access to positions in the civil service. Former senior officials and notable members of the Polish community were arrested and exiled together with their families. At the same time the Soviet authorities encouraged young Jewish

6792:

his support for the creation of a Jewish state and for an international conference to enable Jewish emigration. The common goals of the Polish state and of the Zionist movement, of increased Jewish population flow to Palestine, resulted in their overt and covert cooperation. Poland helped by

6046:

The historians Anna Cichopek-Gajraj and Glenn Dynner state that 130 pogroms of Jews occurred on Polish territories from 1918 to 1921, resulting in as many as 300 deaths, with many attacks conceived as reprisals against supposed Jewish economic power and their supposed “Judeo-Bolshevism” The

6012:

a commander of Polish infantry regiment accused a group of Jewish men of plotting against the Poles and ordered the execution of thirty-five Jewish men and youth. The Morgenthau Report found the charge to be "devoid of foundation" even though their meeting was illegal to the extent of being

4145:

During the next hundred years, the Church pushed for the persecution of Jews while the rulers of Poland usually protected them. The Councils of Wrocław (1267), Buda (1279), and Łęczyca (1285) each segregated Jews, ordered them to wear a special emblem, banned them from holding offices where

8326:

were repatriated only after the deadline had passed. All other properties that had been confiscated by the Nazi regime were deemed "abandoned"; however, as Yechiel Weizman notes, the fact most of Poland's Jewry had died, in conjunction with the fact that only Jewish property was officially

8346:"Movable" property such as housewares, that was either given by Jews for safekeeping or taken during the war, was rarely returned willfully; oftentimes the only resort for a returnee looking for reappropriation was the courts. Most such property was probably never returned. According to 8290:(11 August 1945) and in Kielce followed accusations of ritual murder. Another cause was the gentile Polish hostility to the Communist takeover. Even though very few Jews lived in postwar Poland, many Poles believed they dominated the Communist authorities, a belief expressed in the term 4325:

meadows, fish ponds and mills. However, until the end of the 15th century, agriculture as a source of income played only a minor role among Jewish families. More important were crafts for the needs of both their fellow Jews and the Christian population (fur making, tanning, tailoring).

4665:). The Jewish community suffered greatly during the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack uprising which had been directed primarily against the wealthy nobility and landlords. The Jews, perceived as allies of the Poles, were also victims of the revolt, during which about 20% of them were killed. 7839:) was the better supplied in arms. The ŻOB had more than 750 fighters, but lacked weapons; they had only 9 rifles, 59 pistols and several grenades. A developed network of bunkers and fortifications were formed. The Jewish fighters also received support from the Polish Underground ( 6161:

Jewish youth and religious groups, diverse political parties and Zionist organizations, newspapers and theatre flourished. Jews owned land and real estate, participated in retail and manufacturing and in the export industry. Their religious beliefs spanned the range from Orthodox

4972: 7213:

were blown up or burned by the Germans, who sometimes forced the Jews to do it themselves. In many cases, the Germans turned the synagogues into factories, places of entertainment, swimming pools, or prisons. By war's end, almost all the synagogues in Poland had been destroyed.

8641:

fight for survival and Poland's past struggles for independence. Many Poles also felt pride in the success of the Israeli military, which was dominated by Polish Jews. The slogan "our Jews beat the Soviet Arabs" (Nasi Żydzi pobili sowieckich Arabów) became popular in Poland.

8331:

states that "the new economic tendency of the Polish government... is against, or at least makes difficulties in, getting back the Jewish property robbed by the German authorities." Later laws, while more generous, remained mainly on paper, with an "uneven" implementation.

6654:) party growing, antisemitism gathered new momentum in Poland and was most felt in smaller towns and in spheres in which Jews came into direct contact with Poles, such as in Polish schools or on the sports field. Further academic harassment, such as the introduction of 5968:) founded by German Jewish activists, which promoted the idea of Jews in the east becoming "spearhead of German expansionism" serving as "Germany's reliable vassals" against other ethnic groups in the region and serving as "living wall against Poles separatists aims". 8278:

commander was found guilty of inaction. Nine alleged participants of the pogrom were sentenced to death; three were given lengthy prison sentences. The debate in Poland continues about the involvement of regular troops in the killings, and possible Soviet influences.

6059:), protecting the rights of minorities in new Poland including Jews and Germans. This in turn resulted in Poland's 1921 March Constitution granting Jews the same legal rights as other citizens and guaranteed them religious tolerance and freedom of religious holidays. 8208:). Jewish survivors returning to their homes in Poland found it practically impossible to reconstruct their pre-war lives. Due to the border shifts, some Polish Jews found that their homes were now in the Soviet Union; in other cases, the returning survivors were 5697:, pushed for assimilation and integration into Russian culture. At the same time, there was another school of Jewish thought that emphasized traditional study and a Jewish response to the ethical problems of antisemitism and persecution, one form of which was the 8786:. There are two rabbis serving the Polish Jewish community, several Jewish schools and associated summer camps as well as several periodical and book series sponsored by the above foundations. Jewish studies programs are offered at major universities, such as 7382:(Oświęcim) – were located near the rail network so that the victims could be easily transported. The system of the camps was expanded over the course of the German occupation of Poland and their purposes were diversified; some served as transit camps, some as 5454:) in a series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers between 1791 and 1835, and lasted until the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917. It comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and mostly corresponded to historical borders of the former 6592:

with the 'state assimilation' policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality. The years 1926–1935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Pilsudski's appointee

4945:(1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed a wide reputation among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the 3731: 5239:. The harshest measures designed to compel Jews to merge into society at large called for their expulsion from small villages, forcing them to move into towns. Once the resettlement began, thousands of Jews lost their only source of income and turned to 4303:

In the 14th and 15th centuries, rich Jewish merchants and moneylenders leased the royal mint, salt mines and the collecting of customs and tolls. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Kraków in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of

11593:, (original document, 1,522 KB), including "Rozporządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z dnia 9 marca 1927 r. w sprawie utworzenia gmin wyznaniowych żydowskich na obszarze powiatów: białostockiego, bielskiego i sokólskiego województwa białostockiego." 6888:, putting their differences aside. Polish Jews later served in almost all Polish formations during the entire World War II, many were killed or wounded and very many were decorated for their combat skills and exceptional service. Jews fought with the 4141:

against the Jews, by stating: "Accusing Jews of drinking Christian blood is expressly prohibited. If despite this a Jew should be accused of murdering a Christian child, such charge must be sustained by testimony of three Christians and three Jews."

6704:. Between 1935 and 1937 seventy-nine Jews were killed and 500 injured in anti-Jewish incidents. National policy was such that the Jews who largely worked at home and in small shops were excluded from welfare benefits. In the provincial capital of 3822:). One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II; the 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in the Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war. While the Holocaust occurred largely in 6804:

In 1938, the Polish government revoked Polish citizenship from tens-of-thousands Polish Jews who had lived outside the country for an extended period of time. It was feared that many Polish Jews living in Germany and Austria would want to return

7620:

prices of necessary goods were high, factors which made it difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of

5749:

and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Zionism became very popular with the advent of the

8036:

camp. In Majdanek, after another screening for ability to work, they were transported to the Poniatowa, Blizyn, or Auschwitz camps. Those deemed too weak to work were murdered at Majdanek. More than 1,000 Jewish children were sent first to the

7773:

train station. They were spared from the deportations until September 1942 in return for their cooperation, but afterwards shared their fate with families and relatives. On 18 January 1943, a group of Ghetto militants led by the right-leaning

5227:, restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire, which would eventually include much of Poland, although it excluded some areas in which Jews had previously lived. By the late 19th century, over four million Jews would live in the Pale. 4566:

in 1573 and signed a document in which representatives of all major religions pledged mutual support and tolerance. The following eight or nine decades of material prosperity and relative security experienced by Polish Jews – wrote Professor

12184:, and uniformed and armed Betar members marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and Polish soldiers, with their weapons training organised by Polish state institutions and provided by Polish army officers. 4736:"Reports of romances, of drinking together in taverns, and of intellectual conversations are quite abundant." Wealthy Jews had Polish noblemen at their table, and served meals on silver plates. By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in the 6116:

in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. They made up about 50%, and in some cases even 70% of the population of smaller towns, especially in Eastern Poland. Prior to World War II, the Jewish population of

8901:

was unveiled on 19 April 1948—the fifth anniversary of the outbreak of the Warsaw ghetto Uprising. It was constructed out of bronze and granite that the Nazis used for a monument honoring German victory over Poland and it was designed by

8283:

Jewish communities responded to this violence by reporting the violence to the Ministry of Public Administration, but were granted little assistance. As many as 1500 Jewish heirs were often murdered when attempting to reclaim property.

5823:. Many Jewish political parties were active, representing a wide ideological spectrum, from the Zionists, to the socialists to the anti-Zionists. One of the largest of these parties was the Bund, which was strongest in Warsaw and Lodz. 8132:

married women with the Soviet citizenship, others agreed to paper marriages. Those who survived the Holocaust in Poland included Jews who were saved by the Poles (most families with children), and those who joined the Polish or Soviet

9247:, there are 100,000 Jews living in Poland who don't actively practice Judaism and do not list "Jewish" as their nationality. The Jewish Renewal in Poland organization estimates that there are 200,000 "potential Jews" in Poland. The 8867:

monument built out of many shards of broken stone, as well as a mausoleum dedicated to those who perished there. A small mound of human ashes commemorates the 350,000 victims of the Majdanek camp who were killed there by the Nazis.

7386:

and the majority as death camps. While in the death camps, the victims were usually killed shortly after arrival, in the other camps able-bodied Jews were worked and beaten to death. The operation of concentration camps depended on

8317:

enacted legislation on "abandoned property", placing severe limitations on inheritance that were not present in prewar inheritance law, for example limiting restitution to the original owners or their immediate heirs. According to

5600:

of Russian Poland, in which at least 75 Jews were murdered by marauding soldiers and many more Jews were wounded. According to Jewish survivors, ethnic Poles did not participate in the pogrom and instead sheltered Jewish families.

4894:

learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of

4732:

Judaism. Through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population – approximately three million of its citizens.

8913:

A memorial to the victims of the Kielce Pogrom of 1946, where a mob murdered more than 40 Jews who returned to the city after the Holocaust, was unveiled in 2006. The funds for the memorial came from the city itself and from the

4355:, who accused Jews of profaning the Christian religion. As a result, Jews were banished from Lower Silesia. Zbigniew Olesnicki then invited John to conduct a similar campaign in Kraków and several other cities, to lesser effect. 16495: 8021:. Most Jews in the Białystok ghetto worked in forced-labor projects, primarily in large textile factories located within the ghetto boundaries. The Germans also sometimes used Jews in forced-labor projects outside the ghetto. 8350:, "there was no social norm mandating the return of Jewish property, no detectable social pressure defining such behavior as the right thing to do, no informal social control mechanism imposing censure for doing otherwise." 5567:, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. Pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit government approval. They proved a turning point in the history of the Jews in 8482:

which was against the renewal of Jewish religious and cultural life. In the years 1948–49, all remaining Jewish schools were nationalized by the communists and Yiddish was replaced with Polish as a language of teaching.

7337:

is concerned, the number of Poles aiding Jews far outnumbered those who sold out their Jewish neighbors to the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Warsaw 70,000–90,000 Polish gentiles aided Jews, while 3,000–4,000 were

6779:, and pursued a policy of supporting the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. The Polish government hoped Palestine would provide an outlet for its Jewish population and lobbied for creation of a Jewish state in the 8212:

whose homes were now under Polish jurisdiction. Jewish communities and Jewish life as it had existed was gone, and Jews who somehow survived the Holocaust often discovered that their homes had been looted or destroyed.

7761:) and starvation kept the inhabitants at about the same number. Average food rations in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw were limited to 253 kcal, and 669 kcal for Poles, as opposed to 2,613 kcal for Germans. On 22 July 1942, 6605:, 34% of medical sciences, 29.2% of philosophy, 24.9% of chemistry and 22.1% of law (26% by 1929) at all Polish universities. It is speculated that such disproportionate numbers were the probable cause of a backlash. 8659:, used the situation as a pretext to launch an antisemitic press campaign (although the expression "Zionist" was officially used). The state-sponsored "anti-Zionist" campaign resulted in the removal of Jews from the 8360:, "unlike the restitution of Church property, the idea of returning property to former Jewish owners has been met with a decided lack of enthusiasm from both the general Polish population as well as the government". 7648:

who was the only person to volunteer for imprisonment in Auschwitz and who organized a resistance movement inside the camp itself. One of the Jewish members of the National Council of the Polish government in exile,

4472:

power, to use it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate served Jewish causes, the rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for

9044:

Poland is currently easing the way for Jews who left Poland during the Communist organized massive expulsion of 1968 to re-obtain their citizenship. Some 15,000 Polish Jews were deprived of their citizenship in the

5214:

Official Russian policy would eventually prove to be substantially harsher to the Jews than that under independent Polish rule. The lands that had once been Poland were to remain the home of many Jews, as, in 1772,

5096:

against Russian influence and the pro-Russian king, the outlying provinces of Poland were overrun from all sides by different military forces and divided for the first time by the three neighboring empires, Russia,

7309:

wrote a dramatic letter to Pope Pius XII, begging him for a public defense of both murdered Poles and Jews. In spite of the introduction of death penalty extending to the entire families of rescuers, the number of

8847:

in Kraków has sponsored a wide range of cultural and educational programs on Jewish themes for a predominantly Polish audience. With funds from the city of Warsaw and the Polish government ($ 26 million total) a

7731:

on 16 October 1940. Initially, almost 140,000 Jews were moved into the ghetto from all parts of Warsaw. At the same time, approximately 110,000 Poles had been forcibly evicted from the area. The Germans selected

12130:. Wrocław: Wydział Prawa, Administracji i Ekonomii. Instytut Historii Państwa i Prawa (Faculty of Law, Administration and Economy). pp. 65–66 (20/38 in PDF) – via direct download from BibliotekaCyfrowa.pl. 6684:

Poles. In a similar manner, the Jewish trade unions excluded non-Jewish professionals from their ranks after 1918. The bulk of Jewish workers were organized in the Jewish trade unions under the influence of the

5963:

from the Jews of Lwów and the 1,500 cans of food donated by the Blumenfeld factory among similar others. A Jewish organization during the war that was opposed to Polish aspirations was the Komitee für den Osten

8889:

was excavated after testimony by a Holocaust survivor suggested that many Jewish relics and ritual objects had been buried there, just before Nazis took over the town. Candelabras, chandeliers, a menorah and a

8312:

After the war ended, Poland's Communist government enacted a broad program of nationalization and land reform, taking over large numbers of properties, both Polish- and Jewish-owned. As part of the reform the

6721:, 53.6% of the town's population were Jewish also along with most of its economy. In a town of Luboml, 3,807 Jews lived among its 4,169 inhabitants, constituting the essence of its social and political life. 9495:"By the end of the war, 3 million Polish Jews—90 percent of the prewar population—had been murdered by the Germans and their collaborators of various nationalities, one of the highest percentages in Europe." 5119:("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of the commission, 7907:

when the Poles themselves rose up against the Germans. Some of the survivors of 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, still held in camps at or near Warsaw, were freed during 1944 Warsaw Uprising, led by the Polish

8123:

250,000 and 800,000 Polish Jews survived the war, out of which between 50,000 and 100,000 were survivors from occupied Poland, and the remainder, survivors who made it abroad (mostly to the Soviet Union).

7332:

stated that Polish citizens of Warsaw managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in Western European countries. Paulsson's research shows that at least as far as

6813:

destitute. Despite the impending threat to the Polish Republic from Nazi Germany, there was little effort seen in the way of reconciliation with Poland's Jewish population. In July 1939 the pro-government

12692:

Personal Narratives, Peripheral Theatres: Essays on the Great War (1914–18), Anthony Barker / Maria Eugénia Pereira / Maria Teresa Cortez / Paulo Alexandre Pereira / Otília Martins (Eds.), Cham: Springer

8467:, in which the Soviet Union supported the Arab side, the Polish communist party adopted an anti-Jewish course of action which in the years 1968–1969 provoked the last mass migration of Jews from Poland. 5559:;) throughout 1881–1884. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw two Jews were killed, 24 others were wounded, women were raped and over two million 4616: 4073:. Jews enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity in the many principalities into which the country was then divided; they formed the middle class in a country where the general population consisted of 3838:

by non-Jewish Polish citizens in the Holocaust was sporadic, but incidents of hostility against Jews are well documented and have been a subject of renewed scholarly interest during the 21st century.

17674: 7993:

deportation of Jews from ghettos to these camps, such as happened at the Warsaw Ghetto, soon followed, and more than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943 alone.

8372:, "the question of restitution is in many ways connected to the question of Polish–Jewish relations, their history and remembrance, but particularly to the attitude of the Poles to the Holocaust." 15978: 14816: 5995:. Just after the end of World War I, the West became alarmed by reports about alleged massive pogroms in Poland against Jews. Pressure for government action reached the point where U.S. President 15410: 14648: 14504: 13990: 13777: 11803: 11781: 9812: 7765:

of the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began. During the next fifty-two days (until 12 September 1942) about 300,000 people were transported by freight train to the Treblinka extermination camp. The

7613:

neighbors to inform on each other in order to avoid punishment. The nature of these policies was widely known and visibly publicized by the Nazis who sought to terrorize the Polish population.

4612: 16002: 12787:"The Polish government was committed to the Zionist option in its own Jewish policy and maintained good relations with Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionist, rather than with the Majority Zionists. 6784:

Jews, he and Beck shared a common goal. Ultimately this proved impossible and illusory, as it lacked both general Jewish and international support. In 1937 Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs

6033:

assaulted Jews in the streets, but were punished by military authorities. Many other events in Poland were later found to have been exaggerated, especially by contemporary newspapers such as

4775:

The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as

6708:

Jews constituted 48.5% of the diverse multiethnic population of 35,550 Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and others. Łuck had the largest Jewish community in the voivodeship. In the capital of

4426:, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from Western Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people. 5485:

From 1791 to 1835, and until 1917, there were differing reconfigurations of the boundaries of the Pale, such that certain areas were variously open or shut to Jewish residency, such as the

11875: 6672:

doctors (56% of all doctors in Poland), teachers (43%), journalists (22%) and lawyers (33%). In 1929, about a third of artisans and home workers and a majority of shopkeepers were Jewish.

6418:(Jidiszer Wissenszaftlecher Institute) Scientific Institute was based in Wilno before transferring to New York during the war. In Warsaw, important centers of Judaic scholarship, such the 4708:

of the Ruthenian and Jewish population. He defeated the Swedes in 1660 and was equally successful in his battles against the Russians. Meanwhile, the horrors of the war were aggravated by

11598: 11464: 8915: 7570:

provided a standard prize to those who informed on Jews hidden on the 'Aryan' side, consisting of cash, liquor, sugar, and cigarettes. Jews were robbed and handed over to the Germans by "

15781: 8843:

and "Sztendlach" for young children. Active institutions include the Jewish Historical Institute, the E.R. Kaminska State Yiddish Theater in Warsaw, and the Jewish Cultural Center. The

7604:

To discourage Poles from giving shelter to Jews, the Germans often searched houses and introduced ruthless penalties. Poland was the only occupied country during World War II where the

7328:, a Polish–Jewish historian of the Warsaw Ghetto, wrote critically of the indifferent and sometimes joyful responses in Warsaw to the destruction of Polish Jews in the Ghetto. However, 8616:, a former Stalinist prosecutor who emigrated to England in the late 1960s, fought being extradited to Poland on charges related to the execution of a Second World War resistance hero 6573:

interests; however, the Galician Zionists had little to show for their compromise because the Polish government later refused to honor many aspects of the agreement. During the 1930s,

6422:

and the Institute of Judaic Studies were located, along with numerous Talmudic Schools (Jeszybots), religious centers and synagogues, many of which were of high architectural quality.

6067:

permanent settlement was about 30,000 per annum. At the same time, every year around 100,000 Jews were passing through Poland in unofficial emigration overseas. Between the end of the

16493: 6221:

The Jewish cultural scene was particularly vibrant in pre–World War II Poland, with numerous Jewish publications and more than one hundred periodicals. Yiddish authors, most notably

5136:

of tolerance and broadmindedness in dealing with the Jewish question. But all these reforms were too late: a Russian army soon invaded Poland, and soon after a Prussian one followed.

7547:

apartment block or area where Jews were found to be harboured, everybody in the house would be immediately shot by the Germans. For this thousands of non-Jewish Poles were executed.

17699: 4619:

were introduced to limit Jews living in the Christian cities, which intensified their migration to the Eastern parts of the country where they were invited by the magnates to their

4611:

alone mass attacks of Jews started in 1572 and then repeated in 1592, 1613, 1618, and from 1638 every year with Jesuit students being responsible for many of them. At the same time

17669: 13301: 9630:

the reality was much more complex. See for example, the following works, which discuss Jewish life and culture, as well as Jewish-Christian relations during that period: M. Rosman

5259:"souls" every 4 years. Unlike the general population that had to provide recruits between the ages of 18 and 35, Jews had to provide recruits between the ages of 12 and 25, at the 4587:

agreement, it did not last for long due to beginning of Counter-Reformation in the Commonwealth and growing influence of the Jesuits. By 1590s there were anti-Semitic outbreaks in

11391:

Controversial Reports on the Situation of Jews in Poland in the Aftermath of World War I: The Conflict between the US Ambassador in Warsaw Hugh Gibson and American Jewish Leaders.

7277:, which massacred Jews, especially in 1941. Some of these German-inspired massacres were carried out with help from, or active participation of Poles themselves: for example, the 6639:

marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and military, with their weapons training provided by Polish institutions and Polish military officers;

3881:. The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members. The number of people with Jewish heritage of any sort is several times larger. 7324:, were often afraid for their own and their family's lives and this fear prevented many of them from giving aid and assistance, even if some of them felt sympathy for the Jews. 6561:

capitalized on governmental support for Zionism by negotiating an agreement with the government known as the Ugoda. The Ugoda was an agreement between the Polish prime minister

17262: 14084: 9921:

when what was needed to realize their plans was 'rational antisemitism', as Hitler himself put it. For that, they neither received or requested significant help from the Poles.

17102:

A Marriage of Convenience: The New Zionist Organization and the Polish Government 1936-1939 Laurence Weinbaum, East European Monographs; dist. Columbia University Press, 1993

15793: 14296: 9698:.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organising and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary 6725: 13733: 12219: 15717:(Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, 2005), 203; Adam Kopciowski, "Anti-Jewish Incidents in the Lublin Region in the Early Years after World War II," 6051:

had a profound impact on the foreign perception of the re-emerging Polish state. Concerns over the fate of Poland's Jews led the Western powers to pressure Polish President

8298:(Judeo-Communist), a popular anti-Jewish stereotype. Yet another reason for Polish violence towards Jews stemmed from the fear that survivors would recover their property. 4217:. Nevertheless, while the Jews of Poland enjoyed tranquility for the greater part of Casimir's reign, toward its close they were subjected to persecution on account of the 10876: 8256: 8205: 7870:

had the Great Synagogue on Tłomackie Square (outside the ghetto) destroyed as a celebration of German victory and a symbol that the Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw was no longer.

4529: 13793: 7582:, Yiddish and Polish for 'grease'). In extreme cases, the Jews informed on other Jews to alleviate hunger with the awarded prize. The extortionists were condemned by the 4898:. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue. 4374:(1501–1506). In 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Kraków and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. In the same year, Alexander, when he was the 10005: 8944:. Recent scholarship has primarily focused on three topics: post-war anti-Semitism; emigration and the creation of the State of Israel, and the restitution of property. 2310: 10796: 10386: 7636:

was the first (in November 1942) to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, through its courier

14245: 9443: 8709:(KOR). By the time of the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989, only 5,000–10,000 Jews remained in the country, many of them preferring to conceal their Jewish origin. 8080:

and bottles filled with acid. The fighting in isolated pockets of resistance lasted for several days, but the defence was broken almost instantly. As with the earlier

7518:....According to this decree, those knowingly helping these Jews by providing shelter, supplying food, or selling them foodstuffs are also subject to the death penalty 7458:

among others. Ghettos were also established in hundreds of smaller settlements and villages around the country. The overcrowding, dirt, lice, lethal epidemics such as

5769: 5738: 15768:

Alina Skibińska, "Problemy rewindykacji żydowskich nieruchomości w latach 1944–1950: Zagadnienia ogólne i szczegółowe (na przykładzie Szczebrzeszyna)," p. 493-573 in

8136:. Some 20,000–40,000 Jews were repatriated from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, up to 240,000 returning Jews might have resided in Poland mostly in 7160:. Some six million Polish citizens perished in the war – half of those (three million Polish Jews, all but some 300,000 of the Jewish population) being killed at the 11902: 6577:

viewed the Polish government as an ally and promoted cooperation between Polish Zionists and Polish nationalists, despite the antisemitism of the Polish government.

5163:

subjects of that empire, although in the first half of the 19th century some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of the

4437:(1548–1572), mainly followed his father's tolerant policy and also granted communal-administration autonomy to the Jews and laid the foundation for the power of the 1102: 12814:, and the Polish government hoped it would provide an outlet for Jewish population moving out of Poland. Poland supported creation of a Jewish national home in the 4195:

was especially friendly to the Jews, and his reign is regarded as an era of great prosperity for Polish Jewry, and was nicknamed by his contemporaries "King of the

14188:

Klaus-Peter Friedrich. Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II.

9758: 8387:

where their family members had been murdered, and instead have arranged to live with relatives or friends in different western democracies. Others wanted to go to

8356:

Following the fall of the Soviet Union, a law was passed that allowed the Catholic Church to reclaim its properties, which it did with great success. According to

7252: 5965: 5501:, excluded from residency at a number of cities within the Pale. Settlers from outside the pale were forced to move to small towns, thus fostering the rise of the 5347: 5132:

and intellectuals proposed a national system of government, of the civil and political equality of the Jews. This was the only example in modern Europe before the

18985: 19027: 12505: 12089: 11157: 11037: 9694:

as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister

8017:

in Białystok. About 50,000 Jews from the city and the surrounding region were confined in a small area of Białystok. The ghetto had two sections, divided by the

7202:

Poland was where the German program of extermination of Jews, the "Final Solution", was implemented, since this was where most of Europe's Jews (excluding the

6658:, which forced Jewish students to sit in sections of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them, anti-Jewish riots, and semi-official or unofficial quotas ( 13464:"Revolution from abroad : the Soviet conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia" Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1988 10144: 4927:

which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil

13453: 2888: 13417: 6947:

was accompanied by the widespread arrests of government officials, police, military personnel, border guards, teachers, priests, judges etc., followed by the

5586:

An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, at least some of them believed to have been organized by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the

15609:

Weizman, Yechiel (2 January 2017). "Unsettled possession: the question of ownership of Jewish sites in Poland after the Holocaust from a local perspective".

9273: 6332: 3975:

and then to the Slavic countries. The first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in the 11th century, where it appears that Jews then lived in

3896: 2543: 2238: 206: 10895:, "Divre ̄ David Ture ̄ Zahav" (1689) in Hebrew. Published in: Bi-defus Y. Goldman, Warsaw: 1882. Quoted by the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. 7903:

in many smaller towns and cities across German-occupied Poland. Many Jews were found alive in the ruins of the former Warsaw Ghetto during the 1944 general

5230:

Tsarist policy towards the Jews of Poland alternated between harsh rules, and inducements meant to break the resistance to large-scale conversion. In 1804,

18425: 17326: 11959:, "Psychological Distance Between Poles and Jews in Nazi-Occupied Warsaw", in Joshue Zimmerman, ed., "Contested memories", Rutgers University Press, 2003, 9985: 9519: 9513: 12615: 11000: 6426:

also flourished; Poland had fifteen Yiddish theatres and theatrical groups. Warsaw was home to the most important Yiddish theater troupe of the time, the

2430: 12902: 10074: 9879: 9723: 6771:

As the Polish government sought to lower the numbers of the Jewish population in Poland through mass emigration, it embraced close and good contact with

6062:

The number of Jews immigrating to Poland from Ukraine and Soviet Russia during the interwar period grew rapidly. Jewish population in the area of former

967: 13994: 12188:, one of its leaders, called upon members of the organisation to defend Poland in case of war, and both Polish and Zionist flags were raised by Betar." 10349: 10025: 6860:

The number of Jews in Poland on 1 September 1939, amounted to about 3,474,000 people. One hundred thirty thousand soldiers of Jewish descent, including

6177:, was increasingly used by the young Warsaw Jews who did not have a problem in identifying themselves fully as Jews, Varsovians and Poles. Jews such as 5979:

In the aftermath of the Great War localized conflicts engulfed Eastern Europe between 1917 and 1919. Many attacks were launched against Jews during the

5084:. Further disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the 18th century, from the accession to the throne of its last king, 19052: 12771:

that Poland had room for 500,000 Jews. The other 3 million had to go. He later spoke of 80,000 to 100,000 leaving per year for the next thirty years."

12140: 9618:

In accordance with its tradition of religious tolerance, Poland refrained from participating in the excesses of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation

5267:

schools, where they were pressured to convert. "Many children were smuggled to Poland, where the conscription of Jews did not take effect until 1844."

3638: 783: 13849: 13460:. "Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne" (НА СТАРОНКАХ КАМУНІКАТУ, Biełaruski histaryczny zbornik) 20 (2003), p. 186–188. Retrieved 16 July 2007. see also 9764: 8244: 18830: 17732: 16298: 15999: 15974: 14812: 12933: 8357: 8353:

Facing violence and a difficult and expensive legal process, many returnees eventually decided to leave the country rather than attempt reclamation.

8252: 8240: 8189: 7064: 6933: 4242: 1402: 17142: 17131: 16140:

Kunicki, Mikolaj (1 May 2015). "The Red and the Brown: Bolesław Piasecki, the Polish Communists, and the Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland, 1967-68".

15406: 13774: 12220:"Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludności z dn. 9.XII 1931 r. – Mieszkania i gospodarstwa domowe ludność" 11777: 9808: 4881:

existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530 a

4700:, at the head of his victorious army, overran the cities of Kraków and Warsaw. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the 19007: 14967: 12898: 12848: 9719: 8539: 7939:. Some 166,000 people lost their lives in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, including perhaps as many as 17,000 Polish Jews who had either fought with the 4624: 4117:. With the consent of the class representatives and higher officials, in 1264 he issued a General Charter of Jewish Liberties (commonly called the 2425: 852: 10716: 10686: 12819: 9658: 8795: 6527: 4634:

in 1595-1596, Orthodox church was outlawed in Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and that caused massive religious, social and political tensions in

4467:

also migrated to Poland during this time. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi

2673: 1291: 788: 15042:

Same liczby były całkowicie wiarygodne, ale pozbawione komentarza, sprytnie ukrywały fakt, że ofiary w przeważającej liczbie nie były Rosjanami.

14019:

Klaus-Peter Friedrich, "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II.

7954:). Warsaw was razed to the ground by the Germans and more than 150,000 Poles were sent to labor or concentration camps. On 17 January 1945, the 7590:(the Underground State's military arm), with the death sentence being meted out on a scale unknown in the occupied countries of Western Europe. 6712:

in 1936 Jews constituted 41.3% of general population and some 80.3% of private enterprises were owned by Jews. The 32% of Jewish inhabitants of

5931:

While most Polish Jews were neutral to the idea of a Polish state, many played a significant role in the fight for Poland's independence during

4121:), which granted all Jews the freedom to worship, trade, and travel. Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes, 17454: 16124: 14880: 12657: 9255:

estimate that there are between 25,000 and 100,000 Jews living in Poland, a similar number to that estimated by Jonathan Ornstein, head of the

8935: 8337: 6269:, born of a Jewish mother and Polish father, was one of the most popular artists of that era, and pre-war songs of Jewish composers, including 5642: 5308: 5194: 3835: 13194: 8343:

In general, restitution was easier for larger organizations or well connected individuals, and the process was also abused by criminal gangs.

7114:. General Anders decided not to prosecute the deserters and emphasized that the Jewish soldiers who remained in the Force fought bravely. The 6876:

by the Germans; the majority did not survive. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the

17384: 8783: 8463:

A second wave of Jewish emigration (50,000) took place during the liberalization of the Communist regime between 1957 and 1959. After 1967's

8222: 5092:

for 2.5 million rubles, with the Russian army stationing only 5 kilometres (3 mi) away from Warsaw. Eight years later, triggered by the

3858: 2927: 17277: 15898: 13382: 11594: 11460: 8499:, CKŻP) which provided legal, educational, social care, cultural, and propaganda services. A countrywide Jewish Religious Community, led by 7919:, described them as some of the best fighters, always at the front line. It is estimated that over 2,000 Polish Jews, some as well known as 7508:....There is a need for a reminder, that in accordance with paragraph 3 of the decree of 15 October 1941, on the Limitation of Residence in 4688:. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which had already suffered from the Khmelnytsky Uprising and from the recurring invasions of the Russians, 3877:

in 1989, the situation of Polish Jews became normalized and those who were Polish citizens before World War II were allowed to renew Polish

18956: 16051: 11586: 9938: 9248: 8460:, Poland. The camp trained 7,000 soldiers who then traveled to Palestine to fight for Israel. The boot-camp existed until the end of 1948. 8328: 7798: 7563: 7559:

gestures and facial expressions. People with physical characteristics such as dark curly hair and brown eyes were particularly vulnerable.

6760:

The main strain of antisemitism in Poland during this time was motivated by Catholic religious beliefs and centuries-old myths such as the

5846: 5792:

Many Jews took part in the Polish insurrections, particularly against Russia (since the Tsars discriminated heavily against the Jews). The

4280:

by the priests, and new riots against the Jews in Poznań in 1399. Accusations of blood libel by another fanatic priest led to the riots in

3827: 1228: 793: 226: 13514: 4963:

devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the [Khmelnytsky Uprising and The Deluge.

3830:, and passive refusal to inform on them, to indifference, blackmail, and in extreme cases, committing premeditated murders such as in the 19150: 18908: 17192: 17170: 13305: 8930: 8068:) started an armed struggle against the German troops who were carrying out the planned liquidation and deportation of the ghetto to the 7383: 6643:, one of its leaders, called for its members to defend Poland in case of war, and the organisation raised both Polish and Zionist flags. 6261:, were less well known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Some Polish writers had Jewish roots e.g. 3890: 3787:

was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years, from both the political establishment and the general population. Throughout the

1912: 1875: 1167: 18847: 16324: 8655:) gave Gomułka's government an excuse to try and channel public anti-government sentiment into another avenue. Thus his security chief, 17153: 17120: 16869: 12957:"'From Nazi Inferno to Soviet Hell': Polish–Jewish children and youth and their trajectories of survival during and after World War II" 12339: 12312: 12245: 11859:

Rozenbaum, Włodzimierz (1989). "The Status of the Jews in Poland between the Wars: 1918-1939: An Overview". In Timothy J. Wiles (ed.).

9288: 9283: 9278: 9057: 6897: 5887: 5190: 5109:, and even more of its peoples. Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell under the military control of Austria and Russia. 4533: 3907: 221: 216: 211: 61: 9053:

in Warsaw launched a bilingual Polish-English website called "The Virtual Shtetl", providing information about Jewish life in Poland.

8798:

was founded in 1993. Its purpose is the promotion and organization of Jewish religious and cultural activities in Polish communities.

3861:, and the hostility of the Communist Party to both religion and private enterprise, but also because in 1946–1947 Poland was the only 18592: 18314: 17591: 17404: 16840: 16465: 14900: 7724:

represents what is likely the most known episode of the wartime history of the Polish Jews. The ghetto was established by the German

5171:

1830–1831, the January Insurrection of 1863, as well as in the revolutionary movement of 1905. Many Polish Jews were enlisted in the

3764: 2851: 11654:

Nechama Tec, "When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland", Oxford University Press US, 1987,

10659: 9856: 9579: 8407:

to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Britain demanded Poland to halt the exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.

7240:

printed in Polish routinely ran antisemitic articles that urged local people to adopt an attitude of indifference towards the Jews.

6768:

declared that Poland could house 500,000 Jews, and hoped that over the next 30 years 80,000-100,000 Jews a year would leave Poland.

4014:

was commerce and trade, including the export and import of goods such as cloth, linen, furs, hides, wax, metal objects, and slaves.

1001: 667: 17429: 17319: 14113: 12227: 11747: 11485: 8718: 8523:, an academic institution specializing in the research of the history and culture of the Jews in Poland, and the Yiddish newspaper 7466: 7391:, the collaborator-prisoners. Some of them were Jewish themselves, and their prosecution after the war created an ethical dilemma. 6937: 6550:

had also become increasingly hostile to the Jews, who in the 1920s and 1930s were increasingly seen as agents of evil, that is, of

2874: 16725: 15455: 7055:

There were also Jews who assisted Poles during the Soviet occupation. Among the thousands of Polish officers killed by the Soviet

17601: 17259: 15437: 13860: 13729: 12532: 12097: 11300: 9478: 8491:

For those Polish Jews who remained, the rebuilding of Jewish life in Poland was carried out between October 1944 and 1950 by the

8092:. Several dozen guerrillas managed to break through to the forests surrounding Białystok where they joined the partisan units of 7080: 6884:. In 1939, Jews constituted 30% of Warsaw's population. With the coming of the war, Jewish and Polish citizens of Warsaw jointly 2224: 1062: 17202: 14839: 14491: 10873: 9778: 8172: 7958:

entered a destroyed and nearly uninhabited Warsaw. Some 300 Jews were found hiding in the ruins in the Polish part of the city (

7757:

the next year and a half, Jews from smaller cities and villages were brought into the Warsaw Ghetto, while diseases (especially

6868:

at the outbreak of the Second World War, thus being among the first to launch armed resistance against Nazi Germany. During the

6635:

paramilitary movement, whose members admired the Polish nationalist camp and imitated some of its aspects. Uniformed members of

6197:(The Bund), as well as parties of the Zionist right and left wing and religious conservative movements, were represented in the 4175:. Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in 52: 17689: 17641: 17516: 17511: 13703: 11998: 10757: 8871:

is one of the largest Jewish burial grounds in Europe, and preserved historic sites include those located in Góra Kalwaria and

8822:

it was renovated, dedicated and reopened thanks to the efforts and endowments by Polish Jewry. Warsaw has an active synagogue,

7550: 6979: 6339: 3631: 2801: 2736: 2618: 454: 16220:"The Jews in Poland after the Second World War. Most Recent Contributions of Polish Historiography :: Quest CDEC journal" 11459:"Traktat między Głównemi Mocarstwami sprzymierzonemi i stowarzyszonemi a Polską, podpisany w Wersalu dnia 28 czerwca 1919 r." 10106: 8688:

countries to restore diplomatic relations with Israel after these have been broken off right after the Six-Day's War. In 1986

7866:

in his report stated that his troops had killed 6,065 Jewish fighters during the battle. After the uprising was already over,

4869:

were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as

3783:, it was still the center of the European Jewish world, with one of the world's largest Jewish communities of over 3 million. 622: 18410: 17725: 17085: 17069: 17038: 17022: 17006: 16865: 16402: 16192: 15850: 15820: 15672: 15583: 15506: 15368: 15201: 15066: 14977: 14666: 14383: 14067: 13797: 12585: 12571: 12349: 12322: 12282: 12255: 12222:[Central Statistical Office the Polish Republic, the second census dated 9.XII 1931 – Abodes and household populace] 11941: 11885: 11414: 10965: 10818: 10780: 10253: 10113:

The American Jewish Committee research grant. See: D. Stola, Fighting against the Shadows (reprint), in Robert Blobaum, ed.;

9964: 9511:, University of Chicago Press 1992, page 51. Quote: "Poland, at that time, was the most tolerant country in Europe." Also in 9303: 8695:

During the late 1970s some Jewish activists were engaged in the anti-Communist opposition groups. Most prominent among them,

8605: 7980:

The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. With the decision of

6297:, are still widely known in Poland today. Painters became known as well for their depictions of Jewish life. Among them were 1922: 17213: 16484:

North American Jewish Data Bank. (See Table 1: Jewish Population by Country, 1920s–1930s; PDF file, direct download 52.4 KB)

16340: 14420: 11518: 10269: 9455: 7566:, and took advantage of their desperation by collecting money, or worse, turning them over to the Germans for a reward. The 7297:, resentment over alleged cooperation with the Soviet invaders in the Polish–Soviet War and during the 1939 invasion of the 6530:

of 1934, the antisemitic tropes of Nazi propaganda had become more common in Polish politics, where they were echoed by the

5175:, which fought for the Polish independence, achieved in 1918 when the occupying forces disintegrated following World War I. 4137:

of Legnica and Wrocław in 1295. Article 31 of the Statute of Kalisz tried to rein in the Catholic Church from disseminating

4037:(1102–1139), Jews, encouraged by the tolerant regime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, including over the border in 18808: 17646: 17476: 16208: 15038:

The Soviet methods were particularly misleading. The numbers were correct, but the victims were overwhelmingly not Russian.

14253: 12513: 11667: 10727: 9050: 8959: 8849: 8724: 8588:, were prosecuted and sentenced to prison terms for "power abuses" including the torture of Polish anti-fascists including 7471: 7406:

was the largest in all of World War II, with 380,000 people crammed into an area of 1.3 sq mi (3.4 km). The

7305:

attitudes also existed in the London-based Polish Government in Exile, although on 18 December 1942 the President in exile

6686: 6194: 6140:'s Jewish population numbered over 60,000, or about 25% of the city's total population. In 1939 there were 375,000 Jews in 4542: 3712: 2360: 413: 373: 17207: 16658:, "Before the 'Final Solution': Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland", 15925: 13107: 13091: 13060: 9018: 8994:

is an annual event in April held since 1988 to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. It takes place from Auschwitz to

7616:

Food rations for the Poles were small (669 kcal per day in 1941) compared to other occupied nations throughout Europe and

4233:, however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to the more hospitable cities in Poland. 4083:, the unique Polish nobility) and peasants, and they were instrumental in promoting the commercial interests of the land. 778: 18915: 17651: 17312: 17287: 14615: 14235:

The project which describes the Poles killed along with their families for helping Jews. Retrieved from Internet Archive.

13414: 12501: 11550:

Kapiszewski, Andrzej (2004). "Controversial Reports on the situation of Jews in Poland in the aftermath of World War I".

11289:

In: Ideology, Politics and Diplomacy in East Central Europe, ed. M. B. B. Biskupski. University of Rochester Press, 2003.

9532:

Engel, David. "On Reconciling the Histories of Two Chosen Peoples." The American Historical Review 114.4 (2009): 914-929.

9451: 8951: 6865: 4704:

was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. Which was later followed by the massacres of the Crown hetman

2628: 2445: 2435: 1675: 1284: 249: 12670: 9677:, Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland, 6820:

Jews and an official Polish government desire to remove Jews from Poland continued until the German invasion of Poland.

5959:

Samuel Herschthal, Dr. Zygmunt Leser, Henryk Orlean, Wiktor Chajes and others. The donations poured in including 50,000

498: 473: 17576: 16696: 15378: 15280: 15025: 13524: 13175: 13024:. Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Antisemitism in Interwar Germany and Poland. 11501: 11167: 8057: 7311: 5455: 5198: 4737: 3823: 3723: 3024: 2974: 2939: 2633: 2498: 2365: 1233: 1182: 493: 15216: 12101: 11551: 11390: 8921:

Polish authors and scholars have published many works about the history of Jews in Poland. Notable among them are the

7410:

was the second largest, holding about 160,000 prisoners. Other large Jewish ghettos in leading Polish cities included

7301:

regions, greed for the possessions of the Jews, and of course coercion by the Nazis to participate in such massacres.

4919:(c. 1500–1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in 4823:(" dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of 18360: 17546: 17506: 17486: 17466: 17369: 16987: 16957: 16885: 16797: 16783: 16769: 16747: 16721: 16677: 16648: 16629: 16249: 16059: 15955: 15467: 15338: 15245: 15130: 14913: 14741: 14720: 14553: 14529: 14407: 14283: 13962: 13933: 13887: 13845: 13725: 13638: 13631:

Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife, collaboration with occupying forces and genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947

13586: 13469: 13392: 13365: 13338: 13162: 13135: 13127:

Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947

12907: 12748: 12447: 12038: 12008: 11912: 11846: 11824: 11441: 11083: 11049: 11010: 10919: 10541: 10396: 10084: 10035: 9913: 9728: 9293: 9073: 8979: 8967: 8941: 8560:, Berman and Minc formed a triumvirate of the Stalinist leaders in postwar Poland. After 1956, during the process of 8471: 8105: 8038: 7685: 7476: 7282: 7115: 5881: 5872:, soon proved unpopular with both German officials and Bodenheimer's colleagues, and was dead by the following year. 5835: 5668: 5334: 5184: 3980: 3719: 3624: 2716: 2678: 2653: 2573: 2558: 2405: 2345: 2300: 552: 503: 186: 16082: 13448: 9411: 8286:

Several causes led to the anti-Jewish violence of 1944–1947. One cause was traditional Christian anti-semitism; the

5650: 5316: 3869:

to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Most of the remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the

18949: 18430: 17718: 17679: 17481: 13568: 13485: 11703: 8534:

Some Polish Communists of Jewish descent actively participated in the establishment of the communist regime in the

8492: 8018: 7862:

It took the Germans twenty-seven days to put down the uprising, after some very heavy fighting. The German general

6741: 4835:

that Poland was a place where "most of the time the gentiles do no harm; on the contrary they do right by Israel" (

4070: 3842: 3009: 2991: 2897: 2791: 2643: 2638: 2563: 2528: 2395: 1194: 768: 239: 16353: 14727:

Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author."

5450:

With its large Catholic and Jewish populations, the Pale was acquired by the Russian Empire (which was a majority

508: 488: 478: 463: 18894: 18546: 17684: 17631: 17606: 17561: 17556: 17531: 17389: 14972:. Pitt Series in Russian and East European Studies. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 124, 165, 172, 255. 12604:

Encyclopedia of Jewish Communities in Poland, Volume VII. Translation of "Radom" chapter published by Yad Vashem.

10419: 8660: 6889: 6877: 6829: 6608: 4248: 3527: 3426: 2981: 2964: 2917: 2816: 2726: 2663: 2613: 2593: 2588: 2508: 2482: 2457: 2335: 2325: 2315: 2295: 2290: 395: 16440: 15869:

Denburg, Stephen A. (1998). "Reclaiming Their Past: A Survey of Jewish Efforts to Restitute European Property".

15782:

Searching for Justice After the Holocaust: Fulfilling the Terezin Declaration and Immovable Property Restitution

15740:"Restitution of Private Property in Postwar Poland: The Unfinished Legacy of the Second World War and Communism" 15088: 15056: 14456: 13224: 10303: 7915:, and immediately joined Polish fighters. Only a few of them survived. The Polish commander of one Jewish unit, 7480: 5415:

was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. It extended from the eastern

5085: 19145: 17596: 17586: 17536: 17496: 17449: 17444: 17434: 17419: 17414: 17409: 17394: 17379: 17374: 17364: 17359: 17354: 17349: 17241: 17219: 15314: 15171: 15118:

Sovietization of educational system in the eastern part of Lesser Poland under the Soviet occupation, 1939-1941

14997: 14950: 14466: 14176: 13497: 12627: 12402: 12378: 11534: 11310: 11224: 9313: 9308: 8535: 8274:

of 4 July 1946, in which thirty-seven Jews and two Poles were murdered. Following the investigation, the local

7775: 5869: 5646: 5312: 4126: 3000: 2986: 2954: 2934: 2902: 2846: 2821: 2796: 2776: 2766: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2721: 2711: 2706: 2683: 2598: 2583: 2503: 2462: 2415: 2410: 2330: 2275: 1277: 989: 152: 13651: 11816: 9360:

This number essentially entails the amount of Israelis with at least one Polish great-grandparent, as of 2007.

9080:

Historical core Jewish population (using current borders) with Jews as a % of the total Polish population

8399:

signed a decree allowing Jews to leave Poland without visas or exit permits. In 1946–1947 Poland was the only

7779: 1189: 927: 697: 567: 19124: 19012: 18307: 18234: 18012: 17694: 17636: 17581: 17571: 17551: 17541: 17521: 17501: 17471: 17439: 17424: 17399: 17335: 16762:

The Lord's Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth During the Eighteenth Century

16660: 15772:, ed. by Jan Grabowski & Dariusz Libionka (Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów, Warszawa 2014) 15770:

Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950

15701:

Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950

15492: 15031: 12539:

Historia-Polski.com. Wykaz miast RP z populacją żydowską powyżej 12 tysięcy. Łuck: 17.366 czyli 48% ludności.

12177: 10353: 9678: 9542: 9318: 8706: 8236: 8156:(where there was a significant Jewish community initially consisting of local concentration camp survivors), 7770: 7689: 7218:

were forced to dance and sing in public with their beards shorn off. Some rabbis were set on fire or hanged.

6995:

relief in having escaped the Nazi occupation in the first weeks of war. The Polish poet and former communist

6815: 6468: 5937: 5527: 5172: 4656: 3421: 2959: 2944: 2907: 2869: 2841: 2831: 2826: 2806: 2786: 2771: 2756: 2731: 2697: 2668: 2568: 2553: 2477: 2467: 2385: 2355: 2280: 2266: 523: 483: 57: 17: 15288:

intensity until 1948 and ended with thousands killed, wounded, arrested, or transported to the Soviet Union.

14101:(Politics of the Third Reich in Occupied Poland, Part Two), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1970, pp. 169–170 12893:

in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine.13"

11765:

Religion and Native Language (total). Section Jewish: 3,113,933 with Yiddish: 2,489,034 and Hebrew: 243,539.

8868: 7554:

Announcement of death penalty for Jews captured outside the Ghetto and for Poles helping Jews, November 1941

7188: 7184: 4422:, thus stimulating Jewish immigration to the much more accessible Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the 1067: 19057: 19047: 17611: 17566: 17491: 17461: 15813:

The post-socialist city: urban form and space transformations in Central and Eastern Europe after socialism

9046: 8651: 8452:, and Poland, totaling 250,000 survivors. In 1947, a military training camp for young Jewish volunteers to 8069: 8046: 8025: 7746: 7221: 7172: 7168: 7007:

claimed that among the informers and collaborators, the percentage of Jews was striking; likewise, General

5722: 5045: 4423: 4379: 3870: 3846: 3029: 2949: 2912: 2836: 2781: 2648: 2623: 2548: 2523: 2513: 2452: 2375: 2370: 2350: 2340: 2320: 2305: 2198: 1902: 1666: 1661: 1087: 1011: 977: 597: 331: 276: 16295: 16026: 15116: 13328: 10367: 9714:

in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine."

8053: 8028:. During the deportations, hundreds of Jews, mainly those deemed too weak or sick to travel, were killed. 8008: 7947: 4901:

In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from

4134: 3826:, it was orchestrated and perpetrated by the Nazis. Polish attitudes to the Holocaust varied widely, from 1177: 18942: 18901: 18617: 18276: 18129: 17741: 17150: 17139: 17128: 17117: 15304: 15058:

Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis

14966:

Marina Sorokina; Tarik Cyril Amar (2014). Michael David-Fox; Peter Holquist; Alexander M. Martin (eds.).

14232: 13001:

Edward D. Wynot, Jr., 'A Necessary Cruelty': The Emergence of Official Anti-Semitism in Poland, 1936–39.

12905:, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel", 10638: 9726:, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel", 9632:

Lords' Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Eighteenth Century

9323: 8689: 8565: 8520: 8314: 8185: 8084:

of April 1943, the Białystok uprising had no chances for military success, but it was the second-largest

7850: 7622: 7024:

A number of younger Jews, often through the pro-Marxist Bund or some Zionist groups, were sympathetic to

6917: 6737: 6651: 6569:. The agreement granted certain cultural and religious rights to Jews in exchange for Jewish support for 6531: 6056: 5687:, began to take hold in Poland during the 19th century, stressing secular ideas and values. Champions of 5511: 4260: 3874: 3819: 3700: 3692: 3019: 3014: 2969: 2922: 2608: 2578: 2538: 2533: 2390: 1696: 1092: 1072: 1036: 1026: 1016: 982: 803: 15188: 12717:

Ezra Mendelsohn. The Jews of East Central Europe Between the World Wars. Indiana University Press, 1983.

11972: 10590: 10499: 5975:

Percentage of Jewish (by religion) population in each voivodeship of Poland according to the 1931 census

652: 627: 537: 18510: 18349: 18054: 14762: 12577: 11685: 10978: 8922: 8907: 8906:. The Memorial is located where the Warsaw Ghetto used to be, at the site of one command bunker of the 8684:

First attempts to improve Polish–Israeli relations began in the mid-1970s. Poland was the first of the

7633: 7367: 7359: 7306: 7247: 7237: 5950: 5805: 5115: 5113:

Polish society recognized the urgency of popular education as the first step toward reform. The famous

5057: 3493: 3338: 3046: 2440: 1636: 1626: 1362: 1211: 1142: 1082: 1031: 547: 348: 16929:

Weaponizing the Past: Collective Memory and Jews, Poles, and Communists in Twenty-First Century Poland

15845:. A Random House trade paperback (Random House trade paperback ed.). New York, NY: Random House. 14983: 14337: 9655: 8974:

In September 2000, dignitaries from Poland, Israel, the United States, and other countries (including

8410:

Between 1945 and 1948, 100,000–120,000 Jews left Poland. Their departure was largely organized by the

8115:

The estimates of Polish Jews before the war vary from slightly under 3 million to almost 3.5 million (

7063:

there were 500–600 Jews. From 1939 to 1941 between 100,000 and 300,000 Polish Jews were deported from

6213:(Polish: Izaak Zynger), achieved international acclaim as a classic Jewish writer and was awarded the 5927:(1933), reading roll call of the fallen, organized by Union of Jewish Fighters for Polish Independence 5915: 5793: 5032:. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of 907: 587: 572: 19037: 18980: 18813: 18803: 18459: 18365: 18114: 17801: 16357: 15394: 14598: 13745: 13276: 13077: 11138: 9024:

In 2006, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be approximately 20,000; most living in Warsaw,

8999: 8548: 8307: 7762: 7750: 7388: 7363: 7180: 6987: 6944: 6690: 6547: 6226: 6214: 5834:

party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the

5783:(People's Party) advocated, for its part, cultural autonomy and resistance to assimilation. In 1912, 5106: 5037: 4983: 4429:

The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of

3607: 3300: 3151: 3092: 1983: 1077: 1041: 1021: 286: 271: 18124: 17918: 16122: 14349: 10698: 10558: 10469: 10058:

Suggested reading: Arieh J. Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus...," Polin 7 (1992): pp. 161–175

8569: 8508: 7402:

Between October 1939 and July 1942 a system of ghettos was imposed for the confinement of Jews. The

7243: 4701: 647: 18990: 18798: 18694: 18612: 18300: 18102: 18097: 15143: 15115:(1998) . Włodzimierz Bonusiak; Stanisław Jan Ciesielski; Zygmunt Mańkowski; Mikołaj Iwanow (eds.). 14569: 13704:

The Soviet Occupation of Poland, 1939–41, and the Stereotype of the Anti-Polish and Pro-Soviet Jew.

11526: 9252: 8779: 7583: 7094: 6411: 6093: 6018: 5984: 5924: 5631: 5297: 4668: 4222: 4130: 3927:

The first Jews to visit Polish territory were traders, while permanent settlement began during the

3780: 3310: 3290: 2400: 1880: 1421: 1127: 717: 557: 468: 15889: 15536: 15333:(Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2003), 212-213. 15101:. Vol. VII. Polska 1944/45–1989. Studia i Materiały. pp. 25–26 (pp. 2–3 in current document). 13202: 8239:. It occurred amid a period of violence and anarchy across the country, caused by lawlessness and 8180:

after the war; created by a local Jewish Committee in 1945. Most remained for only a brief period.

7661:

in Poland. The Polish government in exile was also the only government to set up an organization (

7089:. Small numbers of Polish Jews (about 6,000) were able to leave the Soviet Union in 1942 with the 6736:

The national boycott of Jewish businesses and advocacy for their confiscation was promoted by the

6039:, although serious abuses against the Jews, including pogroms, continued elsewhere, especially in 4149: 3912: 19119: 19032: 18249: 17923: 17274: 16916: 16878:

After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II, East European Monographs

16836: 16825: 15270: 14831: 14130: 13724:(Jews in the authorities of the Polish Secret Security. Stereotype or Reality?), Bulletin of the 12392: 11286: 10739: 10576: 9328: 9256: 9003: 8983: 8975: 8823: 8791: 8772: 7962: 7447: 7149: 7139: 7119: 7008: 6948: 6893: 6522:, the strengthening of antisemitism in Polish society was also a consequence of the influence of 5635: 5564: 5451: 5301: 5049: 4885:

was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and

4375: 4034: 3704: 3451: 3441: 3406: 3285: 3275: 3058: 2229: 2171: 2005: 1684: 1641: 1356: 1132: 947: 842: 813: 657: 336: 291: 281: 18172: 17292: 16974: 16184: 16067: 15112: 14041: 13355: 12688:"The Pogrom of Jews During and After World War I: The Destruction of the Jewish Idea of Galicia" 12601: 12226:(in Polish). Central Statistical office of the Polish Republic. 1938. p. 15. Archived from 11583: 9935: 8613: 7512:(page 595 of the GG Register) Jews leaving the Jewish Quarter without permission will incur the 7491: 6370:

contributed to the world of science. Other Polish Jews who gained international recognition are

6144:

or one-third of the city's population. Only New York City had more Jewish residents than Warsaw.

4721: 3763:, Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly 1112: 577: 19088: 19022: 19017: 18167: 18085: 17187: 16731: 16635: 16617: 16207:

AP Online, "Some Jewish exiles to have Polish citizenship restored this week", 3 October 1998,

14799: 13678:

Who Will Write Our History: Emmanuel Ringelblum, the Warsaw Ghetto and the Oyneg Shabes Archive

12369: 11356: 9620:"Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" by Lonnie R. Johnson Oxford University Press 1996 9605: 9334: 9021:, which is one of the biggest festivals of Jewish culture in the world, takes place in Kraków. 8898: 8852:

is being built in Warsaw. The building was designed by the Finnish architect Rainer Mahlamäki.

8475: 8089: 8081: 7973: 7783: 7721: 7680: 7654: 7355: 7029: 6885: 6562: 6100: 5812: 5515: 5068: 3745: 3570: 3305: 3219: 2285: 1837: 1456: 1426: 1206: 1199: 707: 672: 617: 562: 16937: 16512: 16392: 15524: 15351: 14557: 14533: 14375: 14368: 14161: 13879: 13873: 13690: 13677: 13665:

Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941–44.

12726: 12705: 12439: 12041: 11374: 11206: 11193: 11107: 10533: 10206: 10127: 9905: 9899: 9036:, though there are no census figures that would give an exact number. According to the Polish 8829:

There are also several Jewish publications although most of them are in Polish. These include

8581: 6538:

was obsessed with an international conspiracy of freemasons and Jews, and in his works linked

6286: 5489:. At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, as in 5159: 4066: 677: 106:

1,250,000 (ancestry, passport eligible); 202,300 (born in Poland or with a Polish-born father)

18873: 18842: 18727: 18447: 18027: 17758: 16843:

in this source. The encyclopedia was published when sovereign Poland did not exist following

14940: 14442: 14057: 13950: 13915: 13664: 13630: 13617: 13602: 13578: 13572: 13540: 13154: 12509: 12467: 11836: 11655: 11267:

Elusive Alliance: The German Occupation of Poland in World War I page 176 Jesse Kauffman 2015

10909: 10444: 9841: 9703: 9393: 9340: 8978:) gathered in the city of Oświęcim (Auschwitz) to commemorate the opening of the refurbished 8876: 8193: 8116: 7090: 6955:

where, as a result of the inhuman conditions, about half of them died before the end of war.

6901: 6872:

some 20,000 Jewish civilians and 32,216 Jewish soldiers were killed, while 61,000 were taken

6665: 6482: 6317: 6250: 6222: 6210: 6068: 6048: 6000: 5988: 5826:

In addition to the socialists, Zionist parties were also popular, in particular, the Marxist

5797: 5231: 5053: 4855: 4572: 4551: 4434: 4395: 4168: 4101: 4050: 3841:

In the post-war period, many of the approximately 200,000 Jewish survivors registered at the

3749: 3461: 3456: 3401: 3189: 2104: 1832: 1819: 1714: 1431: 1216: 773: 737: 732: 722: 607: 296: 16419: 16105: 13246: 12922:

The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II

12866:

The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II

12837:

The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II

8966:

There have been a number of Holocaust remembrance activities in Poland in recent years. The

8593: 8032:

camp in the city before deportation to Treblinka. Those deemed fit to work were sent to the

7419: 6014: 5263:'s discretion. Thus between 1827 and 1857 over 30,000 children were placed in the so-called 4106: 877: 19114: 19002: 18469: 18197: 18069: 17793: 16844: 16832: 13925: 13919: 10053: 9425: 9061: 8998:

and is attended by many people from Israel, Poland and other countries. The marchers honor

7935:

concentration camp in Warsaw, men and women, took part in combat against Nazis during 1944

7855: 7844: 7766: 7741: 7264: 6694: 6581: 6437: 6230: 6025:– the report concluded – 64 Jews had been killed (other accounts put the number at 72). In 5942: 5909: 5854: 5801: 5251: 5151: 5093: 4764: 4639: 4584: 4537: 4359: 4332: 4225:

accusation against Jews in Poland was recorded, and in 1367 the first pogrom took place in

3756: 3676: 3532: 3484: 3224: 3082: 1895: 1760: 1749: 1707: 1147: 18742: 18732: 17849: 16245: 14919: 14681: 14586: 9753:. Weapons were provided for 10,000 men, and Polish officers trained Irgun fighters in the 8656: 7951: 7293:

similar to Jedwabne. The reasons for these massacres are still debated, but they included

7108:, 67% (2,972) of the Jewish soldiers deserted to settle in Palestine, and many joined the 6809:

to Poland to escape anti-Jewish measures. Their property was claimed by the Polish state.

6475:, won several medals in the table-tennis tournaments. Many of these clubs belonged to the 6225:, went on to achieve international acclaim as classic Jewish writers; Singer won the 1978 4935:) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the co-author of the 4061:. Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including 1137: 727: 592: 8: 18922: 18852: 18825: 18793: 18788: 18763: 18722: 18607: 18187: 18182: 18162: 16063: 15300: 15011: 14162:"Antisemitism, Anti-Judaism, and the Polish Catholic Clergy during the Second World War." 13838:

Resplendent Synagogue: Architecture and Worship in an Eighteenth-century Polish Community

13718: 12811: 12553: 10744: 10703: 10642: 10244:

Friedman, Jonathan C (2012) . "Jewish Communities of Europe on the Eve of World War II".

9750: 9583: 9244: 9037: 8991: 8860: 8388: 8275: 8133: 7909: 7725: 7317: 7105: 6952: 6881: 6776: 6772: 6574: 6476: 6419: 6347: 5576: 5216: 5203: 5089: 4824: 4759:, led to ferocious murders of Polish noblemen, Catholic priests and thousands of Jews by 4697: 4430: 4399: 4371: 4363: 3967:. In the summer of 965 or 966, Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native 3964: 3752: 3585: 3280: 1958: 1825: 1728: 1721: 1651: 1539: 1414: 542: 196: 18737: 18292: 16563: 15490: 14752:"The Stroop Report – The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More", Secker & Warburg 1980 14110: 12119: 10308:

Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot

9644:

Jews and Heretics in Pre-modern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era

9060:

opened. It is one of the world's largest Jewish museums. As of 2019 another museum, the

8002: 7411: 7407: 6929:, in which 25 Jews were killed (the Soviets later put some of the pogromists on trial). 6854: 6729: 6456: 5593: 5543: 4172: 912: 867: 19098: 19093: 18966: 18868: 18706: 18520: 18281: 18207: 18157: 17776: 16790:

Jews and Heretics in Premodern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era

16177: 16157: 16047: 15634: 15471: 14874: 14787: 14363: 13552: 12984: 12789: 12651: 12364: 11743: 10892: 8844: 8767: 7875: 7509: 7451: 7351: 7329: 7325: 7164: 6869: 6850: 6840: 6757:

also substantially poorer and less integrated than the Jews in most of Western Europe.

6753: 6570: 6391: 6274: 6246: 6112: 6063: 6035: 6030: 5816: 5597: 5583:

movement. The pogroms prompted a great wave of Jewish emigration to the United States.

5568: 5519: 5420: 5361: 5352: 5244: 5224: 5018:

and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of

4870: 4832: 4748: 4709: 4651: 4352: 4256: 4097:

dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and a Żydowska (Jewish) street in Kraków in 1304.

3792: 3791:, Poland supported Jewish emigration from Poland and the creation of a Jewish state in 3772: 3436: 3386: 3333: 3328: 3242: 3112: 2380: 2209: 1968: 1888: 1742: 1308: 1221: 1051: 662: 17247: 15547:

Under these limitations, restitution seemed to proceed well, at least for a time (see

15434: 13819: 13574:

Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide...

13277:"YIVO | Poland: Poland since 1939, in the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe" 12529: 11108:

When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland

10687:

Categorically Jewish, Distinctly Polish. Polish Jewish History Reflected and Refracted

10455: 8557: 8538:

between 1944 and 1956. Hand-picked by Joseph Stalin, prominent Jews held posts in the

7847:, died fighting on 8 May 1943 at the organization's command centre on 18 Mila Street. 6306: 6128:) had the third-largest Jewish population in Poland, numbering 110,000 in 1939 (42%). 4889:

issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of

4847: 4273: 3707:, new study programs at Polish secondary schools and universities, and the opening of 642: 170: 18818: 18679: 18664: 18649: 18644: 18464: 18405: 18244: 18224: 18202: 17869: 17091: 17081: 17065: 17061:

Barricades and Banners: The Revolution of 1905 and the Transformation of Warsaw Jewry

17034: 17018: 17002: 16983: 16963: 16953: 16881: 16848: 16793: 16779: 16765: 16743: 16717: 16709: 16692: 16673: 16644: 16625: 16398: 16188: 16161: 15951: 15944: 15846: 15816: 15668: 15638: 15626: 15579: 15502: 15374: 15334: 15310: 15276: 15251: 15241: 15197: 15167: 15126: 15125:]. Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego. pp. 43, 294. 15062: 15021: 14973: 14946: 14909: 14843: 14737: 14716: 14549: 14525: 14483: 14462: 14403: 14379: 14279: 14172: 14063: 13958: 13929: 13883: 13841: 13634: 13582: 13520: 13493: 13465: 13388: 13361: 13334: 13158: 13131: 13125: 12988: 12976: 12878: 12815: 12744: 12639: 12581: 12517: 12483: 12443: 12422: 12398: 12374: 12345: 12318: 12278: 12251: 12034: 12004: 11956: 11937: 11908: 11881: 11842: 11820: 11619: 11530: 11497: 11493: 11437: 11410: 11340: 11306: 11287:'This Troublesome Question': The United States and the 'Polish Pogroms' of 1918–1919. 11163: 11079: 11045: 11006: 10961: 10915: 10776: 10717:

Krwawa zemsta Stefana Czarnieckiego na Kozakach. Nie oszczędzał nawet kobiet i dzieci

10537: 10526: 10495: 10392: 10249: 10219: 10080: 10031: 9960: 9909: 9853: 9833: 9786: 9691: 8926: 8787: 8750: 8731: 8677: 8609: 8597: 8396: 8323: 7101: 7043: 6789: 6780: 6617: 6322: 6084: 6052: 6004: 5980: 5820: 5718: 5133: 4874: 4705: 4555: 4252: 4154: 4118: 3972: 3960: 3580: 3522: 3502: 3319: 2879: 2518: 1978: 1849: 1779: 1656: 1569: 1436: 902: 742: 712: 532: 423: 16083:"Helena Wolinska-Brus: 1919–2008. Controversial communist prosecutor dies in the UK" 15946:

Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948

15843:

Fear: anti-semitism in Poland after Auschwitz; an essay in historical interpretation

15000:

was the result of conscious and purposeful falsification by Stalinist propagandists.

14687: 13758:""JEWISH MILITARY CASUALTIES IN THE POLISH ARMIES IN WORLD WAR II" - VOL. V: Photos" 13516:

Shared History, Divided Memory: Jews and Others in Soviet-occupied Poland, 1939–1941

11618:, Vol. 2. Yivo Institute for Jewish Research Yale University Press. 2008. p. 1393. 11403:

Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna; Dynner, Glenn (2021). "Pogroms in Modern Poland, 1918-1946".

9009: 8955: 7060: 6880:

and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians in the ensuing

6359: 6136:) had a Jewish community of nearly 100,000, about 45% of the city's total. In 1938, 5945:, more than all other minorities combined. Prominent Jews were among the members of 5815:

period, there were several prominent Jewish politicians in the Polish Sejm, such as

3987:. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland in 1097 or 1098 were those banished from 19042: 18773: 18758: 18701: 18689: 18654: 18597: 18551: 18505: 18500: 18495: 18490: 18474: 18454: 18442: 18437: 18415: 18400: 18395: 18355: 18192: 18177: 18119: 18017: 17908: 16932: 16739: 16655: 16328: 16321:

Beit Kraków » Wstęp do Judaizmu (Introduction to Judaism): "Korzenie" (Roots).

16219: 16149: 15618: 15219: 13021: 13006: 12968: 11863:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Polish Studies Center. pp. 161–169. 10800: 10493: 10103: 9884:

University Press of Kentucky 1989 – 201 pages. Page 13; also in Richard C. Lukas,

9875: 9837: 9674: 8855: 8692:

were restored, and full relations were restored in 1990 as soon as communism fell.

8561: 8419: 8260: 8153: 8077: 7924: 7867: 7650: 7394: 7314:

testifies to the fact that Poles were willing to take risks in order to save Jews.

6978:

Yiddish election notice for Soviet local government to the People's council of the

6951:

and massive deportation of 320,000 Polish nationals to the Soviet interior and the

6861: 6749: 6701: 6700:

Anti-Jewish sentiment in Poland had reached its zenith in the years leading to the

6598: 6594: 6519: 6395: 6387: 6298: 5920: 5868:

that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. The plan, known as the

5831: 5761: 5710: 5380: 5366: 5236: 5155: 5143: 5125: 5004:

and overly formal Rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the

4952: 4685: 4647: 4200: 4122: 4087: 4062: 3550: 3431: 3391: 3355: 3053: 2603: 2114: 1870: 1774: 1689: 1579: 1371: 1152: 942: 823: 178: 16378: 15739: 15622: 14766: 14664: 14203:

In the Shadow of Auschwitz: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1939–1942

13896: 11246: 9033: 8818: 8287: 7863: 7819: 7427: 6452: 6206: 6047:

atrocities committed by the young Polish army and its allies in 1919 during their

1157: 952: 922: 897: 862: 19072: 19067: 18674: 18669: 18659: 18602: 18571: 18556: 18530: 18525: 18515: 18323: 18271: 18266: 18134: 17950: 17877: 17281: 17266: 17146: 17135: 17075: 17045: 16993: 16895: 16705: 16499: 16302: 16128: 16006: 15929: 15441: 14779: 14670: 14424: 14117: 14001: 13971: 13781: 13457: 13095: 13064: 12894: 12536: 12274:

Poland, 1918-1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic

12272: 12181: 12156: 11960: 11904:

In the shadow of Hitler: personalities of the right in Central and Eastern Europe

11602: 11590: 11468: 11404: 11073: 10880: 10770: 10110: 9942: 9860: 9754: 9715: 9662: 8903: 8760: 8739: 8701: 8577: 8512: 8085: 8061: 7989: 7936: 7904: 7900: 7733: 7693: 7278: 6999:

has stated that Jews were more inclined to cooperate with the Soviets. Following

6960: 6728:

Demonstration of Polish students demanding implementation of "ghetto benches" at

6660: 6497: 6488: 6423: 6383: 6375: 6327: 6302: 6290: 6187: 6163: 5901: 5842: 5776: 5714: 5428: 5394: 5164: 5029: 4831:, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life. Many agreed with Rabbi 4788: 4784: 4689: 4568: 4513: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4284:

in 1407, although the royal guard hastened to the rescue. Hysteria caused by the

4276:. In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia. There were accusations of 4268: 4160: 4058: 4011: 3992: 3850: 3831: 3788: 3768: 3760: 3755:), Poland's traditional tolerance began to wane from the 17th century. After the 3729:, Poland was the most tolerant country in Europe. Historians have used the label 3726: 3512: 3471: 3466: 3446: 3368: 3362: 3295: 3247: 3087: 3068: 2219: 1948: 1860: 1843: 1387: 1122: 882: 702: 692: 687: 682: 632: 612: 582: 301: 128: 120: 116: 18934: 17304: 16950:

Economic Origins of Antisemitism: Poland and Its Jews in the Early Modern Period

16588: 15703:(in Polish). Warsaw: Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą. pp. 605–607. 11671: 10728:

The Jews in a Polish Private Town – The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century

8556:

responsible for establishing a Communist-style economy. Together with hardliner

8516: 7740:

made up of 24 Jewish men ordered to organize Jewish labor battalions as well as

6403: 6120:

numbered about 233,000, roughly one-third of the city's population. The city of

6071:

and late 1938, the Jewish population of the Republic had grown by over 464,000.

4187:

near Kraków (1386). Casimir, who according to a legend had a Jewish lover named

3991:. The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar 18783: 18768: 18576: 18566: 18561: 18217: 17996: 17903: 16896:

Agency and Displacement of Ethnic Polish and Jewish Families after World War II

16820: 16238: 15922: 15161: 13432: 13088: 13057: 12623: 12567: 12463: 12419:

The Emergence of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe.

12189: 12185: 12026: 11189: 10494:

Kayserling, Meyer; Gotthard Deutsch; M. Seligsohn; Peter Wiernik; N.T. London;

9636:

The Jews in a Polish Private Town: The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century

8947: 8589: 8445: 7985: 7641: 7597: 7273: 7257: 7097: 6996: 6655: 6640: 6472: 6445: 6441: 6407: 6355: 6310: 6258: 6167: 6151: 6080: 6009: 5996: 5992: 5960: 5757: 5698: 5412: 5408: 5033: 5015: 4956: 4937: 4928: 4916: 4693: 4681: 4662: 4631: 4485: 4456: 4452: 4415: 4391: 4230: 4026: 4007: 4003: 3664: 3612: 3411: 3266: 3146: 3125: 3102: 3097: 3075: 3063: 2658: 2139: 2073: 2038: 2016: 1953: 1791: 1769: 1631: 1610: 1586: 1352: 1334: 1256: 1252: 937: 887: 872: 602: 435: 385: 264: 17129:

Jewish Communities in Poland and Lithuania under the Council of the Four Lands

12972: 11641:

End note 20: 44–29, memo 1/30/39 , The Jewish Publication Society of America,

8600:

the interrogation methods used the UB which led to its restructuring in 1954.

8231:

The anti-Jewish violence in Poland refers to a series of violent incidents in

7593: 7439: 6974: 6464: 6089: 5999:

sent an official commission to investigate the matter. The commission, led by

4203:, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced 19139: 18997: 18327: 18254: 17816: 17749: 17297: 17197: 17157: 17124: 16905: 16815: 16153: 15630: 15538:

Polish nationalists protest at law on restitution of Jewish property 12.05.19

15255: 15123:

Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939-1941

15007: 14316: 14028: 13421: 13201:. Chatham House, The Royal Institute of International Affairs. Archived from 12980: 12885:, and in the US, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Jewish members of the 12643: 12548: 12031:

The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999

11332: 10099: 10076:

The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War

9298: 8886: 8735: 8669: 8617: 8601: 8585: 8528: 8365: 8319: 8271: 8177: 8149: 8093: 7940: 7928: 7920: 7916: 7912: 7891: 7886: 7840: 7823: 7794: 7789: 7717: 7709: 7674: 7658: 7609: 7587: 7513: 7435: 7423: 7403: 7226: 7157: 7123: 7048: 7004: 6823: 6752:

that had been very severe on agricultural countries like Poland, reduced the

6745: 6535: 6507: 6363: 6022: 5971: 5865: 5785: 5705:, rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on 5560: 5424: 5255: 5006: 4990: 4942: 4828: 4791:

into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because

4744: 4740:. The worldwide Jewish population at that time was estimated at 1.2 million. 4677: 4473: 4448: 4367: 4335:

confirmed and extended Jewish charters in the second half of the 15th century

4030: 3984: 3968: 3776: 3660: 3560: 3555: 2761: 2688: 2214: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2043: 2021: 1973: 1735: 1574: 1479: 1441: 1392: 1267: 1263: 1117: 1006: 957: 917: 892: 818: 18835: 17945: 17095: 16967: 16687:

Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2014) . Rohde, Aleksandra Miesak (ed.).

16670:

Jews in Poland–Lithuania in the Eighteenth Century: A Genealogy of Modernity

13757: 13179: 13010: 12764: 11721: 11276:

A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War Timothy L. Grady page 82 2017

9695: 8293: 7035: 6793:

organizing passports and facilitating illegal immigration, and supplied the

6785: 6765: 5808:

all saw significant Jewish involvement in the cause of Polish independence.

5442: 4770: 4321: 18622: 18229: 18139: 16714:

The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland

14936: 14636: 14298:

The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland

13461: 13111: 12890: 12882: 11755:(in Polish). ]Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 11642: 11634: 11560: 11519:"Lwów, 1918: The Transmutation of a Symbol and its Legacy in the Holocaust" 11298: 11120: 10670: 10382: 10332: 10286: 9711: 9699: 8995: 8879: 8696: 8685: 8543: 8500: 8415: 8400: 8369: 8024:

In February 1943, approximately 10,000 Białystok Jews were deported to the

7981: 7617: 7455: 7342:, or blackmailers who collaborated with the Nazis in persecuting the Jews. 7294: 7286: 7203: 7076: 7068: 6971:

communists to fill in the newly emptied government and civil service jobs.

6921: 6913: 6589: 6523: 6427: 6371: 6343: 6262: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6178: 6104: 5861: 5580: 5549:

The assassination prompted a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots, called

4906: 4620: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4204: 4114: 3862: 3815: 3811: 3784: 3703:, there has been a renewed interest in Jewish culture, featuring an annual 3688: 3680: 3590: 3416: 3257: 3252: 3210: 3163: 2257: 2124: 2109: 2068: 2033: 1646: 1488: 994: 932: 363: 259: 17834: 17710: 16852: 14782:

in World War II is believed to have occurred in 1942 in the small town of

14207:

Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945

13603:

Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.

13541:

Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.

12487: 12426: 11880:. Liverpool University Press, Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–49. 11623: 11582:"Ustawa z dnia 17 marca 1921 r. – Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej." 11344: 10769:

Nagielski, Mirosław (1995). "Stefan Czarniecki (1604–1655) hetman polny".

10027:

Immigrants in turmoil: mass immigration to Israel and its repercussions...

8141: 7968: 7415: 6983: 6483:

Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine

6117: 5905: 4053:

employed Jews in his mint as engravers and technical supervisors, and the

3857:. Their departure was hastened by the destruction of Jewish institutions, 418: 18684: 18259: 18107: 17978: 17859: 17288:

The Catholic Zionist Who Helped Steer Israeli Independence through the UN

16090: 15667:. New studies in European history. New York: Cambridge University Press. 14942:

From peace to war: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the world, 1939–1941

14312: 13155:

Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath

12772: 12566: 12122:[The legal status of the Jewish minority in the Second Republic] 12066: 11523:

Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath

11429: 11376:

Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present

9990:

Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath

9013:"Shalom in Szeroka Street", the final concert of the 15th Jewish Festival 8802: 8629: 8553: 8504: 8464: 8209: 8176:

Page from a register of several hundred Jewish survivors who returned to

8073: 7955: 7571: 7339: 7321: 7268: 6761: 6709: 6677: 6602: 6503: 6460: 6294: 6282: 6270: 6266: 5953:

of re-emerging sovereign Poland including Herman Feldstein, Henryk Eile,

5932: 5897: 5892: 5780: 5772: 4994: 4975: 4960: 4859: 4852: 4288:

led to additional 14th-century outbreaks of violence against the Jews in

4285: 4277: 4218: 4138: 3920: 3878: 3795:. The Polish state also supported Jewish paramilitary groups such as the 3575: 3517: 3182: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2048: 637: 428: 17214:

A Complicated Coexistence: Polish–Jewish relations through the centuries

16814: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 16537: 13512: 12480:

Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.

12440:

The path of the righteous: gentile rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust

12370:

Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.

12092:[The Jews in Poland's history of the 19th and the 20th century] 11639:

A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 1929–1939.

11358:

Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.

9834:

The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust

7699: 6959:

wealthier Jews, as well as some political and social activists from the

6718: 6451:

There also were several Jewish sports clubs, with some of them, such as

5733: 4546:

Number of Jews in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth per voivodeship in 1764

4508:, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. He is considered the " 4045:. Bolesław III recognized the utility of Jews in the development of the 3996: 18032: 17960: 17913: 17898: 17811: 17175: 15491:Łukasz Kamiński; Leszek Bukowski; Andrzej Jankowski; Jan Żaryn (2008). 15331:

After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II

14652: 14602: 14508: 14043:

God's Playground: God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes.

13089:

B. Meirtchak: "Jewish Military Casualties In The Polish Armies In Wwii"

11490:

Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39

10819:"Zrodla do badan przemian przestrzennych zachodnich przedmiesc Krakowa" 10674: 9414:. Polish-jewish-heritage.org (8 January 2005). Retrieved on 2010-08-22. 8449: 8381: 7728: 7637: 7626: 7521:....This is a categorical warning to the non-Jewish population against: 7192: 7144: 7000: 6681: 6566: 6551: 6436:

in 1920 at the Elyseum Theatre. Some future Israeli leaders studied at

6432: 6278: 6254: 5827: 5752: 5523: 5494: 5178: 4627:

in the Commonwealth had pressed the king to grant them that privilege.

4509: 4328: 4214: 4180: 4054: 3963:, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state ruled by Prince 3956: 3940: 3744:

weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife (due to the

3668: 3233: 2247: 2176: 2134: 1963: 1943: 1502: 1409: 1329: 368: 17783: 17193:

Judaism in the Baltic: Vilna as the Spiritual Center of Eastern Europe

16806:, in: Ethnos-Nation: eine europäische Zeitschrift, 1999, pp. 8–25 15166:(in Polish). Warsaw: Żydowski Instytut Historyczny. pp. 107–111. 15149: 14458:

Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces

12706:

On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars.

12207:

In the Shadow of the Polish Eagle: The Poles, the Holocaust and Beyond

11749:

Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności z dn. 9.XII.1931 r. Seria C. Zeszyt 94a

9025: 8872: 8810: 8145: 5522:

and subject to restrictions on ownership and profession. The existing

5447:, a stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary. 4344: 4049:

of his country. Jews came to form the backbone of the Polish economy.

3810:

In 1939, at the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between

18420: 18037: 17988: 17854: 17844: 17826: 17806: 17771: 17766: 16441:"Plans for Warsaw Ghetto Museum unveiled - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post" 15571: 14317:"Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945" 14059:

The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath

13820:"Avalon Project - Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry - Appendix III" 13108:

Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation

13039:

On the Edge Of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars

12727:

On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars

12636:

Dni życia, dni śmierci. Ludność żydowska w Radomiu w latach 1918–1950

12573:

Economic Change and the National Question in Twentieth-century Europe

10311: 10180: 9886:

The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944

9084:(Source: YIVO Encyclopedia & the North American Jewish Data Bank) 8891: 8347: 8248: 7704: 7379: 7371: 7210: 7072: 7025: 6845: 6379: 6367: 6191: 6155: 6147: 6133: 5955: 5765: 5459: 5271: 5264: 5001: 4317: 4309: 4229:. Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in 4184: 4038: 4017: 3696: 3396: 3381: 2471: 2419: 2181: 2129: 2119: 1800: 1796: 1786: 1701: 1461: 316: 17078:

Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories

17076:

Weiner, Miriam; Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) (1997).

15576:

Robbery and restitution: the conflict over Jewish property in Europe

15572:"The polish debate on the holocaust and the restitution of property" 14494:

from the original on 27 September 2011 – via Internet Archive.

14340:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org (19 April 1943). Retrieved on 2010-08-22. 14024: 13691:

The Fate of the European Jews, 1939–1945: Continuity Or Contingency?

13652:

Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947.

13435:. Polandsholocaust.org (17 September 1939). Retrieved on 2010-08-22. 12956: 12687: 10958:

Narodowa demokracja wobec problematyki żydowskiej w latach 1918–1929

9260: 9029: 8457: 7662: 7431: 6137: 5620: 5286: 4717: 4596: 4588: 4497: 4293: 4281: 4226: 2149: 18342: 18239: 18090: 17242:

Chronicles of the Vilna Ghetto: wartime photographs & documents

17208:

Polish–Jewish Relations section of the Polish Embassy in Washington

16755:

A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939

16640:

Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947

16052:"Jakub Berman's Papers Received at the Hoover Institution Archives" 14490:. London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. 13955:

From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941

12807: 12120:"Sytuacja prawna mniejszosci żydowskiej w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej" 10660:

Cossack Rebellions. Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth-century Ukraine

10391:. Translated by Israel Friedlaender. Avotaynu Inc. pp. 22–24. 9746: 8531:'s death, in this 1958–59 period, 50,000 Jews emigrated to Israel. 8033: 7932: 7737: 7543:

hiding due to fear for their own lives and that of their families.

7375: 7176: 6625: 6399: 5693: 5683: 5610: 5538: 5486: 5270:

Further information on the Garrison schools for male children:

5139: 5121: 5024: 4947: 4760: 4756: 4643: 4635: 4559: 4505: 4171:(1303–1370) amplified and expanded Bolesław's old charter with the 4079: 4074: 4046: 3928: 3854: 3740: 3684: 3565: 3175: 3107: 1938: 1446: 1397: 380: 17198:

The Jews in Poland. Saving from oblivion – Teaching for the future

16686: 16320: 14969:

The Holocaust in the East: Local Perpetrators and Soviet Responses

14840:"Auschwitz-Birkenau Concentration Camp – Advice from a Tour Guide" 14693: 14361: 14007: 13977: 13902: 13078:

The Fate of Jewish Prisoners of War in the September 1939 Campaign

12056:, Binghamton Journal of History, Fall 2002. Retrieved 2 June 2006. 11936:. Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. pp. 80–84. 10758:

Lekcje tolerancji Pakiet edukacyjny dla nauczycielek i nauczycieli

10181:"The Polish Jews Heritage – Genealogy Research Photos Translation" 8192:

annexed to the Union, and its western borders expanded to include

7927:, and several dozen Greek, Hungarian or even German Jews freed by 6620:, with rectangular "ghetto benches" ("odd-numbered-benches") stamp 6190:

as the instructional language. Jewish political parties, both the

4094: 18059: 17973: 17893: 16420:"The POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw—Part 1" 15665:

Beyond violence: Jewish survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944-48

15501:]. Vol. 2. Foreword by Jan Żaryn. IPN. pp. 166–71. 15272:

Beyond Violence: Jewish Survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944–48

13951:"Poland Under German Occupation, 1939–1941: A Comparative Survey" 8916:

U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad

8831: 8806: 8801:

A large number of cities with synagogues include Warsaw, Kraków,

8756: 8441: 8437: 8424: 8411: 8161: 8157: 8042: 7758: 7567: 7459: 7196: 7127: 6794: 6724: 6629: 6585: 6543: 6539: 6493: 6183: 6174: 6125: 6040: 5706: 5588: 5572: 5475: 5471: 5463: 5102: 5098: 5081: 5036:

all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many

5019: 4941:, (the "Code of Jewish Law"). His contemporary and correspondent 4902: 4895: 4866: 4752: 4600: 4501: 4493: 4478: 4348: 4340: 4297: 4207: 4192: 4188: 3976: 3952: 3944: 3936: 3845:

or CKŻP (of whom 136,000 arrived from the Soviet Union) left the

3796: 3541: 3507: 3376: 3170: 2159: 2154: 2026: 1917: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1553: 1548: 1525: 1507: 1382: 1377: 1367: 1345: 1320: 321: 140: 124: 17229: 16919:(1998). "Patterns of Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland 1944–1946". 16776:

Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Life and Culture in Poland 1550–1655

13384:

Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1991: Classic and Contemporary Issues

12810:

had always been supportive towards the national aims of Jews in

12616:"Radomski rynek rzemiosła i usług według danych z lat 1926–1929" 11232: 9957:

Hunt for the Jews: betrayal and murder in German-occupied Poland

9854:"I know this Jew!" Blackmailing of the Jews in Warsaw 1939–1945. 7267:, many Jews in what was then Eastern Poland fell victim to Nazi 6705: 6676:

almost no Jews were on government support. In 1937 the Catholic

6500:

as their native language; by 1931, the number had risen to 87%.

6121: 4608: 4523: 18047: 18042: 18022: 17937: 17839: 17253: 17224: 14965: 14783: 14246:"Holocaust Survivors: Encyclopedia - "Polish–Jewish Relations"" 13486:"The Situation of the Jews on Territories Occupied by the USSR" 13058:

Extermination of the Polish Jews in the Years 1939–1945. Part I

11481: 8894:

were found and can now be seen at the Auschwitz Jewish Center.

8814: 8745: 8665: 8633: 8453: 8433: 8404: 8392: 8264: 8232: 8201: 8137: 8014: 7605: 7334: 7290: 7232:

The Germans ordered that all Jews be registered, and the word "

7161: 6926: 6896:

as well as in several underground organizations and as part of

6487:

In contrast to the prevailing trends in Europe at the time, in

6233:

was also a writer. Other Jewish authors of the period, such as

6141: 6026: 5551: 5503: 5479: 5467: 5208: 5041: 4920: 4911: 4890: 4886: 4725: 4713: 4592: 4563: 4489: 4289: 4211: 4110: 3988: 3866: 3708: 3656: 3201: 3196: 3156: 3141: 2252: 2144: 1564: 1530: 1516: 1451: 390: 101: 91: 65: 16390: 15744:

Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review

14867:

Ruch oporu w getcie białostockim. Samoobrona-zagłada-powstanie

14546:'My Brother's Keeper?': Recent Polish Debates on the Holocaust 11156:

Sara Bender (2008). "Introduction: "Bialystock-upon-Tiktin"".

9763:

Between Hitler and Stalin: The Quick Life and Secret Death of

6907: 6680:

of Polish doctors and lawyers restricted their new members to

5510:

Although the Jews were accorded slightly more rights with the

5419:, or demarcation line, to the western Russian border with the 4971: 18064: 17968: 17046:

Jewish Intellectuals, National Suffering, Contemporary Poland

16379:"The Virtual Shtetl", information about Jewish life in Poland 15923:

The Chief Rabbi's View on Jews and Poland – Michael Schudrich

15698: 13450:

Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941)

12826:, Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam, Mouton Publishers, p. 395. 12173: 11874:

Latawski, Paul (2008). "The Dmowski-Namier Feud, 1915-1918".

9742: 9640:

Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Law and Life in Poland, 1550–1655

8826:, affiliated with the Liberal-Progressive stream of Judaism. 8128: 7298: 7215: 7110: 7085: 7017: 6798: 6713: 6636: 6632: 6510:, the founder and chief ideologue of the National Democracy ( 6203:(the Polish Parliament) as well as in the regional councils. 6129: 6021:

of independence a day after the Poles captured Lviv from the

5946: 5498: 5436: 5260: 5240: 4882: 4444: 4439: 4358:

The decline in the status of the Jews was briefly checked by

4305: 3948: 3804: 3800: 3736: 3672: 2164: 1593: 1497: 1466: 358: 311: 306: 17225:

Foundation for the Preservation of Jewish Heritage in Poland

16496:

Charakterystyka mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych w Polsce

16179:

The Crooked Mirror: A Memoir of Polish–Jewish Reconciliation

15574:. In Martin Dean; Constantin Goschler; Philipp Ther (eds.). 15162:

Grzegorz Berendt; August Grabski; Albert Stankowski (2000).

13794:"Death tolls in the Holocaust, from the US Holocaust Museum" 13555:

Yizkor Book Project, JewishGen: The Home of Jewish Genealogy

12341:

Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939

12314:

Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939

12247:

Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939

11235:, 1939, digitized at Forum Żydów Polskich. Internet Archive. 10427: 9690:"In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the 9407: 9405: 9403: 8778:

Jewish religious life has been revived with the help of the

8623: 8206:

Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II

6797:

with weapons. Poland also provided extensive support to the

6008:

official government policy. Among the incidents, during the

5154:

was made on 17 July 1793. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by

17230:

Foundation for Documentation of Jewish Cemeteries in Poland

15054: 14505:

Poland, Execution of Poles by a German Police Firing Squad.

12886: 12768: 11976: 11577: 11454: 11159:

The Jews of Białystok During World War II and the Holocaust

11075:

Jews in the Russian Army, 1827–1917: Drafted Into Modernity

10845: 10843: 10816: 9707: 9239: 8637: 8479: 8197: 8013:

In August 1941, the Germans ordered the establishment of a

7881: 7443: 7398:

Jewish Ghettos in German-occupied Poland and Eastern Europe

7056: 6597:. However, a combination of various factors, including the 6558: 6514:) in Poland, often ostentatiously demonstrated antisemitism 6415: 6199: 5490: 4604: 4433:(1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son, 4362:(1447–1492), but soon the nobility forced him to issue the 4313: 4196: 4176: 4042: 3932: 3691:

and its collaborators of various nationalities, during the

1316: 326: 17220:

Jewish organisations in Poland before the Second World War

17080:. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. 16910:

Men of Silk: The Hasidic Conquest of Polish Jewish Society

16271: 15890:"Poland's reclaimed properties create scars across Warsaw" 13330:

The Devils' Alliance: Hitler's Pact with Stalin, 1939-1941

12618:[The Radom business environment in late 1926–29]. 12054:

Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919–1934

11071: 10145:

Kalina Gawlas, kuratorka galerii Pierwsze Spotkania w MHŻP

8216: 8167: 8056:

began, and several hundred Polish Jews and members of the

7976:

of 1943 saw the destruction of what remained of the Ghetto

6824:

World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45)

5014:, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of 4680:

since 1587, the embattled Commonwealth was invaded by the

4086:

Another factor for the Jews to emigrate to Poland was the

18388: 18322: 16530: 15275:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 26, 47, 114, 143. 15095:

Emigracja ludnosci zydowskiej z Polski w latach 1945–1967

14939:, ed. (1997). "The period of Soviet-German partnership". 14793: 14205:. University of North Carolina Press. 1987; David Engel. 14056:

Deák, István; Gross, Jan T.; Judt, Tony (16 April 2000).

12824:

Social and Political History of Jews in Poland, 1919-1939

12777:

The Holocaust: Europe, the World, and the Jews, 1918–1945

12613: 11471:(original document, 1,369 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011. 10072: 9400: 9064:, is under construction and is intended to open in 2023. 7028:

and Soviet Russia, both of which had been enemies of the

6873: 4808: 4771:

The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth

4402:'s tolerant policy and also granted autonomy to the Jews. 3663:

community in the world. Poland was a principal center of

17250:

from the US Holocaust Museum. From the same source see:

17182: 14802:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 14352:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 13618:

Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife ... – Internet Archive

11302:

Ideology, Politics, and Diplomacy in East Central Europe

10855: 10840: 10498:; Henry Malter; Herman Rosenthal; Joseph Jacobs (1906). 9986:"Jewish Responses to Antisemitism in Poland, 1944–1947." 9608:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 8612:, fled Poland for Israel in 1992 to escape prosecution. 7996: 7895:

fighters after the liberation of the camp in August 1944

7253:

The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland

7126:. A number of Jewish soldiers died also when liberating 6346:, born in Poland as Szymon Perski, served as the ninth 5853:) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the 4530:

History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)

4386: 3884: 16942:

Poland and the Jews: Reflections of a Polish Polish Jew

16394:

The Routledge Companion to Intangible Cultural Heritage

15950:. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. xi. 14623: 12743:. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press. p. 133. 10528:

Finding Italian Roots: The Complete Guide for Americans

10270:"Origins of Polish Jewry (This Week in Jewish History)" 9067: 7810: 7653:, committed suicide to protest the indifference of the 4210:. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of 17160:(All maps from Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice) 15962:

Britain exerted pressure on the governments of Poland.

15370:

Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-Creation of World War II

15190:

Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939-1950)

13722:Żydzi w kierownictwie UB. Stereotyp czy rzeczywistość? 13244: 12172:"The largest right Zionist paramilitary organisation, 11605:(original document, 67 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011. 11299:

Mieczysław B. Biskupski; Piotr Stefan Wandycz (2003).

11040:

The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar

11002:

The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar

10420:"Homework Help and Textbook Solutions | bartleby" 10030:

Syracuse University Press, 2003 – 325 pages. Page 70.

8596:, after escaping to the West in 1953, exposed through 5893:

Polish Jews and the struggle for Poland's independence

4623:. By the end of the XVIIIth century two-thirds of the 15694: 15692: 15690: 15688: 15686: 15684: 15395:

Patterns Of Anti-Jewish Violence In Poland, 1944–1946

14421:"Jewish History in Poland during the years 1939–1945" 13513:

Elazar Barkan; Elizabeth A. Cole; Kai Struve (2007).

12936:, "The Irgun and the Destruction of European Jewry", 12087: 11877:

Jews and the Emerging Polish State (Polin Volume Two)

11402: 11337:

White Eagle, Red Star: the Polish–Soviet War, 1919–20

10935: 10620: 10608: 9634:(Harvard University Press, new ed. 1993), G. Hundert 9274:

History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century

8375: 7769:

were ordered to escort the ghetto inhabitants to the

7668: 7012:

Jews obtained positions of power under Soviet rule."

6103:

had a large and vibrant Jewish minority. By the time

5838:

since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote.

5388: 5374: 4236: 3897:

History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century

16831:

New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Considerable amount of

16391:

Michelle L. Stefano; Peter Davis (8 December 2016).

15454:

Jankowski, Andrzej; Bukowski, Leszek (4 July 2008).

15090:

Emigration of Jewish people from Poland in 1945–1967

14131:"Poland's Jewish Secret Unearthed - DW - 05.11.2002" 13707:

Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, and Society

13563: 13561: 12506:

Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności. Woj.wołyńskie, 1931.

10591:"Remuh Synagogue. A relic of Kazimierz's Golden Age" 10577:"Jewish Virtual Library - Moses ben Israel Isserles" 10073:

Marrus, Michael Robert; Aristide R. Zolberg (2002).

8648:

In March 1968 student-led demonstrations in Warsaw (

7665:) specifically aimed at helping the Jews in Poland. 6932:

Within weeks, 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves

6864:, Chief Rabbi of the Polish Military, served in the 6628:

Polish government provided military training to the

5402: 5179:

Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (1795–1918)

4100:

The tolerant situation was gradually altered by the

4021:

Early-medieval Polish coins with Hebrew inscriptions

3828:

actively risking death in order to save Jewish lives

3180: 3161: 1584: 16804:

The De-Assimilation of the Jewish Remnant in Poland

16468:

at the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.

15525:

The Plunder of Jewish Property during the Holocaust

15238:

Fear : Anti-Semitism in Poland After Auschwitz

14445:. Holocaust Survivors. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 14149:

Unequal Victims: Poles and Jews During World War II

11369: 11367: 10907: 10104:"The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland of 1967–1968." 9566:(2nd ed.) Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, 2003. p. 79. 8742:, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general). 8527:("People's Voice"). Following liberalization after 8204:rivers. This forced millions to relocate (see also 7878:in other parts of Warsaw and the surrounding area. 7586:. The fight against informers was organized by the 6398:, just to name a few from the long list. The term " 5105:. The Commonwealth lost 30% of its land during the 19053:Baptist Christian Church of the Republic of Poland 17030:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 3: 1914-2008 17014:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 2: 1881–1914 16998:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 1: 1350–1881 16176: 16046: 15943: 15888: 15681: 15435:Poland's Century: War, Communism and Anti-Semitism 14454: 14367: 14295:Antony Polonsky & Joanna B. Michlic, editors. 13613: 13611: 13567: 13483: 12920:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry, 12864:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry, 12853:In the Shadow of Zion Promised Lands before Israel 12835:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry, 12741:No Way Out, The Politics of Polish Jewry 1935-1939 12560: 10525: 10388:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, Volume 1 10175: 10173: 9959:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. 8263:. The incidents ranged from individual attacks to 6534:movement. One of its founders and chief ideologue 6316:Many Jews were film producers and directors, e.g. 18964: 17334: 17235: 16952:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 16384: 15453: 15323: 15240:. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 60–68. 13558: 13053: 13051: 13049: 13047: 12673:The Taube Foundation for Jewish Life and Culture. 12671:Lubartow during the Holocaust in occupied Poland. 12212: 12194:Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning 12161:Living with Antisemitism: Modern Jewish Responses 10171: 10169: 10167: 10165: 10163: 10161: 10159: 10157: 10155: 10153: 9992:. Rutgers University Press, 2003. Pages 249; 256. 9901:Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945 9412:The Canadian Foundation of Polish–Jewish Heritage 8839:(which is bilingual), as well as a youth journal 8253:territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union 7538:Dr. Franke – Town Commander – Częstochowa 9/24/42 7079:), moved voluntarily; however, most of them were 4243:History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty 19137: 19008:Polish-Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland 17118:The Cossack Uprising and its Aftermath in Poland 17032:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2011) 16977:, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas (editors). 16246:"Poland, International Religious Freedom Report" 15864: 15862: 15737: 15086: 14715:. New York: Philosophical Library. p. 222. 13957:. Providence, R.I.: Berghahn Books. p. 51. 13775:Estimated Casualties During WWII -Including Jews 13746:Jews in General Anders’ Army In the Soviet Union 13620:. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 12877:"Poland made many appeals on this matter in the 11804:The Bund Council in August 1937, Warsaw, Poland. 11704:"Vilnius (Vilna), Lithuania Jewish History Tour" 11393:Studia Judaica 7: 2004 nr 2(14) s. 257–304 (pdf) 11364: 11244: 9888:, University Press of Kentucky 1986 – 300 pages. 9881:Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust 8645:"Zionism" and disloyalty to a Socialist Poland. 8486: 8117:the last nationwide census was conducted in 1931 8110: 7807:When we invaded the Ghetto for the first time – 5849:, with the goal of establishing a buffer state ( 5701:. Polish Jews generally were less influenced by 5533: 5235:from entering Russia. They were banned from the 3947:. One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the 3931:. Travelling along trade routes leading east to 3655:dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries, 17016:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009) 17000:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009) 16174: 15762: 15662: 15268: 15210: 14710: 14169:Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland 14099:Polityka III Rzeszy w okupowanej Polsce, Tom II 13608: 11616:The YIVO encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe 10655: 10653: 10651: 10115:Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland 9638:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), E.Fram 9509:From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution 9479:"The Truth About Poland's Role in the Holocaus" 8796:Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland 7156:Poland's Jewish community suffered the most in 5830:and the orthodox religious Polish Mizrahi. The 5728: 5563:worth of property was destroyed. The new czar, 5530:in 1881 – an act falsely blamed upon the Jews. 4767:had begun between Russia, Prussia and Austria. 4500:. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and 16476: 16474: 16316: 16314: 15836: 15834: 15832: 15810: 15565: 15563: 15561: 15559: 15557: 15269:Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014). "Introduction". 14639:. PolishJews.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 14589:. .yadvashem.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 14481: 13304:. AFP / Expatica. 30 July 2009. Archived from 13240: 13238: 13044: 11668:"Jews in Poland – Polish Jews in World War II" 11486:"Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth Century Poland" 10994: 10992: 10903: 10901: 10150: 10047: 10045: 10043: 10008:". In: David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig. 9948: 8784:Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture 8096:and other organisations and survived the war. 7899:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, was followed by other 6580:Matters improved for a time under the rule of 5195:History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union 4951:had become entrenched under the protection of 3687:destruction of the Polish Jewish community by 18950: 18308: 17726: 17320: 16458: 16168: 15859: 15456:"The Kielce pogrom as told by the eyewitness" 15164:Studia z historii Żydów w Polsce po 1945 roku 15006: 14706: 14704: 14702: 14684:. Diapozytyw.pl. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 14448: 14055: 13993:. Yad Vashem. 21 January 2008. Archived from 13942: 13709:. Spring/Summer 2007, Vol. 13, No. 3:135–176. 13519:. Leipziger Universitätsverlag. p. 211. 13067:. Ess.uwe.ac.uk. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 12557:(Polish edition), Second volume, pp. 512–513. 12508:PDF file, 21.21 MB. The complete text of the 12390: 12000:History Of Zionism: A Handbook And Dictionary 11292: 11127:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 2, p. 282. 11031: 11029: 10248:. Abingdon; New York: [Routledge. p. 9. 8664:actually went there; most settled throughout 8540:Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party 7778:, including some members of the left-leaning 7462:and hunger all resulted in countless deaths. 6849:Graves of Jewish–Polish soldiers who died in 6616:) of Jewish medical student Marek Szapiro at 6265:(a favorite poet of Polish children). Singer 5571:and throughout the world. In 1884, 36 Jewish 5542:Caricature of Russian Army assailant in 1906 4524:The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795 3659:was home to the largest and most significant 3632: 1285: 16875: 16672:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 15967: 15918: 15916: 15806: 15804: 15802: 15738:Bazyler, Michael; Gostynski, Szymon (2018). 15430: 15428: 15366: 14935: 14484:"The Polish Underground State and Home Army" 14392: 13948: 13357:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 13186: 12497: 12495: 12237: 12117: 11770: 10648: 10381: 10339:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 1, p. 42. 10293:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 1, p. 44. 9904:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 9601: 9599: 9597: 9595: 9593: 9249:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 8474:on a common ticket with the (non-communist) 8291: 8099: 7799:International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg 7736:to take charge of the Jewish Council called 7033: 6834: 6565:and Zionist leaders of Et Liwnot, including 6406:(1900–1959), a Polish–Jewish legal scholar. 6074: 6055:to sign the Minority Protection Treaty (the 5847:German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews 4795:can be broken down into three Hebrew words: 4696:, became the scene of even more atrocities. 3807:, providing them with weapons and training. 3779:). When Poland regained independence in the 40: 17740: 16823:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Russia". 16819: 16471: 16311: 16074: 15935: 15829: 15815:. GeoJournal Library. Dordrecht: Springer. 15733: 15731: 15729: 15727: 15707: 15658: 15656: 15654: 15652: 15650: 15648: 15604: 15602: 15554: 15458:[Pogrom kielecki – oczami świadka] 15111: 15082: 15080: 15078: 14278:, Hippocrene Books, 2nd revised ed., 2001, 14209:. University of North Carolina Press. 1993. 14154: 14111:Summary of IPN's final findings on Jedwabne 14013: 13878:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 13235: 12397:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 352. 12046: 11737: 11735: 11549: 11155: 11143:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe 10989: 10960:, Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, page 16. 10898: 10874:"Timeline: Jewish life in Poland from 1098" 10563:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe 10377: 10375: 10040: 10012:. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. 9931: 9929: 9801: 9517:by S. Groenveld, Michael J. Wintle; and in 8592:among others. Yet another Jewish official, 8422:, under the umbrella of a semi-clandestine 6908:Territories annexed by the USSR (1939–1941) 5649:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 5440: 5315:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 5063: 4520:(רמ״א) is the Hebrew acronym for his name. 4482:achieved fame from the early 16th century. 3891:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages 3759:in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a 1876:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 18957: 18943: 18315: 18301: 17733: 17719: 17327: 17313: 17254:Non-Jewish Polish Victims of the Holocaust 17151:Jewish Revolts against the Nazis in Poland 16870:Bibliography of Poland during World War II 16042: 16040: 15541: 15444:. Fathom.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 15299: 15293: 15020:]. Otwarte (publishing). p. 956. 14959: 14929: 14879:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 14699: 14682:Dia-Pozytyw: People, Biographical Profiles 14438: 14436: 14434: 14338:History of the Holocaust – An Introduction 14091: 14062:. Princeton University Press. p. 25. 13854: 13546: 13123: 12794:The Third Reich and the Palestine Question 12685: 12656:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 12633: 12088:Włodzimierz Mędrzecki (25 November 2013). 12022: 12020: 11900: 11746:. Table 10, page 30 in current document". 11026: 10983:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews 10828:. Politechnika Krakowska. pp. 143–145 9649: 9558: 9556: 9547:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews 9289:History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland 9284:History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland 9279:History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland 9058:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews 8245:Soviet-backed communist takeover of Poland 8072:. The guerrillas were armed with only one 7345: 5888:History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland 5789:, a religious party, came into existence. 5191:History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland 4763:. Four years later, in 1772, the military 4534:History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland 4025:The first extensive Jewish migration from 3908:History of Poland during the Piast dynasty 3901: 3667:, because of the long period of statutory 3639: 3625: 1292: 1278: 62:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews 17275:Chronology of German Anti-Jewish Measures 17216:, Central Europe Review, 28 January 2000. 17164: 15913: 15799: 15520: 15518: 15425: 15262: 15186: 14996:Some of the information published by the 14898: 14538: 14076: 14034: 13991:"Photo of Armband from the Warsaw Ghetto" 13983: 13438: 13326: 13253:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 13098:. Zchor.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 12924:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 57. 12868:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 53. 12839:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 79. 12492: 11858: 11570: 11111:, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 162. 10797:Szwedzi w Krakowie (The Swedes in Kraków) 10768: 10342: 10068: 10066: 9954: 9891: 9590: 9476: 8958:, at the groundbreaking ceremony for the 8624:The March 1968 events and their aftermath 8223:Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946 7988:, the destruction of the Jews of Europe, 5855:former Polish provinces annexed by Russia 5756:socialist party as well as the religious 5669:Learn how and when to remove this message 5335:Learn how and when to remove this message 4617:Privilegium de non tolerandis Christianis 16325:pl:Szkoła rabinacka Beit Meir w Krakowie 16103: 16056:Library and Archives Recent Acquisitions 15932:. Jcpa.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. 15775: 15724: 15699:Jan Grabowski; Dariusz Libionka (2014). 15645: 15599: 15447: 15075: 14902:Political Migrations in Poland 1939-1948 14837: 14800:The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Warsaw 14514: 14192:. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005):711–746. 13908: 13865: 13149: 13147: 12607: 12570:; Herbert Matis; Jaroslav Pátek (2000). 12270: 12145:The Road to Power: Herut Party in Israel 12090:"Żydzi w historii Polski XIX i XX wieku" 11996: 11927: 11873: 11732: 11447: 11409:. Oxford University Press. p. 193. 11339:, St. Martin's Press, 1972, Page 47-48. 11326: 11305:. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 65–74. 11209:Transaction Publishers, 1997, p. 233 ff. 11149: 11136: 11125:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland 11035: 10998: 10804:monthly, 8 June 2007, Internet Archive. 10789: 10645:(1906) by Herman Rosenthal, S. M. Dubnow 10523: 10439: 10437: 10372: 10360: 10350:"Official portal of the city of Opoczno" 10337:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland 10326: 10291:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland 10280: 10243: 10207:The Cambridge Economic History of Europe 10079:. Temple University Press. p. 336. 9926: 9897: 9871: 9869: 9606:The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Poland 9526: 9008: 8946: 8854: 8766: 8755: 8744: 8690:partial diplomatic relations with Israel 8620:. Wolińska-Brus died in London in 2008. 8171: 7967: 7880: 7849: 7788: 7698: 7684: 7592: 7549: 7490: 7470: 7467:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland 7393: 7242: 7220: 7143: 7042: 6973: 6938:Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union 6844: 6723: 6607: 6502: 6430:, which staged the first performance of 6338: 6205: 6146: 6088: 5970: 5914: 5896: 5875: 5732: 5537: 5346: 5243:for support. Their living conditions in 5202: 5138: 5067: 4970: 4846: 4712:. Many Jews along with the townsfolk of 4667: 4541: 4406:Poland became more tolerant just as the 4390: 4351:cities, inspired by a Franciscan friar, 4327: 4148: 4093:The first mention of Jewish settlers in 4016: 3911: 18909:Polish population transfers (1944–1946) 16691:. Washington, D.C.: Dale Street Books. 16667: 16397:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 359–. 16139: 16037: 16021: 16019: 16017: 16015: 15941: 15868: 15608: 15387: 15105: 14894: 14892: 14890: 14864: 14842:. culture.polishsite.us. Archived from 14755: 14694:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014 14431: 14311: 14147:Yisrael Gutman & Shmuel Krakowski, 14085:Poles and the Jews: How Deep the Guilt? 14049: 14008:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014 13978:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014 13914: 13903:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014 13871: 13712: 13415:Lost Jewish Worlds – Grodno, Yad Vashem 13410: 13408: 13406: 13404: 13245:Holocaust Encyclopedia (20 June 2014). 12954: 12542: 12098:Ministry of National Education (Poland) 12017: 11997:Edelheit, Hershel (19 September 2019). 11907:. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 97–99. 10941: 10861: 10849: 10772:Hetmani Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów 10626: 10614: 9668: 9611: 9553: 8940:as well as other publications from the 8432:was also responsible for the organized 8340:estimates that it was extremely small. 8217:Anti-Jewish violence and discrimination 8184:Following World War II Poland became a 8168:The Jewish community in post-war Poland 6557:In 1925, Polish Zionist members of the 5604: 4966: 4339:In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in 14: 19138: 16947: 16664:, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381. 16561: 16513:"THE HISTORY FROM THE JEWS POPULATION" 15515: 15367:Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007). 15360: 15231: 15229: 15227: 15196:. Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. 15055:Piotr Eberhardt; Jan Owsinski (2003). 14520:Donald L. Niewyk, Francis R. Nicosia, 14268: 14025:"Why the Poles Collaborated So Little" 13506: 13479: 13477: 13380: 13353: 13270: 13268: 12950: 12948: 12946: 12738: 12681: 12679: 12664: 12594: 12384: 12337: 12310: 12243: 11901:Haynes, Rebecca; Rady, Martyn (2011). 11819:, Northwestern University Press, 1988 11580:RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych. 11480: 11457:RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych. 11229:Żydzi Bojownicy o Niepodleglość Polski 10810: 10556: 10467: 10443:Bernard Dov Weinryb "Jews of Poland", 10128:"THE HISTORY FROM THE JEWS POPULATION" 10063: 10020: 10018: 10000: 9998: 9980: 9978: 9976: 9681:, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381. 9574: 9572: 9423: 9388: 9386: 6980:Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic 6518:Besides the persistent effects of the 4672:A Polish Jew in an engraving from 1703 4029:to Poland occurred at the time of the 18938: 18296: 17714: 17308: 17188:Virtual Jewish History Tour of Poland 16979:The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews 16915: 16866:Bibliography of the history of Poland 16736:Jews in Poland. A Documentary History 16354:"Poland reaches out to expelled Jews" 16341:"Poland reaches out to expelled Jews" 16080: 15901:from the original on 10 December 2022 15840: 15569: 15344: 15235: 15048: 14994:– via direct download 13.6 MB. 14570:"Referenced Material - Isurvived.org" 14374:. Columbia University Press. p. 13144: 13041:. Wayne State University Press, 1993. 12889:who protested against the heightened 12729:. Wayne State University Press, 1993. 12686:Wierzejska, Jagoda (1 January 2018). 12301:, Hippocrene Books (1993), pp. 27–28. 12299:Jews in Poland: A Documentary History 12250:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 41–43. 11815:Aleksander Hertz, Lucjan Dobroszycki 11516: 11423: 11245:Marek Gałęzowski (10 November 2012). 11225:Żydzi w Legionach Józefa Piłsudskiego 11219: 11217: 11215: 10952: 10950: 10775:. Wydawn. Bellona. pp. 206–213. 10583: 10434: 10199: 9866: 9710:who protested against the heightened 9304:Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain 9243:identify as Jewish. According to the 8606:Ministry of Public Security of Poland 7997:The Białystok Ghetto and its uprising 7564:Jews and non-Jewish Poles hiding them 7003:'s report written in 1940, historian 6467:, scored the first ever goal for the 6049:Kiev operation against the Bolsheviks 5775:which supported assimilation and the 5709:("rabbis's law") following primarily 5355:, showing Jewish population densities 5276: 4655:emigration, deaths from diseases and 4613:Privilegium de non tolerandis Judaeis 4492:of the 16th century, established his 4387:Center of the Jewish world: 1505–1572 3885:Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572 3722:in 1025 until the early years of the 789:Union of Jewish Religious Communities 17171:Museum of the History of Polish Jews 16792:, Cambridge University Press, 2006, 16142:East European Politics and Societies 16027:"Poland Virtual Jewish History Tour" 16012: 15413:from the original on 21 January 2008 14887: 14819:from the original on 21 January 2008 14475: 14289: 14171:. Cornell University Press, p. 277. 14151:, New York: Holocaust Library, 1986. 13426: 13401: 13327:Moorhouse, Roger (14 October 2014). 13294: 13192: 12516:, page 59 (select, drop-down menu). 12460:The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust 11838:National identity and foreign policy 11543: 11510: 11488:. In Strauss, Herbert Arthur (ed.). 11207:Germany, Turkey, Zionism, 1897–1918. 10557:Reiner, Elchanan (11 October 2010). 10532:. Genealogical Publishing. pp. 10051: 9863:Polish Center for Holocaust Research 9847: 9623: 9444:"Jews, by Country of Origin and Age" 9068:Numbers of Jews in Poland since 1920 9051:Museum of the History of Polish Jews 8960:Museum of the History of Polish Jews 8850:Museum of the History of Polish Jews 8719:Jewish Polish history (1989–present) 8608:and commandant of the Stalinist era 7692:in Warsaw built in 1948 by sculptor 6017:, which occurred in 1918 during the 5725:movement later in the 19th century. 5647:adding citations to reliable sources 5614: 5518:, they were still restricted to the 5407:) was the term given to a region of 5313:adding citations to reliable sources 5280: 5088:in 1764. His election was bought by 5080:In 1742 most of Silesia was lost to 4728:fell victim to recurring epidemics. 4267:, broad privileges were extended to 4057:minted during that period even bear 4010:, the principal activity of Jews in 3713:Museum of the History of Polish Jews 86:Regions with significant populations 17063:, Stanford University Press, 2012. 16716:, Princeton University Press, 2003 16445:The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com 16175:Louise Steinman (5 November 2013). 15881: 15796:, Harvard University Press, page 52 15784:, Oxford University Press, page 325 15224: 15180: 14736:"The Stroop report", Pantheon 1986 14524:, Columbia University Press, 2000, 14522:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust 14370:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust 14233:Zycie za Zycie (A Life For A Life). 14231:Institute of National Remembrance, 13924:. New York: HarperCollins. p. 13875:History of the Jews in Modern Times 13492:. McFarland, 1998. pp. 52–53. 13474: 13433:World War II Timeline – Poland 1940 13265: 12943: 12763:In January 1937, "Foreign Minister 12708:Wayne State University Press, 1993. 12676: 12502:Central Statistical Office (Poland) 12111: 12081: 11741: 11722:"Jewish Krakow: The Jews of Krakow" 11474: 11380:University of Nebraska Press, 2006. 11072:Ĭokhanan Petrovskiĭ-Shtern (2009). 10826:Architektura, Czasopismo techniczne 10015: 9995: 9973: 9646:(Cambridge University Press, 2006). 9580:"European Jewish Congress - Poland" 9569: 9501: 9477:Friedberg, Edna (6 February 2018). 9454:. 26 September 2011. Archived from 9452:Israel Central Bureau of Statistics 9417: 9383: 8952:President of the Republic of Poland 8675:There were several outcomes of the 8546:, head of state security apparatus 8470:The Bund took part in the post-war 8186:satellite state of the Soviet Union 8066:Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa 7285:'s Final Findings) and 1,600 Jews ( 6748:, combined with the effects of the 5398: 5384: 24: 19151:History of ethnic groups in Poland 16912:NY: Oxford University Press, 2006. 16859: 16764:, Harvard University Press, 1990, 16624:, East European Monographs, 2003, 16305:Homepage. Retrieved 19 July 2012. 16296:Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków. 14443:Encyclopedia – entry "Hidden Jews" 13577:McFarland & Company. pp. 13354:Snyder, Timothy (2 October 2012). 12961:Journal of Modern European History 12482:Walter de Gruyter, pp. 1081–1083. 12344:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 228. 12338:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011). 12311:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011). 12244:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011). 11861:Poland between the Wars: 1918—1939 11841:, Cambridge University Press 1998 11686:"Lodz, Poland Jewish History Tour" 11584:PDF scan of the March Constitution 11559:. pp. 257–304. Archived from 11238: 11212: 10947: 10246:Routledge History of the Holocaust 9785:. 22 November 2015. Archived from 9582:. 11 December 2008. Archived from 8376:Emigration to Palestine and Israel 8301: 8058:Anti-Fascist Military Organisation 7943:or had been discovered in hiding ( 7669:The Warsaw Ghetto and its uprising 7312:Polish Righteous among the Nations 7071:. Some of them, especially Polish 6936:, while 38.8% were trapped in the 5199:Antisemitism in the Russian Empire 5086:Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski 4905:, particularly from the school of 4842: 4676:Ruled by the elected kings of the 4237:The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505 3979:, at that time the capital of the 3695:between 1939 and 1945, called the 1183:Anti-Fascist Military Organisation 25: 19162: 18361:Polish occupation zone in Germany 17293:Poland's Jews:A light flickers on 17203:Historical Sites of Jewish Warsaw 17106: 16417: 16250:United States Department of State 16060:Leland Stanford Junior University 16000:Hagana's training camp in Bolkow. 15468:Institute of National Remembrance 14302:Princeton University Press, 2003. 13726:Institute of National Remembrance 13302:"Polish nation's WWII death toll" 13274: 13157:, Rutgers University Press, 2003 12908:Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 12818:and other international forums." 12614:Gedeon Kubiszyn; Marta Kubiszyn. 12317:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 24. 12100:. pp. 3, 5–6. Archived from 11521:. In Zimmerman, Joshua D. (ed.). 11005:. Devora Publishing. p. 11. 10817:Mgr inz. arch. Krzysztof Petrus. 10366:American Jewish Committee, 1957, 10117:. Cornell University Press, 2005. 10010:The World Reacts to the Holocaust 9749:' military arm, for the fight in 9729:Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs 9543:"Paradisus Iudaeorum (1569–1648)" 9294:Timeline of Jewish-Polish history 9238:However, most sources other than 9074:Historical demographics of Poland 8980:Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot synagogue 8968:United States Department of State 8942:Institute of National Remembrance 8931:Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały 8705:) was one of the founders of the 7350:The German Nazis established six 7283:Institute of National Remembrance 6584:(1926–1935). Piłsudski countered 6528:German-Polish non-aggression pact 6173:The Polish language, rather than 5458:; it covered much of present-day 5207:Jewish merchants in 19th-century 4261:united with the kingdom of Poland 1667:Historical population comparisons 1195:Resistance movements in Auschwitz 779:Jewish Community Centre of Kraków 16876:Chodakiewicz, Marek Jan (2003). 16829:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 16809: 16757:, Oxford University Press, 2001. 16581: 16555: 16505: 16487: 16433: 16411: 16372: 16346: 16334: 16289: 16264: 16212: 16201: 16133: 16116: 16104:Kamiński, Łukasz (9 June 2002). 16097: 16081:Hodge, Nick (31 December 2008). 15993: 15981:from the original on 30 May 2008 15787: 15719:Holocaust: Studies and Materials 15530: 15399: 15155: 14945:. Berghahn Books. pp. 74–. 14858: 14805: 14772: 14746: 14730: 14675: 14658: 14642: 14630: 14608: 14592: 14580: 14562: 14498: 14413: 14355: 14343: 14331: 14305: 14238: 14225: 14212: 14195: 14182: 14141: 14123: 14104: 13830: 13812: 13786: 13768: 13750: 13738: 13696: 13683: 13670: 13657: 13644: 13623: 13595: 13533: 13374: 13347: 13320: 13217: 13168: 13117: 13101: 13082: 13070: 13031: 13015: 13005:, no. 4, October 19711035-1058. 12995: 12927: 12914: 12871: 12858: 12842: 12829: 12800: 12781: 12757: 12732: 12720: 12711: 12698: 12523: 12472: 12453: 12432: 12421:University of Pittsburgh Press. 12411: 12373:Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin. 12358: 12331: 12304: 12291: 12264: 12199: 12166: 12150: 12134: 12128:Chapter 3: Szkolnictwo żydowskie 12059: 11990: 11965: 11950: 11921: 11894: 11867: 11852: 11829: 11809: 11796: 11784:from the original on 30 May 2008 11714: 11696: 11678: 11660: 11648: 11628: 11608: 11249:(in Polish). Uważam Rze Historia 10979:"Jew, Pole, Legionary 1914-1920" 10738:Herman Rosenthal, J. G. Lipman, 10368:1367 pogrom Poznan. Google Books 9815:from the original on 30 May 2008 9702:, and in the US, with President 9426:"דרכון פולני בזכות הסבתא מוורשה" 8725:History of Poland (1989–present) 8515:founded in 1950 and directed by 8497:Centralny Komitet Żydów Polskich 8493:Central Committee of Polish Jews 7133: 7065:Soviet-occupied Polish territory 5619: 5411:in which permanent residency by 5285: 4873:, and their rabbi principals as 4684:in 1655 in what became known as 3843:Central Committee of Polish Jews 2311:Democratic Republic of the Congo 2225:Historical population by country 1262: 1251: 769:Central Committee of Polish Jews 177: 169: 51: 18916:Repatriation of Poles (1955–59) 18895:Colonization attempts by Poland 16668:Hundert, Gershon David (2004). 16611: 16502: (archived 17 October 2015) 14587:The Righteous Among the Nations 14088:, New York Times, 17 March 2001 13949:Fleischhauer, Ingeborg (1997). 13680:Indiana University Press, 2007. 13605:Rutgers University Press, 2003. 13543:Rutgers University Press, 2003. 12478:Herbert Arthur Strauss (1993). 12067:"DavidGorodok – Section IV – a" 11396: 11383: 11349: 11279: 11270: 11261: 11199: 11183: 11130: 11114: 11099: 11065: 10971: 10886: 10867: 10762: 10751: 10732: 10721: 10710: 10691: 10680: 10664: 10632: 10569: 10550: 10524:Colletta, John Phillip (2003). 10517: 10487: 10461: 10449: 10412: 10296: 10262: 10237: 10212: 10138: 10120: 10093: 9827: 9771: 9741:"Rydz Smigły agreed to support 9735: 9684: 9642:(HUC Press, 1996), and M. Teter 9564:Historical Dictionary of Poland 9535: 7503:the Sheltering of Escaping Jews 7081:forcibly deported or imprisoned 7047:Jewish–Polish soldier's grave, 6890:Polish Armed Forces in the West 5760:, and the increasingly popular 5717:, and also adapting to the new 4923:, where he was the head of the 4504:, Isserles was also learned in 4247:As a result of the marriage of 396:Zionist Socialist Workers Party 18986:Ukrainian Catholic Archdiocese 17336:History of the Jews in Europe 17236:World War II and the Holocaust 15663:Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014). 15373:. Da Capo Press. p. 285. 14998:Extraordinary State Commission 14046:Oxford University Press, 2005. 13693:Oxford University Press, 1998. 12442:, KTAV Publishing House, 1993 11444:, ex. pp. 4, 7, 10, 26, 33, 84 11406:Pogroms: A Documentary History 11078:. Cambridge University Press. 10883:, Jewish Journal, 7 June 2007. 10565:. Translated by Jeffrey Green. 9945:H-Net Review: John Radzilowski 9470: 9448:Statistical Abstract of Israel 9436: 9424:סיקולר, נעמה (16 March 2007). 9363: 9354: 9314:History of the Jews in Germany 9309:History of the Jews in Austria 9263:(between 20,000 and 100,000). 8235:that immediately followed the 7640:and through the activities of 7574:" (the 'shmalts' people: from 7256:, 1942, addressed to Poland's 7122:includes headstones bearing a 6689:who split in 1923 to join the 6463:. A Polish–Jewish footballer, 5870:League of East European States 5806:Revolutionary Movement of 1905 5456:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 5247:began to dramatically worsen. 4738:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 4380:1492 example of Spanish rulers 3724:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 13: 1: 19125:Slavic Native Faith in Poland 19043:Old Catholic Mariavite Church 19013:Old Catholic Church in Poland 17284:during World War II in Poland 17140:The Spread of Hasidic Judaism 16880:. Columbia University Press. 16661:The Journal of Modern History 16562:Henoch, Vivian (2 May 2015). 15623:10.1080/1462169X.2016.1267853 15549:The American Jewish Year Book 15357:Published by McFarland, 1998. 15306:Civil War in Poland 1942–1948 15032:Polish edition, second volume 13861:Lost Jewish World, Yad Vashem 13195:"The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact" 13193:Benn, David Wedgwood (2011). 12938:Perspectives on the Holocaust 12626:. page 2 of 6. Archived from 12277:. Routledge. pp. 84–85. 11973:"Zionism and Zionist Parties" 11930:The Jews in Poland and Russia 11196:Tauris Parke, 2003 pp. 173–4. 11095:– via Books.google.com. 9988:In: Joshua D. Zimmerman, ed. 9757:located in southern Poland." 9679:The Journal of Modern History 9376: 9319:History of the Jews in Russia 9049:. On 17 June 2009 the future 8712: 8572:, some Jewish officials from 8487:Rebuilding Jewish communities 8403:country to allow free Jewish 8259:imposed by the Allies at the 8237:end of World War II in Europe 8111:Number of Holocaust survivors 8106:History of Poland (1945–1989) 7831:The Uprising was led by ŻOB ( 7562:Some individuals blackmailed 7525:1) Providing shelter to Jews, 7450:also in present-day Ukraine, 6469:Poland national football team 5935:; around 650 Jews joined the 5882:History of Poland (1918–1939) 5534:Pogroms in the Russian Empire 5185:History of Poland (1795–1918) 4550:After the childless death of 4408:Jews were expelled from Spain 3939:, Jewish merchants, known as 3865:country to allow free Jewish 3859:post-war anti-Jewish violence 3653:history of the Jews in Poland 1882:Christianity and Judaism 58:Monument to the Ghetto Heroes 19058:Pentecostal Church in Poland 19048:Seventh-day Adventist Church 16894:Cichopek-Gajraj, A. (2021). 16589:"Q+A with Jonathan Ornstein" 16466:Population since World War I 16343:at www.americangathering.com 16031:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 15811:Kiril Stanilov, ed. (2007). 15144:Wrocławskie Studia Wschodnie 15061:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 229. 13124:Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1998). 11708:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 11690:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 10908:Bartłomiej Szyndler (2009). 10699:"Chmielnicki, Bogdan Zinovi" 10675:Dzielnica żydowska we Lwowie 9047:1968 Polish political crisis 8661:Polish United Workers' Party 8652:Polish 1968 political crisis 8391:soon to be the new state of 8389:British Mandate of Palestine 8070:Treblinka extermination camp 8026:Treblinka extermination camp 7747:Treblinka extermination camp 7530:2) Supplying them with Food, 7454:in present-day Belarus, and 7106:British Mandate of Palestine 7093:army, among them the future 6461:Polish First Football League 6309:, with younger artists like 6108:readily recognized as Jews. 5841:In 1914, the German Zionist 5729:Politics in Polish territory 3959:, known by his Arabic name, 3875:fall of the Communist regime 3683:there was a nearly complete 3679:in the 18th century. During 7: 19028:Evangelical-Augsburg Church 18902:Ethnic minorities in Poland 16944:, Kraków: Austeria P, 2005. 16689:German Occupation of Poland 16058:. The Board of Trustees of 14455:Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998). 13484:Tadeusz Piotrowski (1940). 12955:Friedla, Katharina (2021). 12620:The Jewish history of Radom 12514:Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39) 12271:Stachura, Peter D. (2004). 11753:(PDF file, direct download) 10914:. Bellona. pp. 64–65. 10559:"Pollak, Ya'akov ben Yosef" 9898:Paulsson, Gunnar S (2002). 9779:"The Hidden Jews of Poland" 9514:Britain and the Netherlands 9507:Hugh Redwald Trevor-Roper, 9266: 8536:People's Republic of Poland 8521:Jewish Historical Institute 8395:, especially after General 8270:The best-known case is the 8194:formerly German territories 7657:governments in the face of 7623:Righteous Among The Nations 7535:3) Selling them Foodstuffs. 7358:by 1942. All of these – at 7116:Cemetery of Polish soldiers 7100:. During the Polish army's 7018:eastern part of the country 6934:under the German occupation 6830:History of Poland (1939–45) 6742:Felicjan Sławoj-Składkowski 6459:, winning promotion to the 6057:Little Treaty of Versailles 5512:Emancipation reform of 1861 5431:. The archaic English term 5403: 5389: 5375: 4516:was built for him in 1557. 4133:of Legnica in 1290–95, and 4071:Władysław III Spindleshanks 3917:Reception of Jews in Poland 3701:fall of communism in Poland 3693:German occupation of Poland 3181: 3162: 2889:Latin America and Caribbean 1585: 1234:Righteous Among the Nations 1190:Częstochowa Ghetto uprising 10: 19167: 18389:Central and Eastern Europe 17044:Prokop-Janiec, E. (2019). 16863: 16726:The introduction is online 16538:"Jewish Renewal in Poland" 15942:Kochavi, Arieh J. (2001). 15841:Gross, Jan Tomasz (2007). 15611:Jewish Culture and History 14616:"Onet – Jesteś na bieżąco" 14250:www.holocaustsurvivors.org 13953:. In Wegner, Bernd (ed.). 13872:Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001). 13381:Fleron, Jr (5 July 2017). 13003:American Historical Review 12855:, NYU Press, 2014, p. 133. 12578:Cambridge University Press 12003:. Routledge. p. 116. 11817:The Jews in Polish culture 11044:. Devora. pp. 12–15. 10205:Postan, Miller, Habakkuk. 9523:(Walburg Instituut, 1994). 9071: 9019:festival of Jewish culture 8923:Polish Academy of Sciences 8908:Jewish Combat Organization 8722: 8716: 8707:Workers' Defence Committee 8379: 8305: 8220: 8103: 8049:, where they were killed. 8006: 8000: 7833:Jewish Combat Organization 7678: 7672: 7634:Polish Government in Exile 7464: 7248:Polish Government-in-Exile 7225:Starving Jewish children, 7137: 6902:Jewish partisan formations 6838: 6827: 6646:With the influence of the 6195:General Jewish Labour Bund 6078: 5885: 5879: 5745:By the late 19th century, 5681:The Jewish Enlightenment, 5608: 5528:assassination of Alexander 5269: 5223:of Russia, instituted the 5188: 5182: 5116:Komisja Edukacji Narodowej 4981: 4578: 4527: 4240: 3905: 3894: 3888: 3765:antisemitic Russian Empire 3494:Jewish political movements 3191:Conversion to Judaism 1212:Jewish Combat Organization 1143:Operation Harvest Festival 19107: 19081: 19038:Catholic Mariavite Church 18981:Catholic Church in Poland 18973: 18886: 18861: 18751: 18715: 18637: 18585: 18539: 18483: 18381: 18374: 18366:Poles in the Soviet Union 18334: 18150: 18078: 18005: 17987: 17959: 17936: 17886: 17868: 17825: 17792: 17757: 17748: 17660: 17622: 17342: 17183:The Polish Jews Home Page 17145:15 September 2009 at the 17134:15 September 2009 at the 16847:by neighbouring empires. 16845:the century of Partitions 16642:, Lexington Books, 2004, 16358:Jewish Telegraphic Agency 16331:. Retrieved 19 July 2012. 16323:31 August 2009. See also 15551:, vol. 49, 1947, p. 390). 15499:Wokół pogromu kieleckiego 15187:Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). 15087:Grzegorz Berendt (2006). 14899:Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). 14637:The Polish Jews Home Page 14461:. McFarland. p. 66. 13397:– via Google Books. 13370:– via Google Books. 13343:– via Google Books. 13251:German Invasion of Poland 13026:Journal of Modern History 12973:10.1177/16118944211017748 12911:, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103-114. 12600:Pinkas Hakehillot Polin, 12209:, Palgrave (2000), p. 60. 12069:. Davidhorodok.tripod.com 12033:, Yale University Press, 11928:Polonsky, Antony (2012). 11726:kehilalinks.jewishgen.org 10132:kehilalinks.jewishgen.org 9936:Unveiling the Secret City 9732:, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103-114. 9450:(in English and Hebrew). 9127: 9089: 9000:Holocaust Remembrance Day 8428:("Flight") organization. 8308:Nationalization in Poland 8255:, and returned after the 8241:anti-communist resistance 8100:Communist rule: 1945–1989 8076:, several dozen pistols, 8054:Białystok Ghetto Uprising 8009:Białystok Ghetto Uprising 7948:Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński 6835:Polish September Campaign 6740:party and Prime Minister 6691:Communist Party of Poland 6227:Nobel Prize in Literature 6215:Nobel Prize in Literature 6075:Jewish and Polish culture 5556: 5370: 4984:Hasidic Judaism in Poland 4455:migrating there from the 4410:in 1492, as well as from 3718:From the founding of the 1897:Hinduism and Judaism 1178:Białystok Ghetto uprising 139: 134: 115: 110: 100: 90: 85: 77: 72: 50: 35: 18350:Polish-Lithuanian people 16542:Jewish Renewal in Poland 16482:World Jewish Population. 16224:www.quest-cdecjournal.it 16183:. Beacon Press. p. 16154:10.1177/0888325404270673 16005:27 February 2021 at the 15715:Zagłada Żydów w Zamościu 15494:Around the Kielce pogrom 15464:Niezalezna Gazeta Polska 15329:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, 15309:. Springer. p. 11. 14769:Jürgen Stroop, May 1943. 14711:David Wdowiński (1963). 14651:Film and Photo Archive, 14507:Film and Photo Archive, 13650:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz. 13037:Celia Stopnicka Heller. 12739:Melzer, Emanuel (1997). 12704:Celia Stopnicka Heller. 12417:Zvi Y. Gitelman (2002), 12297:Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, 12176:, was modeled after the 11527:Rutgers University Press 11361:Walter de Gruyter, 1993. 11355:Herbert Arthur Strauss. 11036:Domnitch, Larry (2003). 10999:Domnitch, Larry (2003). 10893:David ben Samuel Ha-Levi 10468:Singer, Isidore (1906). 10224:www.yivoencyclopedia.org 9706:. Jewish members of the 9661:20 February 2011 at the 9396:. World Jewish Congress. 9347: 9253:Jewish Agency for Israel 8780:Ronald Lauder Foundation 8749:Chief Rabbi of Poland – 8436:emigration of Jews from 8315:Polish People's Republic 7835:) and the ŻZW. The ŻZW ( 7690:Ghetto fighters memorial 7584:Polish Underground State 7281:, in which between 300 ( 7209:In 1939 several hundred 7095:Prime Minister of Israel 6412:Nobel Prize in Economics 6313:coming up in the ranks. 5845:founded the short-lived 5254:, known by the Jews as " 5064:The Partitions of Poland 4488:(1520–1572), an eminent 3847:Polish People’s Republic 3781:aftermath of World War I 1723:Temple in Jerusalem 1416:Bar and bat mitzvah 653:Old Synagogue (Przemyśl) 628:New Synagogue (Przemyśl) 19120:Protestantism in Poland 19033:United Methodist Church 17742:Ethnic groups in Poland 17265:8 December 2012 at the 17260:Polish Jewish Relations 17111: 16948:Levine, Hillel (1991). 16931:(Berghahn Books, 2023) 16900:Polish American Studies 16826:The Jewish Encyclopedia 15871:Third World Law Journal 15570:Stola, Dariusz (2008). 14669:27 October 2005 at the 14488:PolishResistance-AK.org 14160:Bożena Szaynok (2005), 13247:"Jewish Refugees, 1939" 12634:Piątkowski, S. (2006). 11806:Film and Photo Archive. 11614:Gershon David Hundert. 11601:19 January 2012 at the 11467:26 January 2012 at the 11137:Stanislawski, Michael. 10004:Michael C. Steinlauf. " 9955:Grabowski, Jan (2013). 9329:Jewish ethnic divisions 9324:Israel–Poland relations 9257:Jewish Community Center 9004:Israel Independence Day 8984:Auschwitz Jewish Center 8976:Prince Hassan of Jordan 8885:The Great Synagogue in 8877:Elimelech's of Lizhensk 8792:Jagiellonian University 8773:Beit Warszawa Synagogue 8628:In 1967, following the 8324:displaced-persons camps 8052:On 15 August 1943, the 7813:commander Jürgen Stroop 7346:Ghettos and death camps 7152:under German occupation 7150:the Holocaust in Poland 7140:The Holocaust in Poland 7120:Battle of Monte Cassino 7016:by many Poles from the 6953:Gulag slave labor camps 6949:NKVD prisoner massacres 6918:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 6892:, in the Soviet-formed 6851:1939 September Campaign 5794:Kościuszko Insurrection 5526:was shattered with the 5478:, and parts of western 4955:; and such scholars as 4554:, the last king of the 4376:Grand Duke of Lithuania 4125:of Wrocław in 1273–90, 3971:in Muslim Spain to the 3902:Early history: 966–1385 3871:"anti-Zionist" campaign 3820:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 3705:Jewish Culture Festival 1685:Twelve Tribes of Israel 1229:Rescue of Jews by Poles 814:Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva 19023:Polish Reformed Church 19018:Polish Orthodox Church 18547:Bosnia and Herzegovina 17385:Bosnia and Herzegovina 17248:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 17165:History of Polish Jews 16732:Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski 16636:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz 16618:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz 14838:Urban-Klaehn, Jagoda. 13654:Lexington Books, 2004. 13094:5 October 2007 at the 13063:25 August 2007 at the 12391:Joan Campbell (1992). 11461:PDF scan of the Treaty 11223:Zygmunt Zygmuntowicz, 10956:Olaf Bergmann (2015), 9859:7 October 2007 at the 9759:Archibald L. Patterson 9335:Jewish Roots in Poland 9014: 8988: 8963: 8899:Warsaw Ghetto Memorial 8863: 8775: 8764: 8753: 8476:Polish Socialist Party 8292: 8181: 8090:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 8082:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 8065: 7977: 7974:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 7896: 7859: 7858:Street, Warsaw, Poland 7829: 7802: 7784:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 7713: 7696: 7681:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 7601: 7555: 7539: 7484: 7399: 7260: 7229: 7153: 7052: 7034: 7030:Polish Second Republic 6991: 6925:witnessed a pogrom in 6857: 6733: 6621: 6546:. The position of the 6515: 6351: 6218: 6158: 6101:Second Polish Republic 6099:The newly independent 6096: 6094:Warsaw Great Synagogue 5976: 5966:Committee for the East 5928: 5925:Warsaw Great Synagogue 5912: 5813:Second Polish Republic 5742: 5546: 5441: 5356: 5211: 5147: 5077: 4979: 4863: 4702:Siege of Kraków (1657) 4673: 4625:royal towns and cities 4547: 4512:of Polish Jewry." The 4403: 4336: 4164: 4135:Bolko III the Generous 4105:among such rulers was 4022: 3924: 3824:German-occupied Poland 3746:Protestant Reformation 3675:which ended after the 1207:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 1200:Auschwitz Combat Group 648:Old Synagogue (Kraków) 623:New Synagogue (Ostrów) 568:Great Synagogue (Łódź) 41: 19146:Jewish Polish history 17759:Greater Poland people 16975:Nikžentaitis, Alvydas 16517:JewishGen KehilaLinks 15470:: 1–8. Archived from 15217:USHMM: The Survivors. 15113:Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta 14908:. Warsaw: Didactica. 14222:Warszawa. 1996, s. 10 13921:A History of the Jews 13728:(11/2005), p. 37-42, 13601:Joshua D. Zimmerman. 13539:Joshua D. Zimmerman. 13011:10.1086/ahr/76.4.1035 12622:(in Polish). Poland: 12535:23 March 2012 at the 12530:Wydarzenia 1931 roku. 12510:Polish census of 1931 12394:European Labor Unions 12118:Anna Jaskóła (2010). 11517:Engel, David (2003). 11389:Andrzej Kapiszewski, 11194:A History of Zionism. 10639:Council of Four Lands 9842:KTAV Publishing House 9704:Franklin D. Roosevelt 9520:The exchange of ideas 9341:List of Polish rabbis 9012: 8972: 8950: 8869:Jewish Cemetery, Łódź 8858: 8770: 8759: 8748: 8723:Further information: 8513:Yiddish State Theater 8175: 8007:Further information: 7971: 7884: 7853: 7837:Jewish Military Union 7804: 7792: 7702: 7688: 7679:Further information: 7608:formally imposed the 7596: 7553: 7494: 7474: 7465:Further information: 7397: 7307:Władysław Raczkiewicz 7246: 7224: 7147: 7046: 6977: 6898:Polish partisan units 6848: 6727: 6611: 6506: 6410:was awarded the 2007 6350:between 2007 and 2014 6342: 6223:Isaac Bashevis Singer 6211:Isaac Bashevis Singer 6209: 6150: 6092: 6001:Henry Morgenthau, Sr. 5974: 5949:, the nucleus of the 5918: 5900: 5886:Further information: 5876:Interbellum (1918–39) 5798:November Insurrection 5736: 5541: 5350: 5232:Alexander I of Russia 5206: 5142: 5072:Jewish dress in 17th 5071: 4974: 4915:("sharp reasoning"). 4850: 4671: 4573:Council of Four Lands 4552:Sigismund II Augustus 4545: 4435:Sigismund II Augustus 4396:Sigismund II Augustus 4394: 4343:'s ethnically-German 4331: 4249:Władysław II Jagiełło 4221:. In 1348, the first 4169:Casimir III the Great 4152: 4102:Roman Catholic Church 4020: 3915: 3895:Further information: 3775:(later a part of the 2431:São Tomé and Príncipe 2426:Republic of the Congo 1820:Second Temple Judaism 1691:Kingdom of Judah 1662:Modern historiography 1217:Jewish Military Union 1054:and mass murder sites 774:Council of Four Lands 19115:Irreligion in Poland 19082:Not state-recognised 19003:Native Polish Church 18848:United Arab Emirates 17794:Lesser Poland people 16938:Krajewski, Stanisław 16381:at www.sztetl.org.pl 16301:22 July 2009 at the 16070:on 30 November 2010. 15975:"îéãò ðåñó òì äôøéè" 15928:3 March 2016 at the 15578:. pp. 240–255. 15527:, Palgrave, page 101 15440:7 March 2009 at the 15407:"מידע נוסף על הפריט" 15355:, page 130, (ibidem) 15350:Tadeusz Piotrowski, 15301:Prazmowska, Anita J. 14869:(in Polish). Warsaw. 14813:"מידע נוסף על הפריט" 14713:And we are not saved 14482:Marek Ney-Krwawicz. 14402:, Hippocrene, 1998. 14116:3 March 2016 at the 13553:The Death of Chaimke 13456:23 June 2008 at the 13281:yivoencyclopedia.org 13182:on 18 December 2011. 13153:Joshua D. Zimmerman 12796:, 1985, pp. 261-262. 12580:. pp. 342–344. 11778:"מידע נוסף על הפריט" 11589:5 March 2016 at the 11162:. UPNE. p. 16. 10740:"CZARNIECKI, STEFAN" 10430:on 28 February 2008. 10304:"The Jews of Poland" 9941:12 June 2007 at the 9809:"מידע נוסף על הפריט" 9586:on 11 December 2008. 9062:Warsaw Ghetto Museum 8614:Helena Wolińska-Brus 8574:Urząd Bezpieczeństwa 8549:Urząd Bezpieczeństwa 8414:activists including 7856:Mordechaj Anielewicz 7845:Mordechai Anielewicz 7767:Jewish Ghetto Police 7763:the mass deportation 7742:Jewish Ghetto Police 7483:on the "Aryan side") 7481:Marszałkowska Street 7477:Świętokrzyska Street 7265:Operation Barbarossa 7118:who died during the 6894:Polish People's Army 6695:Second International 6575:Revisionist Zionists 6438:University of Warsaw 6231:Israel Joshua Singer 6113:1931 National Census 6019:Polish–Ukrainian War 6013:treasonable. In the 5985:Polish–Ukrainian War 5802:January Insurrection 5764:. Jews also took up 5643:improve this section 5605:Haskalah and Halakha 5592:. They included the 5435:is derived from the 5309:improve this section 5250:During the reign of 5094:Confederation of Bar 4967:The rise of Hasidism 4891:Talmudic scholarship 4765:Partitions of Poland 4640:Khmelnytsky Uprising 4585:Warsaw Confederation 4538:Warsaw Confederation 4383:"kings and rulers". 4360:Casimir IV Jagiellon 4333:Casimir IV Jagiellon 4127:Henryk III of Głogów 4047:commercial interests 4041:territory as far as 3757:Partitions of Poland 3677:Partitions of Poland 3533:World Agudath Israel 2674:United Arab Emirates 1761:Second Temple period 1751:Babylonian captivity 794:Vaad Rosh Hashochtim 19089:Jehovah's Witnesses 18967:religions of Poland 18923:Polish Diaspora Day 17623:States with limited 17280:2 July 2010 at the 17212:Joanna Rohozinska, 17156:9 December 2012 at 17123:9 December 2012 at 16839:originate from the 16835:paragraphs lacking 16802:Laurence Weinbaum, 16778:, HUC Press, 1996, 16622:After the Holocaust 16564:"The JCC of Krakow" 16127:2 June 2009 at the 15721:vol. 1 (2008), 188. 15409:. 21 January 2008. 15236:Gross, Jan (2007). 14815:. 21 January 2008. 14548:, Routledge, 1990, 14276:Forgotten Holocaust 14256:on 29 December 2022 14097:Czesław Madajczyk, 13997:on 21 January 2008. 13824:avalon.law.yale.edu 13780:30 May 2008 at the 13719:Krzysztof Szwagrzyk 13629:Tadeusz Piotrowski 12052:Feigue Cieplinski, 11373:Joanna B. Michlic. 11247:"Żydzi w Legionach" 10985:. 25 November 2014. 10879:29 May 2016 at the 10745:Jewish Encyclopedia 10704:Jewish Encyclopedia 10643:Jewish Encyclopedia 10504:Jewish Encyclopedia 10474:Jewish Encyclopedia 10458:- YIVO Encyclopedia 10356:on 5 December 2008. 10109:7 June 2020 at the 10052:Aleksiun, Natalia. 9458:on 13 November 2011 9245:Moses Schorr Centre 9086: 9038:Moses Schorr Centre 8992:March of the Living 8861:March of the Living 8509:Polish Armed Forces 8456:was established in 8134:resistance movement 7910:resistance movement 7885:Freed prisoners of 7352:extermination camps 7318:Holocaust survivors 7165:extermination camps 6882:Holocaust in Poland 6777:Revisionist Zionism 6532:National Democratic 6477:Maccabi World Union 6471:. Another athlete, 6420:Main Judaic Library 6348:President of Israel 6333:Children Must Laugh 6287:Zygmunt Białostocki 6003:, concluded in its 5908:, c. 1910s, during 5741:demonstration, 1917 5160:Kościuszko Uprising 5158:, took part in the 5152:partition of Poland 5107:annexations of 1772 5090:Catherine the Great 5040:including those of 4825:Sigismund I the Old 4815:into two words of: 4698:Charles X of Sweden 4431:Sigismund I the Old 4372:Alexander Jagiellon 4364:Statute of Nieszawa 4067:Bolesław I the Tall 3753:Counter-Reformation 3732:paradisus iudaeorum 3669:religious tolerance 1826:Hellenistic Judaism 1404:Land of Israel 1363:Principles of faith 968:Concentration camps 187:Historical Timeline 161:History of Jews and 47: 17777:Kuyavian Borowiaks 17301:, 20 December 2005 17028:Polonsky, Antony. 17012:Polonsky, Antony. 16933:online book review 16921:Yad Vashem Studies 16480:Berman Institute, 16360:. 28 February 2008 16050:(11 August 2008). 16048:Hoover Institution 15353:Poland's Holocaust 15141:Trela-Mazur 1997, 14986:on 14 October 2017 14788:Polesie Voivodship 14364:Francis R. Nicosia 14362:Donald L. Niewyk; 14220:Diaries 1939 -1945 13800:on 8 December 2012 13689:Jonathan Frankel. 13676:Samuel D. Kassow. 13633:, McFarland, 1998 13569:Tadeusz Piotrowski 13490:Poland's Holocaust 13447:Marek Wierzbicki, 13205:on 8 December 2015 13076:Shmuel Krakowski, 12790:Francis R. Nicosia 12630:on 22 August 2010. 12365:Herbert A. Strauss 11744:1931 Polish census 11674:on 6 October 2008. 11566:on 6 October 2007. 11529:. pp. 33–34. 11227:excerpt from book 10795:Dariusz Milewski, 10697:Herman Rosenthal, 10500:"Katzenellenbogen" 10276:. 5 December 2013. 9984:Natalia Aleksiun. 9078: 9015: 8964: 8864: 8845:Judaica Foundation 8776: 8765: 8754: 8368:, director of the 8182: 8047:Auschwitz-Birkenau 7978: 7963:Władysław Szpilman 7897: 7876:Polish underground 7860: 7803: 7793:The cover page of 7751:Grossaktion Warsaw 7714: 7697: 7602: 7556: 7540: 7510:General Government 7485: 7448:Stanisławów Ghetto 7420:Częstochowa Ghetto 7400: 7384:forced labor camps 7330:Gunnar S. Paulsson 7326:Emanuel Ringelblum 7261: 7230: 7154: 7053: 7009:Władysław Sikorski 6992: 6870:September Campaign 6858: 6841:Invasion of Poland 6754:standard of living 6738:National Democracy 6734: 6652:National Democracy 6622: 6571:Polish nationalist 6516: 6492:Polish Jews spoke 6392:Emanuel Ringelblum 6352: 6275:Jerzy Petersburski 6247:Emanuel Schlechter 6219: 6159: 6097: 6064:Congress of Poland 6036:The New York Times 6015:Lwów (Lviv) pogrom 5977: 5951:interim government 5929: 5913: 5904:schoolchildren in 5817:Apolinary Hartglas 5743: 5598:Grodno Governorate 5569:partitioned Poland 5547: 5520:Pale of Settlement 5421:Kingdom of Prussia 5362:Pale of Settlement 5357: 5353:Pale of Settlement 5277:Pale of Settlement 5225:Pale of Settlement 5212: 5148: 5078: 5076:and 18th centuries 4980: 4864: 4833:David HaLevi Segal 4749:Right-bank Ukraine 4674: 4661:(captivity in the 4652:Bohdan Khmelnytsky 4548: 4459:. Arabic-speaking 4404: 4353:John of Capistrano 4337: 4274:Synod of Constance 4257:Louis I of Hungary 4165: 4129:in 1274 and 1299, 4107:Bolesław the Pious 4023: 3925: 3773:Kingdom of Prussia 3387:Jewish Koine Greek 2929:Dominican Republic 2210:Judaism by country 1889:Jews and Christmas 1744:Assyrian captivity 1063:Auschwitz-Birkenau 784:Judaica Foundation 598:Kowea Itim le-Tora 32: 19133: 19132: 18932: 18931: 18882: 18881: 18633: 18632: 18328:Polish minorities 18290: 18289: 17932: 17931: 17919:Tuchola Borowians 17870:Borderlands Poles 17850:Międzyrzec Boyars 17708: 17707: 17087:978-0-96-565080-9 17070:978-0-804763-83-7 17050:The Polish Review 17039:978-1-904113-48-5 17023:978-1-904113-83-6 17007:978-1-874774-64-8 16841:Chapter: "Russia" 16710:Joanna B. Michlic 16568:My Jewish Detroit 16404:978-1-317-50689-8 16272:"ABOUT THE MARCH" 16194:978-0-8070-5056-9 16164:– via SAGE. 16106:"Wojna zastępcza" 15897:. 24 April 2018. 15852:978-0-8129-6746-3 15822:978-1-4020-6053-3 15713:Adam Kopciowski. 15674:978-1-107-03666-6 15585:978-1-306-54603-4 15508:978-83-60464-87-8 15477:on 26 August 2016 15203:978-83-61590-46-0 15068:978-0-7656-0665-5 14979:978-0-8229-6293-9 14778:The first Jewish 14696:, pp. 10–14. 14544:Antony Polonsky, 14385:978-0-231-11200-0 14218:Zofia Nałkowska. 14069:978-0-691-00954-4 13836:Thomas C. Hubka, 12903:Laurence Weinbaum 12879:League of Nations 12816:League of Nations 12767:announced to the 12587:978-0-521-63037-5 12518:Wikimedia Commons 12438:Mordecai Paldiel 12351:978-3-11-083868-8 12324:978-3-11-083868-8 12284:978-0-415-34358-9 12257:978-3-11-083868-8 12233:on 17 March 2014. 12107:on 20 April 2015. 11957:Barbara Engelking 11943:978-1-904113-48-5 11932:. Vol. III. 11887:978-1-909821-53-8 11494:Walter de Gruyter 11416:978-0-19-006011-4 11205:Isaiah Friedman. 10966:978-83-7976-222-4 10864:, pp. 17–18. 10852:, pp. 51–52. 10782:978-83-11-08275-5 10496:Solomon Schechter 10314:on 13 August 2019 10255:978-0-415-52087-4 10147:, historia.wp.pl. 10024:Devorah Hakohen, 9966:978-0-253-01074-2 9724:Laurence Weinbaum 9692:League of Nations 9665:Online exposition 9236: 9235: 9232: 9223: 9214: 9205: 9196: 9187: 9178: 9169: 9160: 9151: 9135: 9085: 8927:Holocaust studies 8837:Dos Jidische Wort 8788:Warsaw University 8751:Michael Schudrich 8732:Koniuchy massacre 8678:March 1968 events 8657:Mieczysław Moczar 8610:Zgoda labour camp 8598:Radio Free Europe 8570:Władysław Gomułka 8566:People's Republic 8472:elections of 1947 8397:Marian Spychalski 8078:Molotov cocktails 7952:Stanisław Aronson 7827: 7795:The Stroop Report 7360:Chełmno (Kulmhof) 6945:Soviet annexation 6886:defended the city 6790:League of Nations 6781:League of Nations 6775:, the founder of 6687:Jewish socialists 6618:Warsaw University 6563:Władysław Grabski 6111:According to the 6085:Culture of Poland 6069:Polish–Soviet War 6005:Morgenthau Report 5989:Polish–Soviet War 5981:Russian Civil War 5836:first Polish Sejm 5821:Yitzhak Gruenbaum 5719:Religious Zionism 5679: 5678: 5671: 5399:תְּחוּם הַמּוֹשָב 5371:Черта́ осе́длости 5345: 5344: 5337: 5134:French Revolution 5038:Hasidic dynasties 4993:was succeeded by 4909:, the creator of 4862:, Poland, 1610–20 4747:, a rebellion in 4706:Stefan Czarniecki 4556:Jagiellon dynasty 4199:and Jews." Under 4155:Casimir the Great 4119:Statute of Kalisz 4077:(developing into 3973:Holy Roman Empire 3961:Ibrahim ibn Yaqub 3720:Kingdom of Poland 3649: 3648: 3598: 3597: 3346: 3345: 3093:Reconstructionist 3037: 3036: 2189: 2188: 1996: 1995: 1833:Jewish–Roman wars 1781:Hasmonean dynasty 1697:Kingdom of Israel 1601: 1600: 1302: 1301: 1244: 1243: 832: 831: 444: 443: 424:Jewish Autonomism 260:Polish-Ashkenazim 163:Judaism in Poland 146: 145: 44: 16:(Redirected from 19158: 18974:State-recognised 18959: 18952: 18945: 18936: 18935: 18386: 18385: 18379: 18378: 18356:Great Emigration 18317: 18310: 18303: 18294: 18293: 18178:Crimean Karaites 18120:Galician Germans 17909:Polish Uplanders 17755: 17754: 17735: 17728: 17721: 17712: 17711: 17661:Dependencies and 17602:Northern Ireland 17343:Sovereign states 17329: 17322: 17315: 17306: 17305: 17258:Bibliography of 17099: 17072: 17041: 17025: 17009: 16994:Polonsky, Antony 16990: 16981:. Rodopi, 2004, 16971: 16924: 16891: 16837:inline citations 16830: 16813: 16812: 16740:Hippocrene Books 16702: 16683: 16656:William W. Hagen 16651: 16605: 16604: 16602: 16600: 16585: 16579: 16578: 16576: 16574: 16559: 16553: 16552: 16550: 16548: 16534: 16528: 16527: 16525: 16523: 16509: 16503: 16491: 16485: 16478: 16469: 16462: 16456: 16455: 16453: 16451: 16437: 16431: 16430: 16428: 16426: 16415: 16409: 16408: 16388: 16382: 16376: 16370: 16369: 16367: 16365: 16350: 16344: 16338: 16332: 16329:Polish Knowledge 16318: 16309: 16308: 16293: 16287: 16286: 16284: 16282: 16268: 16262: 16261: 16259: 16257: 16242: 16236: 16235: 16233: 16231: 16216: 16210: 16205: 16199: 16198: 16182: 16172: 16166: 16165: 16137: 16131: 16120: 16114: 16113: 16101: 16095: 16094: 16093:on 13 July 2011. 16089:. Archived from 16078: 16072: 16071: 16066:. Archived from 16044: 16035: 16034: 16023: 16010: 15997: 15991: 15990: 15988: 15986: 15971: 15965: 15964: 15949: 15939: 15933: 15920: 15911: 15910: 15908: 15906: 15892: 15885: 15879: 15878: 15866: 15857: 15856: 15838: 15827: 15826: 15808: 15797: 15794:Shattered Spaces 15791: 15785: 15779: 15773: 15766: 15760: 15759: 15757: 15755: 15735: 15722: 15711: 15705: 15704: 15696: 15679: 15678: 15660: 15643: 15642: 15606: 15597: 15596: 15594: 15592: 15567: 15552: 15545: 15539: 15534: 15528: 15522: 15513: 15512: 15486: 15484: 15482: 15476: 15461: 15451: 15445: 15432: 15423: 15422: 15420: 15418: 15403: 15397: 15391: 15385: 15384: 15364: 15358: 15348: 15342: 15327: 15321: 15320: 15297: 15291: 15290: 15266: 15260: 15259: 15233: 15222: 15220:Internet Archive 15214: 15208: 15207: 15195: 15184: 15178: 15177: 15159: 15153: 15136: 15109: 15103: 15102: 15100: 15084: 15073: 15072: 15052: 15046: 15045: 15013:God's Playground 15002: 14993: 14991: 14982:. Archived from 14963: 14957: 14956: 14933: 14927: 14926: 14925:on 23 June 2015. 14924: 14918:. Archived from 14907: 14896: 14885: 14884: 14878: 14870: 14865:Mark, B (1952). 14862: 14856: 14855: 14853: 14851: 14835: 14829: 14828: 14826: 14824: 14809: 14803: 14797: 14791: 14776: 14770: 14759: 14753: 14750: 14744: 14734: 14728: 14726: 14708: 14697: 14691: 14685: 14679: 14673: 14662: 14656: 14649:Adam Czerniakow. 14646: 14640: 14634: 14628: 14627: 14622:. Archived from 14612: 14606: 14596: 14590: 14584: 14578: 14577: 14566: 14560: 14542: 14536: 14518: 14512: 14502: 14496: 14495: 14479: 14473: 14472: 14452: 14446: 14440: 14429: 14428: 14423:. Archived from 14417: 14411: 14398:Iwo Pogonowski, 14396: 14390: 14389: 14373: 14359: 14353: 14347: 14341: 14335: 14329: 14328: 14326: 14324: 14309: 14303: 14293: 14287: 14272: 14266: 14265: 14263: 14261: 14252:. Archived from 14242: 14236: 14229: 14223: 14216: 14210: 14199: 14193: 14186: 14180: 14167:Robert Blobaum, 14158: 14152: 14145: 14139: 14138: 14127: 14121: 14108: 14102: 14095: 14089: 14080: 14074: 14073: 14053: 14047: 14038: 14032: 14017: 14011: 14005: 13999: 13998: 13987: 13981: 13975: 13969: 13968: 13946: 13940: 13939: 13912: 13906: 13900: 13894: 13893: 13869: 13863: 13858: 13852: 13834: 13828: 13827: 13816: 13810: 13809: 13807: 13805: 13796:. Archived from 13790: 13784: 13772: 13766: 13765: 13754: 13748: 13742: 13736: 13716: 13710: 13702:Joanna Michlic. 13700: 13694: 13687: 13681: 13674: 13668: 13667:Macmillan, 1999. 13661: 13655: 13648: 13642: 13627: 13621: 13615: 13606: 13599: 13593: 13592: 13565: 13556: 13550: 13544: 13537: 13531: 13530: 13510: 13504: 13503: 13481: 13472: 13446: 13442: 13436: 13430: 13424: 13420:19 July 2009 at 13412: 13399: 13398: 13378: 13372: 13371: 13351: 13345: 13344: 13324: 13318: 13317: 13315: 13313: 13298: 13292: 13291: 13289: 13287: 13272: 13263: 13262: 13260: 13258: 13242: 13233: 13232: 13221: 13215: 13214: 13212: 13210: 13190: 13184: 13183: 13178:. Archived from 13176:"Jews in Poland" 13172: 13166: 13151: 13142: 13141: 13121: 13115: 13105: 13099: 13086: 13080: 13074: 13068: 13055: 13042: 13035: 13029: 13028:July 1996: 1–31. 13022:William W. Hagen 13019: 13013: 12999: 12993: 12992: 12952: 12941: 12931: 12925: 12918: 12912: 12875: 12869: 12862: 12856: 12846: 12840: 12833: 12827: 12804: 12798: 12785: 12779: 12761: 12755: 12754: 12736: 12730: 12724: 12718: 12715: 12709: 12702: 12696: 12695: 12683: 12674: 12668: 12662: 12661: 12655: 12647: 12631: 12611: 12605: 12598: 12592: 12591: 12564: 12558: 12554:God's Playground 12546: 12540: 12527: 12521: 12499: 12490: 12476: 12470: 12457: 12451: 12436: 12430: 12415: 12409: 12408: 12388: 12382: 12362: 12356: 12355: 12335: 12329: 12328: 12308: 12302: 12295: 12289: 12288: 12268: 12262: 12261: 12241: 12235: 12234: 12232: 12225: 12216: 12210: 12203: 12197: 12170: 12164: 12154: 12148: 12141:Yonathan Shapiro 12138: 12132: 12131: 12125: 12115: 12109: 12108: 12106: 12095: 12085: 12079: 12078: 12076: 12074: 12063: 12057: 12050: 12044: 12024: 12015: 12014: 11994: 11988: 11987: 11985: 11983: 11969: 11963: 11954: 11948: 11947: 11925: 11919: 11918: 11898: 11892: 11891: 11871: 11865: 11864: 11856: 11850: 11833: 11827: 11813: 11807: 11800: 11794: 11793: 11791: 11789: 11774: 11768: 11767: 11762: 11760: 11754: 11739: 11730: 11729: 11718: 11712: 11711: 11700: 11694: 11693: 11682: 11676: 11675: 11670:. Archived from 11664: 11658: 11652: 11646: 11632: 11626: 11612: 11606: 11574: 11568: 11567: 11565: 11558: 11547: 11541: 11540: 11514: 11508: 11507: 11478: 11472: 11451: 11445: 11427: 11421: 11420: 11400: 11394: 11387: 11381: 11371: 11362: 11353: 11347: 11330: 11324: 11323: 11321: 11319: 11296: 11290: 11283: 11277: 11274: 11268: 11265: 11259: 11258: 11256: 11254: 11242: 11236: 11221: 11210: 11203: 11197: 11187: 11181: 11180: 11178: 11176: 11153: 11147: 11146: 11139:"Russian Empire" 11134: 11128: 11118: 11112: 11103: 11097: 11096: 11094: 11092: 11069: 11063: 11062: 11060: 11058: 11033: 11024: 11023: 11021: 11019: 10996: 10987: 10986: 10975: 10969: 10954: 10945: 10939: 10933: 10932: 10930: 10928: 10905: 10896: 10890: 10884: 10871: 10865: 10859: 10853: 10847: 10838: 10837: 10835: 10833: 10823: 10814: 10808: 10807: 10793: 10787: 10786: 10766: 10760: 10755: 10749: 10736: 10730: 10725: 10719: 10714: 10708: 10695: 10689: 10684: 10678: 10668: 10662: 10657: 10646: 10636: 10630: 10624: 10618: 10612: 10606: 10605: 10603: 10601: 10587: 10581: 10580: 10573: 10567: 10566: 10554: 10548: 10547: 10531: 10521: 10515: 10514: 10512: 10510: 10491: 10485: 10484: 10482: 10480: 10465: 10459: 10453: 10447: 10441: 10432: 10431: 10426:. Archived from 10424:www.bartleby.com 10416: 10410: 10409: 10407: 10405: 10379: 10370: 10364: 10358: 10357: 10352:. Archived from 10346: 10340: 10330: 10324: 10323: 10321: 10319: 10310:. Archived from 10300: 10294: 10284: 10278: 10277: 10266: 10260: 10259: 10241: 10235: 10234: 10232: 10230: 10216: 10210: 10203: 10197: 10196: 10194: 10192: 10177: 10148: 10142: 10136: 10135: 10124: 10118: 10097: 10091: 10090: 10070: 10061: 10060: 10049: 10038: 10022: 10013: 10002: 9993: 9982: 9971: 9970: 9952: 9946: 9933: 9924: 9923: 9895: 9889: 9876:Richard C. Lukas 9873: 9864: 9851: 9845: 9838:Mordecai Paldiel 9831: 9825: 9824: 9822: 9820: 9805: 9799: 9798: 9796: 9794: 9775: 9769: 9739: 9733: 9688: 9682: 9675:William W. Hagen 9672: 9666: 9653: 9647: 9627: 9621: 9615: 9609: 9603: 9588: 9587: 9576: 9567: 9562:George Sanford, 9560: 9551: 9550: 9539: 9533: 9530: 9524: 9505: 9499: 9498: 9491: 9489: 9474: 9468: 9467: 9465: 9463: 9440: 9434: 9433: 9421: 9415: 9409: 9398: 9397: 9390: 9370: 9367: 9361: 9358: 9228: 9219: 9210: 9201: 9192: 9183: 9174: 9165: 9156: 9140: 9133: 9087: 9083: 9081: 9077: 8970:documents that: 8939: 8604:a member of the 8562:de-Stalinisation 8503:, who served as 8420:Icchak Cukierman 8297: 8288:pogrom in Cracow 8261:Yalta Conference 8003:Białystok Ghetto 7925:Icchak Cukierman 7901:Ghetto uprisings 7868:Heinrich Himmler 7817: 7749:at the onset of 7726:Governor-General 7651:Szmul Zygielbojm 7629:Museum (6,339). 7412:Białystok Ghetto 7193:starved to death 7091:Władysław Anders 7039: 6862:Boruch Steinberg 6855:Powązki Cemetery 6788:declared in the 6773:Ze'ev Jabotinsky 6750:Great Depression 6730:Lwów Polytechnic 6702:Second World War 6612:Student's book ( 6599:Great Depression 6595:Kazimierz Bartel 6526:. Following the 6520:Great Depression 6457:Jutrzenka Kraków 6402:" was coined by 6396:Artur Rubinstein 6388:Samuel Eilenberg 6378:(the creator of 6366:, and professor 6358:, mathematician 6318:Michał Waszyński 6299:Maurycy Gottlieb 6251:Bolesław Leśmian 6010:battle for Pińsk 5991:ending with the 5921:Baruch Steinberg 5762:General Zionists 5711:Orthodox Judaism 5674: 5667: 5663: 5660: 5654: 5623: 5615: 5594:Białystok pogrom 5558: 5544:Białystok pogrom 5452:Russian Orthodox 5446: 5406: 5400: 5392: 5390:tkhum-ha-moyshəv 5386: 5378: 5376:chertá osédlosti 5372: 5340: 5333: 5329: 5326: 5320: 5289: 5281: 5237:brewing industry 5156:Berek Joselewicz 5144:Berek Joselewicz 5126:Andrzej Zamoyski 5060:, among others. 5000:In this time of 4978:, 1895 depiction 4856:Zamość Synagogue 4648:Zaporozhian Host 4370:(1492–1501) and 4266: 4259:, Lithuania was 4201:penalty of death 4173:Wiślicki Statute 4131:Henryk V the Fat 4123:Henryk IV Probus 4088:Magdeburg rights 4063:Casimir the Just 4059:Hebraic markings 4002:As elsewhere in 3849:for the nascent 3661:Ashkenazi Jewish 3641: 3634: 3627: 3490: 3489: 3371: 3192: 3186: 3167: 3131: 3130: 3078: 3025:New Zealand 2977: 2940:El Salvador 2930: 2862:Northern America 2854: 2448: 2204: 2203: 2115:Crimean Karaites 2011: 2010: 1989: 1987: 1908: 1906: 1898: 1892: 1883: 1871:Rabbinic Judaism 1852: 1846: 1840: 1828: 1816: 1782: 1775:Maccabean Revolt 1752: 1745: 1739: 1731: 1724: 1718: 1710: 1692: 1616: 1615: 1590: 1485: 1484: 1417: 1405: 1304: 1303: 1294: 1287: 1280: 1266: 1261: 1255: 849: 848: 824:Novardok Yeshiva 762: 761: 548:Chabad-Lubavitch 246: 245: 195: 191: 181: 176: 173: 148: 147: 73:Total population 55: 48: 46: 42: 37: 31: 21: 19166: 19165: 19161: 19160: 19159: 19157: 19156: 19155: 19136: 19135: 19134: 19129: 19103: 19077: 18969: 18963: 18933: 18928: 18878: 18857: 18747: 18711: 18629: 18581: 18540:Southern Europe 18535: 18484:Northern Europe 18479: 18370: 18330: 18324:Polish diaspora 18321: 18291: 18286: 18146: 18135:Vistula Germans 18074: 18001: 17983: 17955: 17951:Silesian Gorals 17928: 17882: 17878:Bug River Poles 17864: 17821: 17788: 17744: 17739: 17709: 17704: 17662: 17656: 17642:Northern Cyprus 17624: 17618: 17517:North Macedonia 17338: 17333: 17282:Wayback Machine 17267:Wayback Machine 17244:vilnaghetto.com 17238: 17167: 17147:Wayback Machine 17136:Wayback Machine 17114: 17109: 17088: 17064: 17033: 17017: 17001: 16982: 16960: 16927:Korycki, Kate. 16902:, 78(1), 60–82. 16888: 16872: 16864:Main articles: 16862: 16860:Further reading 16821:Singer, Isidore 16810: 16706:Antony Polonsky 16699: 16680: 16643: 16614: 16609: 16608: 16598: 16596: 16587: 16586: 16582: 16572: 16570: 16560: 16556: 16546: 16544: 16536: 16535: 16531: 16521: 16519: 16511: 16510: 16506: 16500:Wayback Machine 16492: 16488: 16479: 16472: 16463: 16459: 16449: 16447: 16439: 16438: 16434: 16424: 16422: 16416: 16412: 16405: 16389: 16385: 16377: 16373: 16363: 16361: 16352: 16351: 16347: 16339: 16335: 16319: 16312: 16306: 16303:Wayback Machine 16294: 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9132: 9082: 9079: 9076: 9070: 8933: 8904:Nathan Rapoport 8761:Lesko Synagogue 8740:Auschwitz cross 8727: 8721: 8715: 8702:Gazeta Wyborcza 8626: 8578:Roman Romkowski 8558:Bolesław Bierut 8489: 8384: 8378: 8358:Stephen Denburg 8310: 8304: 8302:Jewish property 8225: 8219: 8190:eastern regions 8170: 8113: 8108: 8102: 8086:ghetto uprising 8011: 8005: 7999: 7990:Aktion Reinhard 7937:Warsaw Uprising 7905:Warsaw Uprising 7734:Adam Czerniakow 7703:Deportation to 7694:Nathan Rapoport 7683: 7677: 7671: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7507: 7501: 7497: 7469: 7442:in present-day 7356:occupied Poland 7348: 7279:Jedwabne pogrom 7142: 7136: 6988:occupied Poland 6961:interwar period 6910: 6843: 6837: 6832: 6826: 6661:Numerus clausus 6582:Józef Piłsudski 6548:Catholic Church 6489:interwar Poland 6485: 6424:Yiddish theatre 6384:Georges Charpak 6376:Ludwik Zamenhof 6328:Aleksander Ford 6307:Maurycy Trębacz 6303:Artur Markowicz 6291:Szymon Kataszek 6168:Liberal Judaism 6164:Hasidic Judaism 6087: 6079:Main articles: 6077: 5961:Austrian kronen 5943:Józef Piłsudski 5938:Legiony Polskie 5895: 5890: 5884: 5878: 5843:Max Bodenheimer 5832:General Zionist 5777:rights of labor 5731: 5715:Hasidic Judaism 5675: 5664: 5658: 5655: 5640: 5624: 5613: 5607: 5596:of 1906 in the 5577:met in Katowice 5536: 5429:Austria-Hungary 5409:Imperial Russia 5341: 5330: 5324: 5321: 5306: 5290: 5279: 5274: 5201: 5187: 5181: 5165:Congress Poland 5066: 4986: 4969: 4845: 4843:Jewish learning 4773: 4642:, in which the 4581: 4569:Gershon Hundert 4540: 4526: 4514:Remuh Synagogue 4474:Ashkenazi Jewry 4424:Jews from Spain 4389: 4378:, followed the 4269:Lithuanian Jews 4264: 4245: 4239: 4161:Wojciech Gerson 4033:in 1098. Under 4012:medieval Poland 3995:in the city of 3993:Jehuda ha-Kohen 3910: 3904: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3851:State of Israel 3832:Jedwabne pogrom 3789:interwar period 3769:Austria-Hungary 3761:sovereign state 3727:created in 1569 3673:social autonomy 3645: 3600: 3599: 3487: 3477: 3476: 3467:Judeo-Malayalam 3447:Judaeo-Georgian 3367: 3358: 3348: 3347: 3248:Yiddish theatre 3190: 3128: 3118: 3117: 3076: 3049: 3039: 3038: 2975: 2928: 2852: 2446: 2230:Genetic studies 2201: 2191: 2190: 2008: 1998: 1997: 1985: 1984: 1904: 1903: 1896: 1886: 1881: 1863:and Middle Ages 1861:Rabbinic period 1848: 1842: 1835: 1823: 1794: 1780: 1750: 1743: 1734: 1726: 1722: 1713: 1708:in Judaism 1705: 1690: 1613: 1603: 1602: 1482: 1472: 1471: 1415: 1403: 1348: 1298: 1259: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1162: 1128:Kielce Cemetery 1097: 1093:Valley of Death 1046: 962: 846: 845: 834: 833: 828: 798: 759: 758: 749: 748: 747: 553:Chachmei Lublin 527: 526: 515: 514: 513: 458: 457: 446: 445: 440: 400: 343: 302:Izhbitza-Radzin 243: 242: 231: 193: 189: 174: 162: 68: 39: 34: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 19164: 19154: 19153: 19148: 19131: 19130: 19128: 19127: 19122: 19117: 19111: 19109: 19105: 19104: 19102: 19101: 19096: 19091: 19085: 19083: 19079: 19078: 19076: 19075: 19070: 19065: 19060: 19055: 19050: 19045: 19040: 19035: 19030: 19025: 19020: 19015: 19010: 19005: 19000: 18995: 18994: 18993: 18988: 18977: 18975: 18971: 18970: 18962: 18961: 18954: 18947: 18939: 18930: 18929: 18927: 18926: 18919: 18912: 18905: 18898: 18890: 18888: 18884: 18883: 18880: 18879: 18877: 18876: 18871: 18865: 18863: 18859: 18858: 18856: 18855: 18850: 18845: 18840: 18839: 18838: 18828: 18823: 18822: 18821: 18811: 18806: 18801: 18796: 18791: 18786: 18781: 18776: 18771: 18766: 18761: 18755: 18753: 18749: 18748: 18746: 18745: 18740: 18735: 18730: 18725: 18719: 18717: 18713: 18712: 18710: 18709: 18704: 18699: 18698: 18697: 18687: 18682: 18677: 18672: 18667: 18662: 18657: 18652: 18647: 18641: 18639: 18635: 18634: 18631: 18630: 18628: 18627: 18626: 18625: 18618:United Kingdom 18615: 18610: 18605: 18600: 18595: 18589: 18587: 18586:Western Europe 18583: 18582: 18580: 18579: 18574: 18569: 18564: 18559: 18554: 18549: 18543: 18541: 18537: 18536: 18534: 18533: 18528: 18523: 18518: 18513: 18508: 18503: 18498: 18493: 18487: 18485: 18481: 18480: 18478: 18477: 18472: 18467: 18462: 18457: 18452: 18451: 18450: 18440: 18435: 18434: 18433: 18428: 18423: 18413: 18411:Czech Republic 18408: 18403: 18398: 18392: 18390: 18383: 18376: 18372: 18371: 18369: 18368: 18363: 18358: 18353: 18346: 18338: 18336: 18332: 18331: 18320: 18319: 18312: 18305: 18297: 18288: 18287: 18285: 18284: 18279: 18274: 18269: 18264: 18263: 18262: 18257: 18247: 18242: 18237: 18232: 18227: 18222: 18221: 18220: 18218:Ashkenazi Jews 18210: 18205: 18200: 18195: 18190: 18185: 18180: 18175: 18170: 18165: 18160: 18154: 18152: 18148: 18147: 18145: 18144: 18143: 18142: 18137: 18132: 18127: 18122: 18112: 18111: 18110: 18100: 18095: 18094: 18093: 18082: 18080: 18076: 18075: 18073: 18072: 18067: 18062: 18057: 18052: 18051: 18050: 18040: 18035: 18030: 18025: 18020: 18015: 18009: 18007: 18003: 18002: 18000: 17999: 17997:Cieszyn Vlachs 17993: 17991: 17985: 17984: 17982: 17981: 17976: 17971: 17965: 17963: 17957: 17956: 17954: 17953: 17948: 17942: 17940: 17934: 17933: 17930: 17929: 17927: 17926: 17921: 17916: 17911: 17906: 17901: 17896: 17890: 17888: 17884: 17883: 17881: 17880: 17874: 17872: 17866: 17865: 17863: 17862: 17857: 17852: 17847: 17842: 17837: 17831: 17829: 17823: 17822: 17820: 17819: 17814: 17809: 17804: 17798: 17796: 17790: 17789: 17787: 17786: 17781: 17780: 17779: 17769: 17763: 17761: 17752: 17746: 17745: 17738: 17737: 17730: 17723: 17715: 17706: 17705: 17703: 17702: 17697: 17692: 17687: 17682: 17677: 17672: 17666: 17664: 17663:other entities 17658: 17657: 17655: 17654: 17649: 17644: 17639: 17634: 17628: 17626: 17620: 17619: 17617: 17616: 17615: 17614: 17609: 17604: 17599: 17592:United Kingdom 17589: 17584: 17579: 17574: 17569: 17564: 17559: 17554: 17549: 17544: 17539: 17534: 17529: 17524: 17519: 17514: 17509: 17504: 17499: 17494: 17489: 17484: 17479: 17474: 17469: 17464: 17459: 17457: 17452: 17447: 17442: 17437: 17432: 17427: 17422: 17417: 17412: 17407: 17405:Czech Republic 17402: 17397: 17392: 17387: 17382: 17377: 17372: 17367: 17362: 17357: 17352: 17346: 17344: 17340: 17339: 17332: 17331: 17324: 17317: 17309: 17303: 17302: 17290: 17285: 17272: 17271: 17270: 17269:during the War 17256: 17245: 17237: 17234: 17233: 17232: 17227: 17222: 17217: 17210: 17205: 17200: 17195: 17190: 17185: 17180: 17179: 17178: 17176:Virtual Shtetl 17166: 17163: 17162: 17161: 17113: 17110: 17108: 17107:External links 17105: 17104: 17103: 17100: 17086: 17073: 17057: 17042: 17026: 17010: 16991: 16972: 16958: 16945: 16935: 16925: 16913: 16903: 16892: 16886: 16861: 16858: 16857: 16856: 16807: 16800: 16786: 16772: 16760:M. J. Rosman, 16758: 16751: 16742:, Inc., 1998, 16729: 16703: 16698:978-1941656105 16697: 16684: 16678: 16665: 16653: 16633: 16613: 16610: 16607: 16606: 16595:. 6 April 2016 16580: 16554: 16529: 16504: 16486: 16470: 16457: 16432: 16418:Weiss, Clara. 16410: 16403: 16383: 16371: 16345: 16333: 16310: 16288: 16263: 16237: 16226:. 3 April 2010 16211: 16200: 16193: 16167: 16148:(2): 185–225. 16132: 16115: 16096: 16073: 16036: 16011: 16009:Sztetl.org.pl. 15992: 15966: 15956: 15934: 15912: 15880: 15858: 15851: 15828: 15821: 15798: 15786: 15774: 15761: 15723: 15706: 15680: 15673: 15644: 15598: 15584: 15553: 15540: 15529: 15514: 15507: 15446: 15424: 15398: 15386: 15380:978-0306816505 15379: 15359: 15343: 15322: 15315: 15292: 15282:978-1107036666 15281: 15261: 15246: 15223: 15209: 15202: 15179: 15172: 15154: 15131: 15104: 15074: 15067: 15047: 15027:978-8324015566 15026: 14978: 14958: 14951: 14928: 14914: 14886: 14857: 14830: 14804: 14792: 14771: 14754: 14745: 14729: 14721: 14698: 14686: 14674: 14657: 14641: 14629: 14607: 14591: 14579: 14561: 14537: 14513: 14497: 14474: 14467: 14447: 14430: 14412: 14400:Jews in Poland 14391: 14384: 14354: 14342: 14330: 14304: 14288: 14274:Richard Lukas 14267: 14237: 14224: 14211: 14194: 14181: 14153: 14140: 14122: 14103: 14090: 14082:Adam Michnik, 14075: 14068: 14048: 14033: 14012: 14000: 13982: 13970: 13963: 13941: 13934: 13907: 13905:, p. 150. 13895: 13888: 13864: 13853: 13840:, UPNE, 2003, 13829: 13811: 13785: 13767: 13749: 13737: 13730:online article 13711: 13695: 13682: 13669: 13656: 13643: 13622: 13607: 13594: 13587: 13557: 13545: 13532: 13526:978-3865832405 13525: 13505: 13498: 13473: 13437: 13425: 13400: 13393: 13373: 13366: 13346: 13339: 13319: 13293: 13275:Engel, David. 13264: 13234: 13216: 13185: 13167: 13143: 13136: 13116: 13100: 13081: 13069: 13043: 13030: 13014: 12994: 12967:(3): 277–280. 12942: 12926: 12913: 12899:Marek Karliner 12870: 12857: 12849:Adam L. Rovner 12841: 12828: 12799: 12780: 12756: 12749: 12731: 12719: 12710: 12697: 12675: 12663: 12624:Virtual Shtetl 12606: 12593: 12586: 12568:Alice Teichova 12559: 12541: 12522: 12491: 12471: 12464:Martin Gilbert 12452: 12431: 12410: 12403: 12383: 12357: 12350: 12330: 12323: 12303: 12290: 12283: 12263: 12256: 12236: 12211: 12198: 12190:Timothy Snyder 12186:Menachem Begin 12178:Polish Legions 12165: 12149: 12133: 12110: 12080: 12058: 12045: 12027:Timothy Snyder 12016: 12009: 11989: 11964: 11949: 11942: 11920: 11913: 11893: 11886: 11866: 11851: 11828: 11808: 11795: 11769: 11731: 11713: 11695: 11677: 11659: 11647: 11627: 11607: 11569: 11553:Studia Judaica 11542: 11535: 11509: 11503:978-3110137156 11502: 11482:Davies, Norman 11473: 11446: 11436:, Yale, 2002, 11422: 11415: 11395: 11382: 11363: 11348: 11333:Davies, Norman 11325: 11311: 11291: 11278: 11269: 11260: 11237: 11211: 11198: 11190:Walter Laqueur 11182: 11169:978-1584657293 11168: 11148: 11129: 11113: 11105:Brian Porter, 11098: 11084: 11064: 11050: 11025: 11011: 10988: 10970: 10946: 10934: 10920: 10911:Racławice 1794 10897: 10885: 10866: 10854: 10839: 10809: 10788: 10781: 10761: 10750: 10731: 10720: 10709: 10690: 10679: 10663: 10647: 10631: 10619: 10607: 10582: 10568: 10549: 10542: 10516: 10486: 10460: 10448: 10433: 10411: 10397: 10371: 10359: 10341: 10325: 10295: 10279: 10274:Henry Abramson 10261: 10254: 10236: 10220:"YIVO | Trade" 10211: 10198: 10185:polishjews.org 10149: 10137: 10119: 10092: 10085: 10062: 10039: 10014: 9994: 9972: 9965: 9947: 9925: 9914: 9890: 9865: 9846: 9826: 9800: 9789:on 16 May 2018 9770: 9734: 9720:Marek Karliner 9683: 9667: 9648: 9622: 9610: 9589: 9568: 9552: 9549:. 13 May 2013. 9534: 9525: 9500: 9469: 9435: 9416: 9399: 9381: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9372: 9371: 9362: 9352: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9343: 9338: 9331: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9234: 9233: 9224: 9215: 9206: 9197: 9188: 9179: 9170: 9161: 9152: 9136: 9129: 9125: 9124: 9121: 9118: 9115: 9112: 9109: 9106: 9103: 9100: 9097: 9094: 9091: 9069: 9066: 8962:, 26 June 2007 8956:Lech Kaczyński 8717:Main article: 8714: 8711: 8625: 8622: 8590:Witold Pilecki 8582:Jacek Różański 8488: 8485: 8446:Czechoslovakia 8380:Main article: 8377: 8374: 8306:Main article: 8303: 8300: 8257:border changes 8221:Main article: 8218: 8215: 8169: 8166: 8129:eastern Poland 8112: 8109: 8104:Main article: 8101: 8098: 8045:, and then to 8039:Theresienstadt 8001:Main article: 7998: 7995: 7986:Final Solution 7673:Main article: 7670: 7667: 7644:, a member of 7642:Witold Pilecki 7625:awards at the 7598:Janusz Korczak 7347: 7344: 7274:Einsatzgruppen 7258:western Allies 7138:Main article: 7135: 7132: 7104:' stay in the 7098:Menachem Begin 7061:Katyń massacre 6997:Aleksander Wat 6909: 6906: 6839:Main article: 6836: 6833: 6825: 6822: 6717:repairers. In 6656:ghetto benches 6641:Menachem Begin 6484: 6481: 6473:Alojzy Ehrlich 6446:Yitzhak Shamir 6442:Menachem Begin 6408:Leonid Hurwicz 6360:Stanisław Ulam 6356:Leopold Infeld 6311:Chaim Goldberg 6259:Jerzy Jurandot 6229:. His brother 6152:L. L. Zamenhof 6081:Jewish culture 6076: 6073: 6029:, soldiers of 5997:Woodrow Wilson 5993:Treaty of Riga 5894: 5891: 5880:Main article: 5877: 5874: 5768:, forming the 5758:Polish Mizrahi 5730: 5727: 5699:Musar movement 5677: 5676: 5627: 5625: 5618: 5609:Main article: 5606: 5603: 5579:, forming the 5535: 5532: 5404:tḥùm ha-mosháv 5343: 5342: 5293: 5291: 5284: 5278: 5275: 5252:Tsar Nicolas I 5183:Main article: 5180: 5177: 5173:Polish Legions 5065: 5062: 5034:Haredi Judaism 5016:Eastern Europe 4982:Main article: 4968: 4965: 4957:Mordecai Jaffe 4938:Shulkhan Arukh 4931:(known as the 4929:Moses Isserles 4917:Shalom Shachna 4844: 4841: 4789:transliterated 4772: 4769: 4690:Crimean Tatars 4682:Swedish Empire 4663:Ottoman Empire 4632:Union of Brest 4580: 4577: 4562:) gathered at 4525: 4522: 4486:Moses Isserles 4457:Ottoman Empire 4453:Romaniote Jews 4388: 4385: 4255:, daughter of 4241:Main article: 4238: 4235: 4231:Western Europe 4167:In 1332, King 4027:Western Europe 4008:Eastern Europe 3981:Polish kingdom 3906:Main article: 3903: 3900: 3889:Main article: 3886: 3883: 3665:Jewish culture 3647: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3636: 3629: 3621: 3618: 3617: 3616: 3615: 3610: 3602: 3601: 3596: 3595: 3594: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3545: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3536: 3535: 3530: 3528:Territorialism 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3497: 3496: 3488: 3483: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3412:Judaeo-Spanish 3409: 3407:Judaeo-Iranian 3404: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3373: 3372: 3359: 3354: 3353: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3343: 3342: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3323: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3314: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3270: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3261: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3237: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3228: 3227: 3222: 3214: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3205: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3187: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3136: 3135: 3129: 3124: 3123: 3120: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3073: 3072: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3050: 3045: 3044: 3041: 3040: 3035: 3034: 3033: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3004: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2995: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2892: 2891: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2858: 2857: 2856: 2853:United Kingdom 2849: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2814: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2794: 2789: 2784: 2779: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2701: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2692: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2493: 2492: 2488: 2487: 2486: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2286:Bilad-el-Sudan 2283: 2278: 2270: 2269: 2263: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2242: 2241: 2239:Land of Israel 2235: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2202: 2197: 2196: 2193: 2192: 2187: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2168: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2099: 2098: 2097:Related groups 2094: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2009: 2004: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1994: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1954:Jewish atheism 1951: 1946: 1941: 1933: 1932: 1928: 1927: 1926: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1910: 1905:Islamic–Jewish 1900: 1893: 1878: 1873: 1865: 1864: 1857: 1856: 1855: 1854: 1830: 1817: 1789: 1784: 1777: 1772: 1770:Yehud Medinata 1764: 1763: 1757: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1747: 1740: 1732: 1719: 1711: 1699: 1694: 1687: 1679: 1678: 1676:Ancient Israel 1672: 1671: 1670: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1632:Land of Israel 1629: 1621: 1620: 1614: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1598: 1597: 1596: 1591: 1587:Shulchan Aruch 1582: 1577: 1572: 1567: 1559: 1558: 1557: 1556: 1551: 1543: 1542: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1528: 1520: 1519: 1513: 1512: 1511: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1492: 1491: 1483: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1412: 1407: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1365: 1360: 1353:God in Judaism 1349: 1344: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1332: 1324: 1323: 1313: 1312: 1300: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1289: 1282: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1257:Judaism portal 1248: 1247: 1242: 1241: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1236: 1226: 1225: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1192: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1164: 1163: 1161: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1099: 1098: 1096: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1048: 1047: 1045: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1009: 1004: 1002:Kraków-Płaszów 999: 998: 997: 987: 986: 985: 974: 971: 970: 964: 963: 961: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 895: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 859: 856: 855: 847: 841: 840: 839: 836: 835: 830: 829: 827: 826: 821: 816: 810: 807: 806: 800: 799: 797: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 765: 760: 756: 755: 754: 751: 750: 746: 745: 740: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 573:High Synagogue 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 529: 528: 522: 521: 520: 517: 516: 512: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 460: 459: 453: 452: 451: 448: 447: 442: 441: 439: 438: 436:Reform Judaism 433: 432: 431: 421: 416: 410: 407: 406: 402: 401: 399: 398: 393: 388: 386:Lovers of Zion 383: 378: 377: 376: 366: 361: 355: 352: 351: 345: 344: 342: 341: 340: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 269: 268: 267: 265:Musar movement 256: 253: 252: 244: 238: 237: 236: 233: 232: 230: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 203: 200: 199: 183: 182: 166: 165: 157: 156: 144: 143: 137: 136: 132: 131: 113: 112: 108: 107: 104: 98: 97: 94: 88: 87: 83: 82: 75: 74: 70: 69: 56: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19163: 19152: 19149: 19147: 19144: 19143: 19141: 19126: 19123: 19121: 19118: 19116: 19113: 19112: 19110: 19106: 19100: 19097: 19095: 19092: 19090: 19087: 19086: 19084: 19080: 19074: 19071: 19069: 19066: 19064: 19061: 19059: 19056: 19054: 19051: 19049: 19046: 19044: 19041: 19039: 19036: 19034: 19031: 19029: 19026: 19024: 19021: 19019: 19016: 19014: 19011: 19009: 19006: 19004: 19001: 18999: 18998:Rodzima Wiara 18996: 18992: 18989: 18987: 18984: 18983: 18982: 18979: 18978: 18976: 18972: 18968: 18960: 18955: 18953: 18948: 18946: 18941: 18940: 18937: 18925: 18924: 18920: 18918: 18917: 18913: 18911: 18910: 18906: 18904: 18903: 18899: 18897: 18896: 18892: 18891: 18889: 18885: 18875: 18872: 18870: 18867: 18866: 18864: 18860: 18854: 18851: 18849: 18846: 18844: 18841: 18837: 18834: 18833: 18832: 18829: 18827: 18824: 18820: 18817: 18816: 18815: 18812: 18810: 18807: 18805: 18802: 18800: 18797: 18795: 18792: 18790: 18787: 18785: 18782: 18780: 18777: 18775: 18772: 18770: 18767: 18765: 18762: 18760: 18757: 18756: 18754: 18750: 18744: 18741: 18739: 18736: 18734: 18731: 18729: 18726: 18724: 18721: 18720: 18718: 18714: 18708: 18705: 18703: 18700: 18696: 18693: 18692: 18691: 18690:United States 18688: 18686: 18683: 18681: 18678: 18676: 18673: 18671: 18668: 18666: 18663: 18661: 18658: 18656: 18653: 18651: 18648: 18646: 18643: 18642: 18640: 18636: 18624: 18621: 18620: 18619: 18616: 18614: 18611: 18609: 18606: 18604: 18601: 18599: 18596: 18594: 18591: 18590: 18588: 18584: 18578: 18575: 18573: 18570: 18568: 18565: 18563: 18560: 18558: 18555: 18553: 18550: 18548: 18545: 18544: 18542: 18538: 18532: 18529: 18527: 18524: 18522: 18519: 18517: 18514: 18512: 18509: 18507: 18504: 18502: 18499: 18497: 18494: 18492: 18489: 18488: 18486: 18482: 18476: 18473: 18471: 18468: 18466: 18463: 18461: 18458: 18456: 18453: 18449: 18446: 18445: 18444: 18441: 18439: 18436: 18432: 18429: 18427: 18424: 18422: 18419: 18418: 18417: 18414: 18412: 18409: 18407: 18404: 18402: 18399: 18397: 18394: 18393: 18391: 18387: 18384: 18380: 18377: 18373: 18367: 18364: 18362: 18359: 18357: 18354: 18352: 18351: 18347: 18345: 18344: 18340: 18339: 18337: 18333: 18329: 18325: 18318: 18313: 18311: 18306: 18304: 18299: 18298: 18295: 18283: 18280: 18278: 18275: 18273: 18270: 18268: 18265: 18261: 18258: 18256: 18255:Bergitka Roma 18253: 18252: 18251: 18248: 18246: 18243: 18241: 18238: 18236: 18233: 18231: 18228: 18226: 18223: 18219: 18216: 18215: 18214: 18211: 18209: 18206: 18204: 18201: 18199: 18196: 18194: 18191: 18189: 18186: 18184: 18181: 18179: 18176: 18174: 18171: 18169: 18166: 18164: 18161: 18159: 18156: 18155: 18153: 18149: 18141: 18138: 18136: 18133: 18131: 18128: 18126: 18123: 18121: 18118: 18117: 18116: 18113: 18109: 18106: 18105: 18104: 18101: 18099: 18096: 18092: 18089: 18088: 18087: 18084: 18083: 18081: 18077: 18071: 18068: 18066: 18063: 18061: 18058: 18056: 18053: 18049: 18046: 18045: 18044: 18041: 18039: 18036: 18034: 18031: 18029: 18026: 18024: 18021: 18019: 18016: 18014: 18011: 18010: 18008: 18004: 17998: 17995: 17994: 17992: 17990: 17986: 17980: 17977: 17975: 17972: 17970: 17967: 17966: 17964: 17962: 17958: 17952: 17949: 17947: 17944: 17943: 17941: 17939: 17935: 17925: 17922: 17920: 17917: 17915: 17912: 17910: 17907: 17905: 17902: 17900: 17897: 17895: 17892: 17891: 17889: 17885: 17879: 17876: 17875: 17873: 17871: 17867: 17861: 17858: 17856: 17853: 17851: 17848: 17846: 17843: 17841: 17838: 17836: 17833: 17832: 17830: 17828: 17824: 17818: 17817:Sandomierzans 17815: 17813: 17810: 17808: 17805: 17803: 17800: 17799: 17797: 17795: 17791: 17785: 17782: 17778: 17775: 17774: 17773: 17770: 17768: 17765: 17764: 17762: 17760: 17756: 17753: 17751: 17747: 17743: 17736: 17731: 17729: 17724: 17722: 17717: 17716: 17713: 17701: 17698: 17696: 17693: 17691: 17688: 17686: 17683: 17681: 17678: 17676: 17675:Faroe Islands 17673: 17671: 17668: 17667: 17665: 17659: 17653: 17650: 17648: 17647:South Ossetia 17645: 17643: 17640: 17638: 17635: 17633: 17630: 17629: 17627: 17621: 17613: 17610: 17608: 17605: 17603: 17600: 17598: 17595: 17594: 17593: 17590: 17588: 17585: 17583: 17580: 17578: 17575: 17573: 17570: 17568: 17565: 17563: 17560: 17558: 17555: 17553: 17550: 17548: 17545: 17543: 17540: 17538: 17535: 17533: 17530: 17528: 17525: 17523: 17520: 17518: 17515: 17513: 17510: 17508: 17505: 17503: 17500: 17498: 17495: 17493: 17490: 17488: 17485: 17483: 17480: 17478: 17477:Liechtenstein 17475: 17473: 17470: 17468: 17465: 17463: 17460: 17458: 17456: 17453: 17451: 17448: 17446: 17443: 17441: 17438: 17436: 17433: 17431: 17428: 17426: 17423: 17421: 17418: 17416: 17413: 17411: 17408: 17406: 17403: 17401: 17398: 17396: 17393: 17391: 17388: 17386: 17383: 17381: 17378: 17376: 17373: 17371: 17368: 17366: 17363: 17361: 17358: 17356: 17353: 17351: 17348: 17347: 17345: 17341: 17337: 17330: 17325: 17323: 17318: 17316: 17311: 17310: 17307: 17300: 17299: 17298:The Economist 17294: 17291: 17289: 17286: 17283: 17279: 17276: 17273: 17268: 17264: 17261: 17257: 17255: 17252: 17251: 17249: 17246: 17243: 17240: 17239: 17231: 17228: 17226: 17223: 17221: 17218: 17215: 17211: 17209: 17206: 17204: 17201: 17199: 17196: 17194: 17191: 17189: 17186: 17184: 17181: 17177: 17174: 17173: 17172: 17169: 17168: 17159: 17158:archive.today 17155: 17152: 17148: 17144: 17141: 17137: 17133: 17130: 17126: 17125:archive.today 17122: 17119: 17116: 17115: 17101: 17097: 17093: 17089: 17083: 17079: 17074: 17071: 17067: 17062: 17058: 17055: 17051: 17047: 17043: 17040: 17036: 17031: 17027: 17024: 17020: 17015: 17011: 17008: 17004: 16999: 16995: 16992: 16989: 16988:90-420-0850-4 16985: 16980: 16976: 16973: 16969: 16965: 16961: 16959:9780300049879 16955: 16951: 16946: 16943: 16939: 16936: 16934: 16930: 16926: 16922: 16918: 16914: 16911: 16907: 16906:Dynner, Glenn 16904: 16901: 16897: 16893: 16889: 16887:0-88033-511-4 16883: 16879: 16874: 16873: 16871: 16867: 16854: 16850: 16846: 16842: 16838: 16834: 16828: 16827: 16822: 16817: 16816:public domain 16808: 16805: 16801: 16799: 16798:0-521-85673-6 16795: 16791: 16788:Magda Teter, 16787: 16785: 16784:0-8143-2906-3 16781: 16777: 16774:Edward Fram, 16773: 16771: 16770:0-916458-18-0 16767: 16763: 16759: 16756: 16753:David Vital, 16752: 16749: 16748:0-7818-0604-6 16745: 16741: 16737: 16733: 16730: 16727: 16723: 16722:0-691-11306-8 16719: 16715: 16711: 16707: 16704: 16700: 16694: 16690: 16685: 16681: 16679:0-520-23844-3 16675: 16671: 16666: 16663: 16662: 16657: 16654: 16650: 16649:0-7391-0484-5 16646: 16641: 16637: 16634: 16631: 16630:0-88033-511-4 16627: 16623: 16619: 16616: 16615: 16594: 16590: 16584: 16569: 16565: 16558: 16543: 16539: 16533: 16518: 16514: 16508: 16501: 16497: 16494: 16490: 16483: 16477: 16475: 16467: 16461: 16446: 16442: 16436: 16421: 16414: 16406: 16400: 16396: 16395: 16387: 16380: 16375: 16359: 16355: 16349: 16342: 16337: 16330: 16326: 16322: 16317: 16315: 16304: 16300: 16297: 16292: 16277: 16273: 16267: 16251: 16247: 16241: 16225: 16221: 16215: 16209: 16204: 16196: 16190: 16186: 16181: 16180: 16171: 16163: 16159: 16155: 16151: 16147: 16143: 16136: 16130: 16126: 16123: 16119: 16111: 16107: 16100: 16092: 16088: 16084: 16077: 16069: 16065: 16061: 16057: 16053: 16049: 16043: 16041: 16032: 16028: 16022: 16020: 16018: 16016: 16008: 16004: 16001: 15996: 15980: 15976: 15970: 15963: 15959: 15957:0-8078-2620-0 15953: 15948: 15947: 15938: 15931: 15927: 15924: 15919: 15917: 15900: 15896: 15891: 15884: 15876: 15872: 15865: 15863: 15854: 15848: 15844: 15837: 15835: 15833: 15824: 15818: 15814: 15807: 15805: 15803: 15795: 15790: 15783: 15778: 15771: 15765: 15749: 15745: 15741: 15734: 15732: 15730: 15728: 15720: 15716: 15710: 15702: 15695: 15693: 15691: 15689: 15687: 15685: 15676: 15670: 15666: 15659: 15657: 15655: 15653: 15651: 15649: 15640: 15636: 15632: 15628: 15624: 15620: 15616: 15612: 15605: 15603: 15587: 15581: 15577: 15573: 15566: 15564: 15562: 15560: 15558: 15550: 15544: 15537: 15533: 15526: 15521: 15519: 15510: 15504: 15500: 15496: 15495: 15489: 15473: 15469: 15465: 15457: 15450: 15443: 15439: 15436: 15431: 15429: 15412: 15408: 15402: 15396: 15393:David Engel, 15390: 15382: 15376: 15372: 15371: 15363: 15356: 15354: 15347: 15340: 15339:0-88033-511-4 15336: 15332: 15326: 15318: 15312: 15308: 15307: 15302: 15296: 15289: 15284: 15278: 15274: 15273: 15265: 15257: 15253: 15249: 15247:9780307430960 15243: 15239: 15232: 15230: 15228: 15221: 15218: 15213: 15205: 15199: 15192: 15191: 15183: 15175: 15169: 15165: 15158: 15151: 15147: 15145: 15140: 15134: 15132:83-7133-100-2 15128: 15124: 15120: 15119: 15114: 15108: 15096: 15092: 15091: 15083: 15081: 15079: 15070: 15064: 15060: 15059: 15051: 15044: 15043: 15039: 15036:Translation: 15033: 15029: 15023: 15019: 15018:Boże igrzysko 15015: 15014: 15009: 15008:Norman Davies 15005: 15001: 14999: 14985: 14981: 14975: 14971: 14970: 14962: 14954: 14948: 14944: 14943: 14938: 14932: 14921: 14917: 14915:9781536110357 14911: 14904: 14903: 14895: 14893: 14891: 14882: 14876: 14868: 14861: 14845: 14841: 14834: 14818: 14814: 14808: 14801: 14796: 14789: 14785: 14781: 14775: 14768: 14767:Gruppenführer 14764: 14763:Stroop Report 14758: 14749: 14743: 14742:0-394-73817-9 14739: 14733: 14724: 14722:0-8022-2486-5 14718: 14714: 14707: 14705: 14703: 14695: 14690: 14683: 14678: 14672: 14668: 14665: 14661: 14654: 14650: 14645: 14638: 14633: 14625: 14621: 14617: 14611: 14604: 14600: 14595: 14588: 14583: 14575: 14574:isurvived.org 14571: 14565: 14559: 14555: 14554:0-415-04232-1 14551: 14547: 14541: 14535: 14531: 14530:0-231-11200-9 14527: 14523: 14517: 14510: 14506: 14501: 14493: 14489: 14485: 14478: 14470: 14464: 14460: 14459: 14451: 14444: 14439: 14437: 14435: 14426: 14422: 14416: 14409: 14408:0-7818-0604-6 14405: 14401: 14395: 14387: 14381: 14377: 14372: 14371: 14365: 14358: 14351: 14346: 14339: 14334: 14318: 14314: 14308: 14301: 14299: 14292: 14285: 14284:0-7818-0901-0 14281: 14277: 14271: 14255: 14251: 14247: 14241: 14234: 14228: 14221: 14215: 14208: 14204: 14201:David Engel. 14198: 14191: 14190:Slavic Review 14185: 14178: 14174: 14170: 14166: 14163: 14157: 14150: 14144: 14136: 14132: 14126: 14119: 14115: 14112: 14107: 14100: 14094: 14087: 14086: 14079: 14071: 14065: 14061: 14060: 14052: 14045: 14044: 14037: 14030: 14029:Slavic Review 14026: 14022: 14021:Slavic Review 14016: 14010:, p. 31. 14009: 14004: 13996: 13992: 13986: 13980:, p. 21. 13979: 13974: 13966: 13964:1-57181-882-0 13960: 13956: 13952: 13945: 13937: 13935:0-06-091533-1 13931: 13927: 13923: 13922: 13917: 13916:Johnson, Paul 13911: 13904: 13899: 13891: 13889:0-19-289259-2 13885: 13881: 13877: 13876: 13868: 13862: 13857: 13851: 13847: 13846:1-58465-216-0 13843: 13839: 13833: 13825: 13821: 13815: 13799: 13795: 13789: 13783: 13779: 13776: 13771: 13763: 13762:www.zchor.org 13759: 13753: 13747: 13741: 13735: 13731: 13727: 13723: 13720: 13715: 13708: 13705: 13699: 13692: 13686: 13679: 13673: 13666: 13663:Martin Dean, 13660: 13653: 13647: 13640: 13639:0-7864-0371-3 13636: 13632: 13626: 13619: 13614: 13612: 13604: 13598: 13590: 13588:0-7864-0371-3 13584: 13580: 13576: 13575: 13570: 13564: 13562: 13554: 13549: 13542: 13536: 13528: 13522: 13518: 13517: 13509: 13501: 13495: 13491: 13487: 13480: 13478: 13471: 13470:0-691-09433-0 13467: 13463: 13459: 13455: 13452: 13451: 13441: 13434: 13429: 13423: 13422:archive.today 13419: 13416: 13411: 13409: 13407: 13405: 13396: 13394:9781351488594 13390: 13387:. Routledge. 13386: 13385: 13377: 13369: 13367:9780465032976 13363: 13359: 13358: 13350: 13342: 13340:9780465054923 13336: 13332: 13331: 13323: 13307: 13303: 13297: 13282: 13278: 13271: 13269: 13252: 13248: 13241: 13239: 13230: 13226: 13220: 13204: 13200: 13199:Chatham House 13196: 13189: 13181: 13177: 13171: 13164: 13163:0-8135-3158-6 13160: 13156: 13150: 13148: 13139: 13137:9780786403714 13133: 13130:. McFarland. 13129: 13128: 13120: 13113: 13109: 13104: 13097: 13093: 13090: 13085: 13079: 13073: 13066: 13062: 13059: 13054: 13052: 13050: 13048: 13040: 13034: 13027: 13023: 13018: 13012: 13008: 13004: 12998: 12990: 12986: 12982: 12978: 12974: 12970: 12966: 12962: 12958: 12951: 12949: 12947: 12939: 12935: 12930: 12923: 12917: 12910: 12909: 12904: 12900: 12896: 12892: 12888: 12884: 12880: 12874: 12867: 12861: 12854: 12850: 12845: 12838: 12832: 12825: 12821: 12820:Joseph Marcus 12817: 12813: 12809: 12803: 12797: 12793: 12791: 12784: 12778: 12774: 12770: 12766: 12760: 12752: 12750:0-87820-418-0 12746: 12742: 12735: 12728: 12723: 12714: 12707: 12701: 12693: 12689: 12682: 12680: 12672: 12667: 12659: 12653: 12645: 12641: 12637: 12629: 12625: 12621: 12617: 12610: 12603: 12597: 12589: 12583: 12579: 12575: 12574: 12569: 12563: 12556: 12555: 12550: 12549:Norman Davies 12545: 12538: 12534: 12531: 12526: 12519: 12515: 12511: 12507: 12503: 12498: 12496: 12489: 12485: 12481: 12475: 12469: 12465: 12461: 12456: 12449: 12448:0-88125-376-6 12445: 12441: 12435: 12428: 12424: 12420: 12414: 12406: 12400: 12396: 12395: 12387: 12380: 12376: 12372: 12371: 12366: 12361: 12353: 12347: 12343: 12342: 12334: 12326: 12320: 12316: 12315: 12307: 12300: 12294: 12286: 12280: 12276: 12275: 12267: 12259: 12253: 12249: 12248: 12240: 12229: 12221: 12215: 12208: 12202: 12195: 12191: 12187: 12183: 12179: 12175: 12169: 12162: 12158: 12153: 12146: 12142: 12137: 12129: 12121: 12114: 12103: 12099: 12096:(in Polish). 12091: 12084: 12068: 12062: 12055: 12049: 12043: 12040: 12039:0-300-10586-X 12036: 12032: 12028: 12023: 12021: 12012: 12010:9780429721045 12006: 12002: 12001: 11993: 11978: 11974: 11968: 11962: 11958: 11953: 11945: 11939: 11935: 11931: 11924: 11916: 11914:9781845116972 11910: 11906: 11905: 11897: 11889: 11883: 11879: 11878: 11870: 11862: 11855: 11848: 11847:0-521-57697-0 11844: 11840: 11839: 11835:Ilya Prizel, 11832: 11826: 11825:0-8101-0758-9 11822: 11818: 11812: 11805: 11799: 11783: 11779: 11773: 11766: 11751: 11750: 11745: 11742:GUS (1938). " 11738: 11736: 11727: 11723: 11717: 11709: 11705: 11699: 11691: 11687: 11681: 11673: 11669: 11663: 11657: 11651: 11644: 11640: 11636: 11631: 11625: 11621: 11617: 11611: 11604: 11600: 11596: 11592: 11588: 11585: 11581: 11579: 11573: 11562: 11555: 11554: 11546: 11538: 11532: 11528: 11524: 11520: 11513: 11505: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11487: 11483: 11477: 11470: 11466: 11462: 11458: 11456: 11450: 11443: 11442:0-300-09313-6 11439: 11435: 11431: 11426: 11418: 11412: 11408: 11407: 11399: 11392: 11386: 11379: 11377: 11370: 11368: 11360: 11359: 11352: 11346: 11342: 11338: 11334: 11329: 11314: 11308: 11304: 11303: 11295: 11288: 11282: 11273: 11264: 11248: 11241: 11234: 11230: 11226: 11220: 11218: 11216: 11208: 11202: 11195: 11191: 11186: 11171: 11165: 11161: 11160: 11152: 11144: 11140: 11133: 11126: 11122: 11117: 11110: 11109: 11102: 11087: 11085:9780521515733 11081: 11077: 11076: 11068: 11053: 11051:9781930143852 11047: 11043: 11042: 11039: 11032: 11030: 11014: 11012:1-930143-85-0 11008: 11004: 11003: 10995: 10993: 10984: 10980: 10974: 10967: 10963: 10959: 10953: 10951: 10944:, p. 18. 10943: 10938: 10923: 10921:9788311116061 10917: 10913: 10912: 10904: 10902: 10894: 10889: 10882: 10878: 10875: 10870: 10863: 10858: 10851: 10846: 10844: 10827: 10820: 10813: 10803: 10802: 10798: 10792: 10784: 10778: 10774: 10773: 10765: 10759: 10754: 10747: 10746: 10741: 10735: 10729: 10724: 10718: 10713: 10706: 10705: 10700: 10694: 10688: 10683: 10676: 10672: 10671:Majer Bałaban 10667: 10661: 10656: 10654: 10652: 10644: 10640: 10635: 10629:, p. 19. 10628: 10623: 10617:, p. 11. 10616: 10611: 10596: 10592: 10586: 10578: 10572: 10564: 10560: 10553: 10545: 10543:0-8063-1741-8 10539: 10535: 10530: 10529: 10520: 10505: 10501: 10497: 10490: 10475: 10471: 10464: 10457: 10452: 10446: 10440: 10438: 10429: 10425: 10421: 10415: 10400: 10398:1-886223-11-4 10394: 10390: 10389: 10384: 10378: 10376: 10369: 10363: 10355: 10351: 10345: 10338: 10334: 10329: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10299: 10292: 10288: 10283: 10275: 10271: 10265: 10257: 10251: 10247: 10240: 10225: 10221: 10215: 10208: 10202: 10186: 10182: 10176: 10174: 10172: 10170: 10168: 10166: 10164: 10162: 10160: 10158: 10156: 10154: 10146: 10141: 10133: 10129: 10123: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10105: 10101: 10100:Dariusz Stola 10096: 10088: 10086:1-56639-955-6 10082: 10078: 10077: 10069: 10067: 10059: 10055: 10048: 10046: 10044: 10037: 10036:0-8156-2969-9 10033: 10029: 10028: 10021: 10019: 10011: 10007: 10001: 9999: 9991: 9987: 9981: 9979: 9977: 9968: 9962: 9958: 9951: 9944: 9940: 9937: 9932: 9930: 9922: 9917: 9915:0-300-09546-5 9911: 9907: 9903: 9902: 9894: 9887: 9883: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9870: 9862: 9858: 9855: 9850: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9830: 9814: 9810: 9804: 9788: 9784: 9783:Shavei Israel 9780: 9774: 9767: 9766: 9765:Edward Smigły 9760: 9756: 9752: 9748: 9744: 9738: 9731: 9730: 9725: 9721: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9697: 9693: 9687: 9680: 9676: 9671: 9664: 9660: 9657: 9652: 9645: 9641: 9637: 9633: 9626: 9619: 9614: 9607: 9602: 9600: 9598: 9596: 9594: 9585: 9581: 9575: 9573: 9565: 9559: 9557: 9548: 9544: 9538: 9529: 9522: 9521: 9516: 9515: 9510: 9504: 9497: 9496: 9484: 9480: 9473: 9457: 9453: 9449: 9445: 9439: 9431: 9427: 9420: 9413: 9408: 9406: 9404: 9395: 9389: 9387: 9382: 9366: 9357: 9353: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9336: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9299:Galician Jews 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9271: 9264: 9262: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9241: 9225: 9216: 9207: 9198: 9189: 9180: 9171: 9162: 9153: 9149: 9144: 9137: 9130: 9126: 9122: 9119: 9116: 9113: 9110: 9107: 9104: 9101: 9098: 9095: 9092: 9088: 9075: 9065: 9063: 9059: 9054: 9052: 9048: 9042: 9039: 9035: 9034:Bielsko-Biała 9031: 9027: 9022: 9020: 9011: 9007: 9005: 9001: 8997: 8993: 8987: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8971: 8969: 8961: 8957: 8953: 8949: 8945: 8943: 8937: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8919: 8917: 8911: 8909: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8874: 8870: 8862: 8857: 8853: 8851: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8833: 8827: 8825: 8824:Beit Warszawa 8820: 8819:Góra Kalwaria 8816: 8812: 8808: 8804: 8799: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8774: 8769: 8762: 8758: 8752: 8747: 8743: 8741: 8737: 8736:Kielce pogrom 8733: 8726: 8720: 8710: 8708: 8704: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8691: 8687: 8682: 8680: 8679: 8673: 8671: 8670:United States 8667: 8662: 8658: 8654: 8653: 8646: 8642: 8639: 8635: 8631: 8621: 8619: 8618:Emil Fieldorf 8615: 8611: 8607: 8603: 8602:Solomon Morel 8599: 8595: 8594:Józef Światło 8591: 8587: 8586:Anatol Fejgin 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8550: 8545: 8541: 8537: 8532: 8530: 8529:Joseph Stalin 8526: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8506: 8502: 8498: 8494: 8484: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8468: 8466: 8461: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8447: 8443: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8427: 8426: 8421: 8417: 8413: 8408: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8394: 8390: 8383: 8373: 8371: 8367: 8366:Dariusz Stola 8361: 8359: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8333: 8330: 8325: 8321: 8320:Dariusz Stola 8316: 8309: 8299: 8296: 8295: 8289: 8284: 8280: 8277: 8273: 8272:Kielce pogrom 8268: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8214: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8179: 8174: 8165: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8150:Lower Silesia 8147: 8143: 8139: 8135: 8130: 8124: 8120: 8118: 8107: 8097: 8095: 8094:Armia Krajowa 8091: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8055: 8050: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8035: 8029: 8027: 8022: 8020: 8016: 8010: 8004: 7994: 7991: 7987: 7984:to begin the 7983: 7975: 7970: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7946: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7929:Armia Krajowa 7926: 7922: 7921:Marek Edelman 7918: 7917:Waclaw Micuta 7914: 7913:Armia Krajowa 7911: 7906: 7902: 7894: 7893: 7892:Szare Szeregi 7888: 7883: 7879: 7877: 7871: 7869: 7865: 7864:Jürgen Stroop 7857: 7852: 7848: 7846: 7842: 7841:Armia Krajowa 7838: 7834: 7828: 7825: 7824:Stroop Report 7821: 7820:Jürgen Stroop 7816: 7812: 7808: 7800: 7796: 7791: 7787: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7772: 7771:Umschlagplatz 7768: 7764: 7760: 7754: 7752: 7748: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7730: 7727: 7723: 7722:1943 Uprising 7719: 7718:Warsaw Ghetto 7712: 7711: 7710:Umschlagplatz 7706: 7701: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7682: 7676: 7675:Warsaw Ghetto 7666: 7664: 7660: 7659:the Holocaust 7656: 7652: 7647: 7646:Armia Krajowa 7643: 7639: 7635: 7630: 7628: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7611: 7610:death penalty 7607: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7589: 7588:Armia Krajowa 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7560: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7515: 7514:death penalty 7511: 7506: 7504: 7500: 7493: 7489: 7482: 7478: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7452:Brześć Ghetto 7449: 7445: 7441: 7437: 7436:Lublin Ghetto 7433: 7429: 7428:Kraków Ghetto 7425: 7424:Kielce Ghetto 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7404:Warsaw Ghetto 7396: 7392: 7390: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7343: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7315: 7313: 7308: 7302: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7270: 7266: 7259: 7255: 7254: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7239: 7235: 7228: 7227:Warsaw Ghetto 7223: 7219: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7205: 7200: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7163: 7159: 7158:the Holocaust 7151: 7146: 7141: 7134:The Holocaust 7131: 7129: 7125: 7124:Star of David 7121: 7117: 7113: 7112: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7087: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7050: 7049:Monte Cassino 7045: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7031: 7027: 7022: 7019: 7013: 7010: 7006: 7005:Norman Davies 7002: 6998: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6962: 6956: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6941: 6939: 6935: 6930: 6928: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6905: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6856: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6831: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6816:Gazeta Polska 6810: 6808: 6802: 6800: 6796: 6791: 6787: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6769: 6767: 6763: 6758: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6731: 6726: 6722: 6720: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6698: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6683: 6679: 6673: 6669: 6667: 6663: 6662: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6644: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6631: 6627: 6619: 6615: 6610: 6606: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6578: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6555: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6536:Roman Dmowski 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6513: 6509: 6508:Roman Dmowski 6505: 6501: 6499: 6495: 6490: 6480: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6453:Hasmonea Lwów 6449: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6434: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6364:Alfred Tarski 6361: 6357: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6335: 6334: 6329: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6253:, as well as 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6202: 6201: 6196: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6180: 6176: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6157: 6154:, creator of 6153: 6149: 6145: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6106: 6102: 6095: 6091: 6086: 6082: 6072: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6044: 6042: 6038: 6037: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6023:Sich Riflemen 6020: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5973: 5969: 5967: 5962: 5958: 5957: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5917: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5889: 5883: 5873: 5871: 5867: 5866:German Empire 5863: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5839: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5824: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5809: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5790: 5788: 5787: 5786:Agudat Israel 5782: 5778: 5774: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5754: 5748: 5740: 5735: 5726: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5695: 5690: 5686: 5685: 5673: 5670: 5662: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5638: 5637: 5633: 5628:This section 5626: 5622: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5602: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5590: 5584: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5565:Alexander III 5562: 5554: 5553: 5545: 5540: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5508: 5506: 5505: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5483: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5448: 5445: 5444: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5425:German Empire 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5405: 5396: 5391: 5382: 5377: 5368: 5364: 5363: 5354: 5349: 5339: 5336: 5328: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5304: 5303: 5299: 5294:This section 5292: 5288: 5283: 5282: 5273: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5257: 5253: 5248: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5186: 5176: 5174: 5168: 5167:(1815–1831). 5166: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5117: 5110: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5075: 5070: 5061: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5008: 5007:Baal Shem Tov 5003: 4998: 4996: 4992: 4985: 4977: 4973: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4949: 4944: 4943:Solomon Luria 4940: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4899: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4861: 4857: 4854: 4849: 4840: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4829:the Holocaust 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4768: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4745:Koliivshchyna 4743:In 1768, the 4741: 4739: 4733: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4678:House of Vasa 4670: 4666: 4664: 4660: 4659: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4628: 4626: 4622: 4621:private towns 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4576: 4574: 4570: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4521: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4502:legal scholar 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4481: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4449:Sephardi Jews 4447:, as well as 4446: 4442: 4441: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4401: 4398:followed his 4397: 4393: 4384: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4368:John I Albert 4365: 4361: 4356: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4308:, Wolczko of 4307: 4301: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4244: 4234: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4162: 4158: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4096: 4091: 4089: 4084: 4082: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4031:First Crusade 4028: 4019: 4015: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3985:Piast dynasty 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3898: 3892: 3882: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3837: 3836:Collaboration 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3777:German Empire 3774: 3770: 3767:, as well as 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3733: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3642: 3637: 3635: 3630: 3628: 3623: 3622: 3620: 3619: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3605: 3604: 3603: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3548: 3547: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3539: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3500: 3499: 3498: 3495: 3492: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3480: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3452:Judeo-Aramaic 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3442:Judeo-Italian 3440: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3422:Ghardaïa Sign 3420: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3403: 3400: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3361: 3360: 3357: 3352: 3351: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3326: 3325: 3324: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3273: 3272: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3264: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3239: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3231: 3226: 3223: 3221: 3218: 3217: 3216: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3208: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3139: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3121: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3056: 3055: 3052: 3051: 3048: 3047:Denominations 3043: 3042: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3007: 3006: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2998: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2895: 2894: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2886: 2881: 2878: 2876: 2875:United States 2873: 2871: 2868: 2867: 2866: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2848: 2845: 2843: 2840: 2838: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2828: 2825: 2823: 2820: 2818: 2815: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2795: 2793: 2790: 2788: 2785: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2775: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2704: 2703: 2702: 2699: 2696: 2695: 2690: 2687: 2685: 2682: 2680: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2620: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2560: 2557: 2555: 2552: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2489: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2432: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2361:Guinea-Bissau 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2277: 2274: 2273: 2272: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2244: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2228: 2226: 2223: 2221: 2218: 2216: 2215:Lists of Jews 2213: 2211: 2208: 2207: 2206: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2194: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2101: 2100: 2096: 2095: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2007: 2002: 2001: 1990: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1974:The Holocaust 1972: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1930: 1929: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1909: 1901: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1884: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1859: 1858: 1851: 1845: 1839: 1834: 1831: 1827: 1821: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1709: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1688: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1606: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1575:Mishneh Torah 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1562: 1561: 1560: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1495: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1475: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1342: 1341: 1336: 1335:Who is a Jew? 1333: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1305: 1295: 1290: 1288: 1283: 1281: 1276: 1275: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1268:Poland portal 1265: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1249: 1235: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1223: 1222:Oyneg Shabbos 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1118:Easter Pogrom 1116: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1108: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1058: 1057: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1003: 1000: 996: 993: 992: 991: 988: 984: 981: 980: 979: 976: 975: 973: 972: 969: 966: 965: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 901: 899: 896: 894: 891: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 864: 861: 860: 858: 857: 854: 851: 850: 844: 843:The Holocaust 838: 837: 825: 822: 820: 819:Lomza Yeshiva 817: 815: 812: 811: 809: 808: 805: 802: 801: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 766: 764: 763: 757:Organizations 753: 752: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 530: 525: 519: 518: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 461: 456: 450: 449: 437: 434: 430: 427: 426: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 411: 409: 408: 404: 403: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 375: 372: 371: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 354: 353: 350: 347: 346: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 274: 273: 270: 266: 263: 262: 261: 258: 257: 255: 254: 251: 248: 247: 241: 235: 234: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 207:Early history 205: 204: 202: 201: 198: 188: 185: 184: 180: 172: 168: 167: 164: 159: 158: 154: 150: 149: 142: 138: 133: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 109: 105: 103: 99: 96:10,000–20,000 95: 93: 89: 84: 81: 76: 71: 67: 63: 59: 54: 49: 45: 27: 19: 18:Polish Jewish 19062: 18921: 18914: 18907: 18900: 18893: 18843:Turkmenistan 18778: 18728:South Africa 18623:White Polish 18448:Transnistria 18348: 18341: 18230:Lipka Tatars 18212: 18168:Bangladeshis 18140:Walddeutsche 18006:Other Slavic 17652:Transnistria 17526: 17296: 17077: 17060: 17059:Ury, Scott. 17053: 17049: 17029: 17013: 16997: 16978: 16949: 16941: 16928: 16920: 16917:Engel, David 16909: 16899: 16877: 16824: 16803: 16789: 16775: 16761: 16754: 16735: 16713: 16688: 16669: 16659: 16639: 16621: 16612:Bibliography 16597:. Retrieved 16592: 16583: 16571:. Retrieved 16567: 16557: 16545:. Retrieved 16541: 16532: 16520:. Retrieved 16516: 16507: 16489: 16460: 16448:. Retrieved 16444: 16435: 16423:. Retrieved 16413: 16393: 16386: 16374: 16362:. Retrieved 16348: 16336: 16291: 16279:. Retrieved 16275: 16266: 16254:. Retrieved 16240: 16228:. Retrieved 16223: 16214: 16203: 16178: 16170: 16145: 16141: 16135: 16118: 16109: 16099: 16091:the original 16086: 16076: 16068:the original 16055: 16030: 15995: 15983:. Retrieved 15969: 15961: 15945: 15937: 15903:. Retrieved 15894: 15883: 15874: 15870: 15842: 15812: 15789: 15777: 15769: 15764: 15752:. Retrieved 15747: 15743: 15718: 15714: 15709: 15700: 15664: 15617:(1): 34–53. 15614: 15610: 15589:. Retrieved 15575: 15548: 15543: 15532: 15498: 15493: 15487: 15479:. Retrieved 15472:the original 15463: 15449: 15415:. Retrieved 15401: 15389: 15369: 15362: 15352: 15346: 15330: 15325: 15305: 15295: 15286: 15271: 15264: 15237: 15212: 15189: 15182: 15163: 15157: 15148:pp. 87–104, 15142: 15138: 15122: 15117: 15107: 15094: 15089: 15057: 15050: 15041: 15037: 15035: 15017: 15012: 15004: 14995: 14988:. Retrieved 14984:the original 14968: 14961: 14941: 14937:Bernd Wegner 14931: 14920:the original 14901: 14866: 14860: 14848:. Retrieved 14844:the original 14833: 14821:. Retrieved 14807: 14795: 14774: 14757: 14748: 14732: 14712: 14689: 14677: 14660: 14644: 14632: 14624:the original 14619: 14610: 14594: 14582: 14573: 14564: 14545: 14540: 14521: 14516: 14500: 14487: 14477: 14457: 14450: 14425:the original 14415: 14399: 14394: 14369: 14357: 14345: 14333: 14321:. Retrieved 14307: 14297: 14291: 14275: 14270: 14258:. 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Retrieved 11967: 11952: 11934:1914 to 2000 11933: 11929: 11923: 11903: 11896: 11876: 11869: 11860: 11854: 11837: 11831: 11811: 11802:Yad Vashem, 11798: 11786:. Retrieved 11772: 11764: 11757:. Retrieved 11748: 11725: 11716: 11707: 11698: 11689: 11680: 11672:the original 11662: 11650: 11643:Philadelphia 11638: 11635:Yehuda Bauer 11630: 11615: 11610: 11576: 11572: 11561:the original 11552: 11545: 11522: 11512: 11489: 11476: 11453: 11449: 11433: 11425: 11405: 11398: 11385: 11375: 11357: 11351: 11336: 11328: 11316:. Retrieved 11301: 11294: 11285:Neal Pease. 11281: 11272: 11263: 11251:. Retrieved 11240: 11228: 11201: 11185: 11173:. Retrieved 11158: 11151: 11142: 11132: 11124: 11121:Simon Dubnow 11116: 11106: 11101: 11089:. Retrieved 11074: 11067: 11055:. Retrieved 11041: 11038: 11016:. Retrieved 11001: 10982: 10973: 10957: 10942:Hundert 2004 10937: 10927:26 September 10925:. Retrieved 10910: 10888: 10869: 10862:Hundert 2004 10857: 10850:Hundert 2004 10830:. 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Retrieved 9787:the original 9782: 9773: 9762: 9737: 9727: 9712:antisemitism 9700:Anthony Eden 9686: 9670: 9651: 9643: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9625: 9617: 9613: 9584:the original 9563: 9546: 9537: 9528: 9518: 9512: 9508: 9503: 9494: 9493: 9486:. Retrieved 9483:The Atlantic 9482: 9472: 9460:. Retrieved 9456:the original 9447: 9438: 9429: 9419: 9365: 9356: 9333: 9237: 9150:of the total 9147: 9142: 9055: 9043: 9023: 9016: 8989: 8973: 8965: 8920: 8912: 8896: 8884: 8865: 8840: 8836: 8830: 8828: 8800: 8777: 8730:pogrom, the 8728: 8700: 8699:(founder of 8697:Adam Michnik 8694: 8686:Eastern Bloc 8683: 8676: 8674: 8649: 8647: 8643: 8627: 8573: 8547: 8544:Jakub Berman 8533: 8525:Folks-Shtime 8524: 8517:Ida Kamińska 8501:Dawid Kahane 8496: 8490: 8469: 8462: 8429: 8423: 8416:Adolf Berman 8409: 8401:Eastern Bloc 8385: 8370:POLIN Museum 8362: 8355: 8352: 8345: 8342: 8338:Michael Meng 8334: 8311: 8285: 8281: 8269: 8243:against the 8230: 8226: 8196:east of the 8183: 8125: 8121: 8114: 8088:, after the 8051: 8030: 8023: 8012: 7982:Nazi Germany 7979: 7959: 7944: 7898: 7890: 7872: 7861: 7836: 7832: 7830: 7814: 7806: 7805: 7755: 7715: 7708: 7645: 7631: 7618:black market 7615: 7603: 7600:'s orphanage 7579: 7575: 7572:szmalcowniks 7561: 7557: 7545: 7541: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7502: 7498: 7495: 7486: 7475:Walling-off 7456:Radom Ghetto 7401: 7349: 7340:szmalcowniks 7316: 7303: 7295:antisemitism 7287:Jan T. Gross 7272: 7269:death squads 7262: 7251: 7233: 7231: 7208: 7204:Soviet Union 7201: 7155: 7109: 7084: 7077:Jakub Berman 7069:Soviet Union 7054: 7023: 7014: 6993: 6969: 6965: 6957: 6942: 6931: 6922:Nazi Germany 6914:Soviet Union 6911: 6878:Nazi ghettos 6859: 6814: 6811: 6806: 6803: 6770: 6759: 6735: 6699: 6678:trade unions 6674: 6670: 6659: 6647: 6645: 6623: 6613: 6590:Polonization 6579: 6556: 6524:Nazi Germany 6517: 6511: 6486: 6450: 6440:, including 6431: 6428:Vilna Troupe 6404:Rafał Lemkin 6372:Moses Schorr 6353: 6344:Shimon Peres 6331: 6321: 6315: 6263:Jan Brzechwa 6243:Marian Hemar 6239:Julian Tuwim 6235:Bruno Schulz 6220: 6198: 6179:Bruno Schulz 6172: 6160: 6110: 6105:World War II 6098: 6061: 6045: 6034: 5978: 5954: 5936: 5930: 5862:protectorate 5858: 5850: 5840: 5825: 5810: 5791: 5784: 5751: 5746: 5744: 5702: 5692: 5688: 5682: 5680: 5665: 5656: 5641:Please help 5629: 5587: 5585: 5581:Hovevei Zion 5550: 5548: 5516:Alexander II 5509: 5502: 5484: 5449: 5432: 5416: 5385:תּחום-המושבֿ 5360: 5358: 5331: 5322: 5307:Please help 5295: 5249: 5229: 5220: 5217:Catherine II 5213: 5169: 5149: 5129: 5120: 5114: 5111: 5079: 5073: 5023: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4991:Sabbatianism 4987: 4946: 4936: 4932: 4924: 4910: 4907:Jacob Pollak 4900: 4878: 4877:. Important 4865: 4837:Divre David; 4836: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4804: 4803:("dwells"), 4800: 4796: 4792: 4780: 4776: 4774: 4751:west of the 4742: 4734: 4730: 4675: 4657: 4629: 4582: 4549: 4517: 4484: 4477: 4469:Jacob Pollak 4465:Persian Jews 4461:Mizrahi Jews 4438: 4428: 4405: 4357: 4338: 4316:, Samson of 4302: 4246: 4183:(1367), and 4166: 4157:and the Jews 4153: 4144: 4139:blood libels 4115:Great Poland 4113:, Prince of 4099: 4092: 4085: 4078: 4035:Bolesław III 4024: 4001: 3926: 3916: 3873:. After the 3863:Eastern Bloc 3840: 3816:Soviet Union 3812:Nazi Germany 3809: 3785:Antisemitism 3730: 3717: 3699:. Since the 3689:Nazi Germany 3681:World War II 3652: 3650: 3591:Post-Zionism 3462:Judeo-Berber 3457:Judeo-Arabic 3417:Judeo-Gascon 3164:Pidyon haben 3083:Conservative 2811: 2629:Saudi Arabia 2447:South Africa 2436:Sierra Leone 2258:Israeli Jews 2172:Mosaic Arabs 2125:Kaifeng Jews 1986:Arab–Israeli 1959:Emancipation 1838:Great Revolt 1647:Anti-Judaism 1642:Antisemitism 1637:Name "Judea" 1432:Baal teshuva 995:Mittelsteine 563:Ezras Israel 364:Brit HaHayal 227:1989–present 222:20th century 217:19th century 212:18th century 197:List of Jews 160: 79: 43:Polscy Żydzi 29:Ethnic group 26: 18874:New Zealand 18809:Philippines 18613:Netherlands 18470:Switzerland 18260:Polska Roma 18235:Lithuanians 18173:Circassians 18130:Pomeranians 18125:Kosznajders 18108:Vilamovians 18028:Macedonians 18013:Belarusians 17979:Slovincians 17860:Podlachians 17690:Isle of Man 17625:recognition 17577:Switzerland 17512:Netherlands 17056:(2), 24–36. 16833:copy-pasted 16599:20 February 16573:20 February 16547:20 February 16522:20 February 16307:(in Polish) 16230:11 December 16087:Kraków Post 15481:27 December 14620:www.onet.pl 14599:Karski, Jan 14323:17 February 14313:Marci Shore 13804:28 December 13445:(in Polish) 13312:12 December 13286:26 November 13209:13 December 12773:Norman Goda 11430:Isaac Babel 11253:26 December 10806:(in Polish) 10801:Mówią Wieki 9793:20 February 9462:11 February 9369:As of 2010. 9002:as well as 8934: [ 8668:and in the 8630:Six-Day War 8554:Hilary Minc 8505:chief rabbi 8465:Six-Day War 8210:German Jews 8188:, with its 8154:Dzierżoniów 8074:machine gun 8019:Biala River 7956:Soviet Army 7499:Concerning: 7479:(seen from 7440:Lwów Ghetto 7408:Łódź Ghetto 7354:throughout 7322:Nazi crimes 7206:'s) lived. 6916:signed the 6866:Polish Army 6762:blood libel 6666:1931 census 6603:stomatology 6465:Józef Klotz 6323:The Dybbuk) 6295:Jakub Kagan 6283:Henryk Gold 6271:Henryk Wars 6267:Jan Kiepura 5933:World War I 5851:Pufferstaat 5811:During the 5804:(1863) and 5800:(1830–31), 5781:Folkspartei 5773:labor union 5427:) and with 5423:(later the 5146:(1764–1809) 4976:Jacob Frank 4961:Yoel Sirkis 4853:Renaissance 4320:, Josko of 4312:, Natko of 4286:Black Death 4278:blood libel 4223:blood libel 4219:Black Death 4051:Mieszko III 3955:in Spanish 3921:Jan Matejko 3879:citizenship 3586:Revisionist 3576:Neo-Zionism 3183:Zeved habat 2976:Puerto Rico 2802:Netherlands 2634:South Korea 2619:Philippines 2499:Afghanistan 2366:Ivory Coast 2140:Crypto-Jews 2105:Bnei Anusim 2084:Bene Israel 2049:Beta Israel 2006:Communities 1913:Middle Ages 1652:Persecution 1427:Bereavement 1113:Częstochowa 1052:Death camps 990:Gross-Rosen 948:Stanisławów 878:Częstochowa 733:Wolf Popper 723:White Stork 638:Nomer Tamid 429:Folkspartei 60:beside the 36:יהודי פולין 33:Polish Jews 19140:Categories 18965:Principal 18853:Uzbekistan 18836:Polonezköy 18826:Tajikistan 18794:Kyrgyzstan 18789:Kazakhstan 18764:Azerbaijan 18608:Luxembourg 18593:after 2004 18426:after WWII 18335:Historical 18277:Vietnamese 18198:Hungarians 18070:Ukrainians 18033:Podlashuks 17961:Kashubians 17946:Sącz Lachs 17914:Sieradzans 17899:Kocievians 17812:Lublinians 17802:Cracovians 17547:San Marino 17507:Montenegro 17487:Luxembourg 17467:Kazakhstan 17370:Azerbaijan 15466:. Warsaw: 15316:0230504884 15173:8385888365 15040:Original: 14990:15 January 14952:1571818820 14653:Yad Vashem 14605:'s website 14603:Yad Vashem 14509:Yad Vashem 14468:0786403713 14410:. 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nobles ( 4528:See also: 4510:Maimonides 4347:and other 4322:Hrubieszów 4215:cemeteries 4181:Sandomierz 4039:Lithuanian 3957:Al-Andalus 3943:, crossed 3941:Radhanites 3571:Maximalism 3523:Secularism 3503:Autonomism 3320:Literature 3113:Humanistic 2717:Azerbaijan 2679:Uzbekistan 2654:Tajikistan 2574:Kyrgyzstan 2559:Kazakhstan 2406:Mozambique 2381:Madagascar 2301:Cape Verde 2253:New Yishuv 2248:Old Yishuv 2199:Population 2177:Subbotniks 2135:Samaritans 2074:Romanyotim 2017:Ashkenazim 1964:Old Yishuv 1944:Sabbateans 1931:Modern era 1923:Golden Age 1850:Bar Kokhba 1570:Beit Yosef 1437:Philosophy 1168:Resistance 578:Inowrocław 524:Synagogues 374:Komverband 369:Poale Zion 332:Sochatchov 277:Aleksander 80:1,300,000+ 18869:Australia 18707:Venezuela 18645:Argentina 18521:Lithuania 18421:Ruhrpolen 18188:Georgians 18183:Filipinos 18163:Armenians 18038:Poleshuks 17989:Silesians 17904:Łęczycans 17855:Poborzans 17845:Masurians 17835:Łowiczans 17827:Masovians 17807:Lasovians 17772:Kuyavians 17767:Kaliszans 17680:Gibraltar 17482:Lithuania 16853:632370258 16162:145804324 16110:WPROST.pl 15877:(2): 233. 15639:151471207 15631:1462-169X 15256:841327982 14875:cite book 14761:From the 14120:(English) 14027:, JSTOR: 12989:236898673 12981:1611-8944 12812:Palestine 12652:cite book 12644:176630823 12488:490035434 12427:795425570 12163:, p. 306. 11982:22 August 11624:837032828 11345:715788575 10456:Sephardim 10318:13 August 10054:"Beriḥah" 9768:, p. 101. 9751:Palestine 9488:15 August 9166:(+130.0%) 9056:In 2013, 8892:ner tamid 8348:Jan Gross 8249:Holocaust 7801:markings. 7705:Treblinka 7533:......... 7528:......... 7523:......... 7416:Białystok 7380:Auschwitz 7372:Treblinka 7173:Treblinka 7169:Auschwitz 7067:into the 7026:Communism 6984:Białystok 6682:Christian 6380:Esperanto 6368:Adam Ulam 6192:Socialist 6156:Esperanto 6134:Lithuania 6031:Blue Army 5956:Porucznik 5766:socialism 5659:July 2018 5630:does not 5460:Lithuania 5325:July 2018 5296:does not 5272:Cantonist 5265:Cantonist 5150:A second 5028:known as 5022:based on 5002:mysticism 4953:Rabbinism 4851:The Late 4819:("here") 4787:, and as 4761:haydamaks 4490:Talmudist 4310:Drohobycz 4265:1388–1389 4205:Christian 4185:Kazimierz 4075:landlords 3965:Mieszko I 3793:Palestine 3697:Holocaust 3685:genocidal 3581:Religious 3437:Zarphatic 3427:Bukharian 3397:Judeo-Tat 3382:Yeshivish 3356:Languages 3311:Sephardic 3301:Israelite 3291:Ethiopian 3281:Ashkenazi 3220:Religious 3010:Australia 2992:Venezuela 2898:Argentina 2880:Greenland 2792:Lithuania 2644:Sri Lanka 2639:Singapore 2564:Kurdistan 2529:Indonesia 2519:Hong Kong 2472:Abayudaya 2396:Mauritius 2130:Igbo Jews 2120:Krymchaks 2039:Sephardim 1907:relations 1801:Sadducees 1797:Pharisees 1787:Sanhedrin 1702:Jerusalem 1462:Synagogue 1330:Etymology 1153:Szczuczyn 1103:Massacres 1088:Treblinka 1012:Poniatowa 978:Auschwitz 943:Sosnowiec 913:Nowy Sącz 868:Białystok 678:Przedbórz 663:Piaskower 543:Bydgoszcz 474:Białystok 317:Peshischa 111:Languages 19108:See also 19099:Hinduism 19094:Buddhism 18991:Armenian 18887:See also 18819:Buryatia 18804:Pakistan 18743:Zimbabwe 18733:Tanzania 18680:Paraguay 18665:Colombia 18638:Americas 18465:Slovakia 18406:Bulgaria 18375:Diaspora 18343:Lechites 18282:Walloons 18208:Italians 18158:Africans 18103:Flemings 18091:Olenders 18079:Germanic 18055:Russians 17924:Warmians 17700:Svalbard 17685:Guernsey 17632:Abkhazia 17607:Scotland 17562:Slovenia 17557:Slovakia 17532:Portugal 17390:Bulgaria 17278:Archived 17263:Archived 17154:Archived 17143:Archived 17132:Archived 17121:Archived 17096:38756480 16968:22908198 16299:Archived 16276:motl.org 16125:Archived 16064:Stanford 16003:Archived 15979:Archived 15926:Archived 15899:Archived 15750:(3): 273 15438:Archived 15411:Archived 15303:(2004). 15139:Also in: 15010:(2012). 14817:Archived 14667:Archived 14492:Archived 14366:(2000). 14114:Archived 13918:(1987). 13778:Archived 13571:(1997). 13454:Archived 13418:Archived 13257:21 March 13225:"Grodno" 13092:Archived 13061:Archived 12808:Sanation 12632:Source: 12533:Archived 12512:for the 12450:, p. 181 12367:(1993), 12073:26 March 11782:Archived 11599:Archived 11587:Archived 11484:(1993). 11465:Archived 11091:26 March 11057:11 March 11018:11 March 10877:Archived 10600:24 March 10385:(2000). 10107:Archived 10056:. YIVO. 9939:Archived 9857:Archived 9813:Archived 9747:Zionists 9659:Archived 9394:"Poland" 9267:See also 9211:(−24.0%) 9202:(−44.4%) 9193:(−71.0%) 9184:(−55.7%) 9175:(−69.6%) 9163:230,000 9157:(−96.9%) 9154:100,000 9134:(+14.2%) 8996:Birkenau 8982:and the 8929:journal 8887:Oświęcim 8790:and the 8782:and the 8763:, Poland 8636:and the 8632:between 8178:Oświęcim 8152:, e.g., 8034:Majdanek 7933:Gesiowka 7889:and the 7887:Gęsiówka 7738:Judenrat 7720:and its 7376:Majdanek 7238:tabloids 7177:Majdanek 7102:II Corps 6874:prisoner 6807:en masse 6719:Lubartów 6693:and the 6626:interwar 6400:genocide 6132:(now in 6124:(now in 5859:de facto 5857:, being 5796:(1794), 5747:Haskalah 5723:Mizrachi 5703:Haskalah 5694:Maskilim 5689:Haskalah 5684:Haskalah 5611:Haskalah 5487:Caucasus 5245:the Pale 5130:szlachta 5122:kanclerz 5058:Nadvorna 5030:Hasidism 5025:Kabbalah 4995:Frankism 4948:Kabbalah 4925:yeshivah 4879:yeshivot 4871:gymnasia 4867:Yeshivot 4811:"), and 4757:Volhynia 4722:Piotrków 4694:Ottomans 4644:Cossacks 4636:Ruthenia 4583:Despite 4560:szlachta 4506:Kabbalah 4479:yeshivot 4476:and its 4349:Silesian 4318:Zydaczow 4179:(1356), 4080:szlachta 3997:Przemyśl 3951:town of 3929:Crusades 3855:Americas 3814:and the 3750:Catholic 3741:Paradise 3608:Category 3566:Kahanism 3513:Feminism 3485:Politics 3369:Biblical 3339:American 3286:Bukharan 3276:American 3176:Shidduch 3152:Clothing 3108:Haymanot 3054:Orthodox 2982:Suriname 2965:Paraguay 2918:Colombia 2817:Portugal 2727:Bulgaria 2664:Thailand 2614:Pakistan 2594:Mongolia 2589:Malaysia 2509:Cambodia 2483:Zimbabwe 2458:Tanzania 2336:Eswatini 2326:Ethiopia 2316:Djibouti 2296:Cameroon 2291:Botswana 2220:Diaspora 2182:Noahides 2155:Marranos 2079:Cochinim 2064:Bukharim 2054:Gruzinim 2044:Teimanim 2034:Mizrahim 2022:Galician 1988:conflict 1949:Hasidism 1939:Haskalah 1844:Diaspora 1715:timeline 1627:Timeline 1540:Rabbinic 1447:Kabbalah 1422:Marriage 1398:Tzedakah 1388:Holidays 1346:Religion 1309:a series 1307:Part of 1148:Radziłów 1123:Jedwabne 1073:Majdanek 1037:Trawniki 1027:Stutthof 1017:Potulice 1007:Lipowa 7 983:Monowitz 928:Piotrków 883:Frysztak 804:Yeshivas 668:Piotrków 658:Oświęcim 419:Haskalah 381:HeHalutz 250:Orthodox 153:a series 151:Part of 135:Religion 19063:Judaism 18862:Oceania 18799:Lebanon 18774:Georgia 18759:Armenia 18723:Senegal 18702:Uruguay 18598:Belgium 18552:Croatia 18511:Ireland 18506:Iceland 18501:Finland 18496:Estonia 18491:Denmark 18475:Ukraine 18455:Romania 18443:Moldova 18438:Hungary 18416:Germany 18401:Belarus 18396:Austria 18245:Nepalis 18225:Koreans 18203:Indians 18115:Germans 18098:English 18060:Slovaks 17974:Krubans 17894:Bambers 17840:Kurpies 17784:Taśtaks 17597:England 17587:Ukraine 17537:Romania 17497:Moldova 17455:Ireland 17450:Iceland 17445:Hungary 17435:Germany 17430:Georgia 17420:Finland 17415:Estonia 17410:Denmark 17395:Croatia 17380:Belgium 17375:Belarus 17365:Austria 17360:Armenia 17355:Andorra 17350:Albania 16818:: 16498:at the 15985:3 April 15488:Also in 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