561:
meant that fixed water was absorbing some of this air, and could not be used quantitatively to collect that particular air. So, he replaced the water in the trough with mercury instead, in which most airs were not soluble. By doing so, he could not only collect all airs given off by a reaction, but he could also determine the solubility of airs in water, beginning a new area of research for pneumatic chemists. While this was the major adaptation of the trough in the eighteenth century, several minor changes were made before and after this substitution of
549:
27:
116:. These reactions would give off different "airs" as chemists would call them, and these different airs contained more simple substances. Until Lavoisier, these airs were considered separate entities with different properties; Lavoisier was responsible largely for changing the idea of air as being constituted by these different airs that his contemporaries and earlier chemists had discovered.
138:, as a result of his inability to collect properly the substances given off by reactions, as he was the first natural philosopher to make an attempt at carefully studying the third type of matter. However, it was not until Lavoisier performed his research in the eighteenth century that the word was used universally by scientists as a replacement for
487:). Inflammable air was one of the first gases isolated and discovered using the pneumatic trough. However, he did not exploit his own idea to its limit, and therefore did not use the mercury pneumatic trough to its full extent. Cavendish is credited with nearly correctly analyzing the content of gases in the atmosphere. Cavendish also showed that
267:. In 1783, James Watt showed that water was composed of inflammable and dephlogisticated airs, and that the masses of gases before combustion were exactly equal to the mass of water after combustion. Until this point, water was viewed as a fundamental element rather than a compound. James Watt also sought to explore the use of different "
229:, or the use of airs to make laboratories more workable with fresh airs and also aid patients with different illnesses, with varying degrees of success. Most human experimentation done was performed on the chymists themselves, as they believed that self-experimentation was a necessary part or progressing the field.
560:
The pneumatic trough, while integral throughout the eighteenth century, was modified several times to collect gases more efficiently or just to collect more gas. For example, Cavendish noted that the amount of fixed air that was given off by a reaction was not entirely present above the water; this
224:
Moreover, the chemistry of airs was not limited to combustion analyses. During the eighteenth century, many chymists used the discovery of airs as a new path for exploring old problems, with one example being the field of medicinal chemistry. One particular
Englishman, James Watt, began to take the
424:
Priestley's work on pneumatic chemistry had an influence on his natural world views. His belief in an "aerial economy" stemmed from his belief in "dephlogisticated air" being the purest type of air and that phlogiston and combustion were at the heart of nature. Joseph
Priestley chiefly researched
544:
in 1727. This instrument was widely used by many chemists to explore the properties of different airs, such as what was called inflammable air (what is modernly called hydrogen). Lavoisier used this in addition to his gasometer to collect gases and analyze them, aiding him in creating his list of
220:
was integral to the work with gases (or, as contemporary chemists called them, airs). Work done by Joseph Black, Joseph
Priestley, Herman Boerhaave, and Henry Cavendish revolved largely around the use of the instrument, allowing them to collect airs given off by different chemical reactions and
610:
and to the public, which was a large expensive version meant to make people believe that it had a large precision, and the smaller, more lab practical, version with a similar precision. This more practical version was cheaper to construct, allowing more chemists to use
Lavoisier's instrument.
1025:"Experiments on the Distillation of Acids, Volatile Alkalies, &c. Shewing How They May be Condensed without Loss, and How Thereby We May Avoid Disagreeable and Noxious Fumes: In a Letter from Mr. Peter Woulfe, F. R. S. to John Ellis, Esq; F. R. S."
507:
invented the pneumatic trough in order to collect gases from the samples of matter he used; while uninterested in the properties of the gases he collected, he wanted to explore how much gas was given off from the materials he burned or let
429:
airs. This was achieved primarily by his substitution of mercury for water, and implementing a shelf under the head for increased stability, capitalizing on the idea
Cavendish proposed and popularizing the mercury pneumatic trough.
338:. Despite him never using the pneumatic trough or other instrumentation invented to collect and analyze the airs, his inferences led to more research into fixed air instead of common air, with the trough actually being used.
149:
began investigating pneumatic chemistry in 1776 and argued that there were different types of inflammable air based on experiments on marsh gases. Pneumatic chemists credited with discovering chemical elements include
512:. Hales was successful in preventing the air from losing its "elasticity," i.e. preventing it from experiencing a loss in volume, by bubbling the gas through water, and therefore dissolving the soluble gases.
450:
was cited by many other contemporaries and contained much of the current knowledge of the properties of airs. Boerhaave is also credited with adding to the world of chemical thermometry through his work with
515:
After the invention of the pneumatic trough, Stephen Hales continued his research into the different airs, and performed many
Newtonian analyses of the various properties of them. He published his book
109:
and several other pneumatic chemists would insist, the air was indeed dynamic, and would not only be influenced by combusted material, but would also influence the properties of different substances.
524:, Hales not only introduced his trough, but also published the results he obtained from the collected air, such as the elasticity and composition of airs along with their ability to mix with others.
119:
This study of gases was brought about by Hales with the invention of the pneumatic trough, an instrument capable of collecting the gas given off by reactions with reproducible results. The term
473:, was among the first to observe that fixed air was insoluble over mercury and therefore could be collected more efficiently using the adapted instrument. He also characterized fixed air (
145:
Van
Helmont (1579 – 1644) is sometimes considered the founder of pneumatic chemistry, as he was the first natural philosopher to take an interest in air as a reagent.
388:
was one of the first people to describe air as being composed of different states of matter, and not as one element. Priestley elaborated on the notions of fixed air (CO
446:
in 1727. This treatise included support for Hales' work and also elaborated upon the idea of airs. Despite not publishing his own research, this section on airs in the
565:
for water, such as adding a shelf to rest the head on while gas collection occurred. This shelf would also allow for less conventional heads to be used, such as
49:
of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth centuries. Important goals of this work were the understanding of the physical properties of
221:
combustion analyses. Their work led to the discovery of many types of airs, such as dephlogisticated air (discovered by Joseph
Priestley).
920:
West, John (June 15, 2014). "Joseph Black, carbon dioxide, latent heat, and the beginnings of the discovery of the respiratory gases".
520:
in 1727, which had a profound impact on the field of pneumatic chemistry, as many researchers cited this in their academic papers. In
600:
During his chemical revolution, Lavoisier created a new instrument for precisely measuring out gases. He called this instrument the
1371:
1303:
1166:
842:
654:
213:"In the years between 1770 and 1785, chemists all over Europe started catching, isolating, and weighing different gasses."
1233:
Powers, John C. (January 1, 2014). "Measuring Fire: Herman
Boerhaave and the Introduction of Thermometry into Chemistry".
983:
105:. Before this, air was primarily considered a static substance that would not react and simply existed. However, as
1079:
1102:"Gases, God and the balance of nature: a commentary on Priestley (1772) 'Observations on different kinds of air'"
1403:
835:
From
Sunlight to Insight. Jan IngenHousz, the discovery of photosynthesis & science in the light of ecology
19:
This article is about the early modern usage of the term. For the modern treatment of chemistry of gases, see
1393:
747:
Tomory, Leslie (May 2009). "The Origins of Gaslight Technology in Eighteenth-Century Pneumatic Chemistry".
326:" on the properties of both. His experiments on magnesium carbonate led him to discover that fixed air, or
134:
556:
in the 1700s. This was the initial model, used for the collection of airs (gases) produced by combustion.
999:
607:
409:
837:, Chapter 5: A crucial instrument: the rise and fall of the eudiometer, pages=199-231, VUB Press
871:"Dr Thomas Beddoes and James Watts: Preparatory Work 1794-96 for the Bristol Pneumatic Institute"
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20:
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38:
1319:
Kirker, Milton (1955). "Herman Boerhaave and the Development of Pneumatic Chemistry".
1182:
Kirker, Milton (1955). "Herman Boerhaave and the Development of Pneumatic Chemistry".
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The initial concern of pneumatic chemistry was combustion reactions, beginning with
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1161:. The University of Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–64.
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In the eighteenth century, with the rise of combustion analysis in chemistry,
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While not credited for direct research into the field of pneumatic chemistry,
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620:
553:
537:
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with the pneumatic trough, but he was responsible for collecting several new
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128:
113:
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was a chemist who took interest in the pneumatic field after studying under
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30:
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606:. He had two different versions; the one he used in demonstrations to the
334:), was being given off during reactions with various chemicals, including
16:
Very first studies of the role of gases in the air in combustion reactions
958:
Experiments upon magnesia alba, quick-lime, and other alcaline substances
275:
in medicinal treatments as "pneumatic therapy" by collaborating with Dr.
191:
956:
602:
577:
242:
170:. Other individuals who investigated gases during this period include
78:
1203:
707:
1072:
Pictorial life history of the apothecary chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele
335:
311:
106:
90:
1024:
245:'s research in pneumatic chemistry involved the use of inflammable (
1332:
1246:
1195:
699:
585:
481:
246:
127:, in the early seventeenth century. This term was derived from the
584:
to show that plants produced dephlogisticated air when exposed to
469:, despite not being the first to replace water in the trough with
1298:. Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society. p. 261.
975:
Air Pollution and Global Warming: History, Science, and Solutions
342:
102:
94:
26:
1366:. Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 52–55.
649:. Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 62–64.
417:
257:
66:
58:
264:
81:
reactions, were addressed in the era of pneumatic chemistry.
65:, and its replacement by a new theory after the discovery of
302:. He was first interested in the topic of magnesia alba, or
396:
and inflammable air to include "inflammable nitrous air," "
858:. New York: Doubleday, Page and Company. pp. 170–173.
540:, called the creator of pneumatic chemistry, created the
50:
1074:. American Institute of the History of Pharmacy. 1942.
495:
could be combined and heated to produce water in 1784.
576:
A practical application of a pneumatic trough was the
789:(2 ed.). MacMillan and Company. pp. 65–151.
225:
idea of airs and use them in what was referred to as
1286:
416:. Priestley also established a process for treating
442:(teacher, researcher, and scholar) did publish the
283:to treat Jessie Watt, his daughter suffering from
1080:1811/28946/Pictorial%20Life%20History_Scheele.pdf
686:(1969-01-01). "History of the Pneumatic Trough".
422:Directions for impregnating water with fixed air.
1385:
678:
1106:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
736:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 121.
324:De humore acido a cibis orto, et magnesia alba
408:". Priestley also described the process of
89:In the eighteenth century, as the field of
1159:Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey
868:
781:
755:(4). Taylor & Francis Group: 473–496.
420:and other ailments using fixed air in his
1133:
1047:
896:
886:
971:
853:
728:
547:
101:was created around the idea of air as a
25:
631:
386:Observations on different kinds of air,
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57:and, ultimately, the composition of
820:. Chapman and Hall. pp. 47–60.
802:The Development of Modern Chemistry
532:
433:
376:
322:, and wrote a dissertation called "
84:
13:
1277:
1175:
1086:
552:The pneumatic trough, invented by
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461:
14:
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663:
972:Jacobson, Mark Z. (2012-04-23).
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978:. Cambridge University Press.
922:American Journal of Physiology
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809:
806:(originally published in 1964)
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775:
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722:
638:
69:as a gaseous component of the
1:
237:
1023:Woulfe, Peter (1767-01-01).
869:Stansfield, Dorothy (1986).
787:A Short History of Chemistry
595:
365:). It was isolated again by
7:
1100:McEvoy, John (March 2015).
614:
10:
1420:
1028:Philosophical Transactions
934:10.1152/ajplung.00020.2014
206:
197:
18:
888:10.1017/s0025727300045713
854:Carnegie, Andrew (1905).
761:10.1080/00033790903047717
818:The History of Chemistry
804:. Dover. pp. 32–54.
1362:Levere, Trevor (2001).
961:. Edinburgh: W.F. Clay.
955:Black, Joseph (1893) .
800:Ihde, Aaron J. (1984).
645:Levere, Trevor (2001).
588:, a process now called
480:) and inflammable air (
316:calcium carbonate (CaCO
188:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
53:and how they relate to
21:Gas-phase ion chemistry
1157:Bowler, Peter (2005).
1126:10.1098/rsta.2014.0229
1049:10.1098/rstl.1767.0052
833:Geerdt Magiels (2009)
557:
345:was first isolated by
34:
1404:Chemistry experiments
816:Hudson, John (1992).
626:Pneumatic Institution
551:
77:participating in the
29:
1394:History of chemistry
632:Notes and references
580:, which was used by
455:, also discussed in
406:dephlogisticated air
371:Carl Wilhelm Scheele
349:in 1756 by reacting
1364:Transforming Matter
1292:McCormmach, Russell
1288:Jungnickel, Christa
1118:2015RSPTA.37340229M
1040:1767RSPT...57..517W
928:(12): L1057–L1063.
771:– via Scopus.
734:Makers of Chemistry
730:Holmyard, Eric John
647:Transforming Matter
545:simple substances.
304:magnesium carbonate
287:, using fixed air.
209:Chemical revolution
203:Chemical revolution
47:scientific research
43:pneumatic chemistry
1112:(2039): 20140229.
680:Parascandola, John
558:
522:Vegetable Staticks
518:Vegetable Staticks
398:vitriolic acid air
99:natural philosophy
93:was evolving from
55:chemical reactions
39:history of science
35:
1373:978-0-8018-6610-4
1305:978-0-87169-220-7
1168:978-0-226-06861-9
1000:"Woulfe's bottle"
843:978-90-5487-645-8
783:Partington, J. R.
749:Annals of Science
656:978-0-8018-6610-4
457:Elementa Chimiae.
453:Daniel Fahrenheit
414:phlogiston theory
359:calcined magnesia
355:ammonium chloride
263:) airs to create
227:pneumatic therapy
184:Antoine Lavoisier
180:William Brownrigg
164:Daniel Rutherford
125:J. B. van Helmont
97:, a field of the
63:phlogiston theory
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533:Pneumatic trough
448:Elementa Chimiae
444:Elementa Chimiae
434:Herman Boerhaave
382:Joseph Priestley
377:Joseph Priestley
254:dephlogisticated
218:pneumatic trough
152:Joseph Priestley
147:Alessandro Volta
85:Air as a reagent
75:chemical reagent
71:Earth atmosphere
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489:inflammable air
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363:magnesium oxide
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1327:(143): 36–49.
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1241:(1): 158–177.
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684:Ihde, Aaron J.
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273:hydrocarbonate
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