Joseph Priestley - Knowledge

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scholars because of his wide-ranging interests. His scientific discoveries have usually been divorced from his theological and metaphysical publications to make an analysis of his life and writings easier, but this approach has been challenged recently by scholars such as John McEvoy and Robert Schofield. Although early Priestley scholarship claimed that his theological and metaphysical works were "distractions" and "obstacles" to his scientific work, scholarship published in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s maintained that Priestley's works constituted a unified theory. However, as Schaffer explains, no convincing synthesis of his work has yet been expounded. More recently, in 2001, historian of science Dan Eshet has argued that efforts to create a "synoptic view" have resulted only in a rationalisation of the contradictions in Priestley's thought, because they have been "organized around philosophical categories" and have "separate the producers of scientific ideas from any social conflict".

1169: 1074: 1965:. Priestley was asked to join this unique society and contributed much to the work of its members. As a result of this stimulating intellectual environment, he published several important scientific papers, including "Experiments relating to Phlogiston, and the seeming Conversion of Water into Air" (1783). The first part attempts to refute Lavoisier's challenges to his work on oxygen; the second part describes how steam is "converted" into air. After several variations of the experiment, with different substances as fuel and several different collecting apparatuses (which produced different results), he concluded that air could travel through more substances than previously surmised, a conclusion "contrary to all the known principles of hydrostatics". This discovery, along with his earlier work on what would later be recognised as gaseous diffusion, would eventually lead 2829: 2367: 827: 1504: 1402: 1614: 2063:

scientist. He was a natural philosopher, concerned with the economy of nature and obsessed with an idea of unity, in theology and in nature." Historian of science John McEvoy largely agrees, writing that Priestley's view of nature as coextensive with God and thus infinite, which encouraged him to focus on facts over hypotheses and theories, prompted him to reject Lavoisier's system. McEvoy argues that "Priestley's isolated and lonely opposition to the oxygen theory was a measure of his passionate concern for the principles of intellectual freedom, epistemic equality and critical inquiry." Priestley himself claimed in the last volume of

2153: 1753: 585: 1730:. After a small history of the study of airs, he explained his own experiments in an open and sincere style. As an early biographer writes, "whatever he knows or thinks he tells: doubts, perplexities, blunders are set down with the most refreshing candour." Priestley also described his cheap and easy-to-assemble experimental apparatus; his colleagues therefore believed that they could easily reproduce his experiments. Faced with inconsistent experimental results, Priestley employed phlogiston theory. This led him to conclude that there were only three types of "air": "fixed", "alkaline", and "acid". Priestley dismissed the 2236: 2256:, a provocative action in a country where many disapproved of the French Revolution and feared that it might spread to Britain. Amid fears of violence, Priestley was convinced by his friends not to attend. Rioters gathered outside the hotel during the banquet and attacked the attendees as they left. The rioters moved on to the New Meeting and Old Meeting churches, and burned both to the ground. Priestley and his wife fled from their home; although their son William and others stayed behind to protect their property, the mob overcame them and torched Priestley's house "Fairhill" at 1807: 2358: 2599:. These intercepted letters were published in London, and copied in numerous papers in America. One of the letters was addressed to "MBP", with a note: "I inclose a note for our friend MBP—but, as ignorant of the name he bears at present among you, I must beg you to seal and address it." This gave the intercepted letters a tinge of intrigue. Fearful lest they be taken as evidence of him being a 'spy in the interest of France', Priestley sent a clumsy letter to numerous newspaper editors, in which he naively named "MBP" (Member of the British Parliament) as 1930: 1440:, Priestley was "much improved by this view of mankind at large". Upon their return, Priestley easily fulfilled his duties as librarian and tutor. The workload was intentionally light, allowing him time to pursue his scientific investigations and theological interests. Priestley also became a political adviser to Shelburne, gathering information on parliamentary issues and serving as a liaison between Shelburne and the Dissenting and American interests. When the Priestleys' third son was born on 24 May 1777, they named him Henry at the lord's request. 2724: 2744: 421: 2556: 2496: 429: 736: 652: 6922: 2086: 1622: 1826: 1837:, published in 1776. He did not emphasise his discovery of "dephlogisticated air" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argued in the preface how important such discoveries were to rational religion. His paper narrated the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements; thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley "discovered" oxygen. Such dating is significant as both Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist 2260:, destroying his valuable laboratory and all of the family's belongings. Twenty-six other Dissenters' homes and three more churches were burned in the three-day riot. Priestley spent several days hiding with friends until he was able to travel safely to London. The carefully executed attacks of the "mob" and the farcical trials of only a handful of the "leaders" convinced many at the time—and modern historians later—that the attacks were planned and condoned by local Birmingham 1860:– had a rupture, the precise reasons for which remain unclear. Shelburne blamed Priestley's health, while Priestley claimed Shelburne had no further use for him. Some contemporaries speculated that Priestley's outspokenness had hurt Shelburne's political career. Schofield argues that the most likely reason was Shelburne's recent marriage to Louisa Fitzpatrick—apparently, she did not like the Priestleys. Although Priestley considered moving to America, he eventually accepted 1525:, and put forth a materialist philosophy in these works; that is, one founded on the principle that everything in the universe is made of matter that we can perceive. He also contended that discussing the soul is impossible because it is made of a divine substance, and humanity cannot perceive the divine. Despite his separation of the divine from the mortal, this position shocked and angered many of his readers, who believed that such a duality was necessary for the 876: 2640: 2055:, the new chemistry had come into its own. Priestley published several more scientific papers in Birmingham, the majority attempting to refute Lavoisier. Priestley and other Lunar Society members argued that the new French system was too expensive, too difficult to test, and unnecessarily complex. Priestley in particular rejected its "establishment" aura. In the end, Lavoisier's view prevailed: his new chemistry introduced many of the principles on which 1324: 1563:, Priestley argued that what he called "philosophical necessity" (akin to absolute determinism) is consonant with Christianity, a position based on his understanding of the natural world. Like the rest of nature, man's mind is subject to the laws of causation, Priestley contended, but because a benevolent God created these laws, the world and the people in it will eventually be perfected. Evil is therefore only an imperfect understanding of the world. 761:(1788), and other works, Priestley argued that the education of the young should anticipate their future practical needs. This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington's aspiring middle-class students. He recommended modern languages instead of classical languages and modern rather than ancient history. Priestley's lectures on history were particularly revolutionary; he narrated a 6941: 7211: 971: 2768:, in his eulogy of Priestley, praised his discoveries while at the same time lamenting his refusal to abandon phlogiston theory, calling him "the father of modern chemistry never acknowledged his daughter". Priestley published more than 150 works on topics ranging from political philosophy to education to theology to natural philosophy. He led and inspired British radicals during the 1790s, paved the way for 2107:, describing how he thought the teachings of the early Christian church had been "corrupted" or distorted. Schofield describes the work as "derivative, disorganized, wordy, and repetitive, detailed, exhaustive, and devastatingly argued". The text addresses issues ranging from the divinity of Christ to the proper form for the Lord's Supper. In 1786, Priestley published its provocatively titled sequel, 609:. Although Priestley's aunt had promised her support if he became a minister, she refused any further assistance when she realised he was no longer a Calvinist. To earn extra money, Priestley proposed opening a school, but local families informed him that they would refuse to send their children. He also presented a series of scientific lectures titled "Use of the Globes" that was more successful. 2477: 1907:. Priestley accepted the ministerial position at New Meeting on the condition that he be required to preach and teach only on Sundays, so that he would have time for his writing and scientific experiments. As in Leeds, Priestley established classes for the youth of his parish and by 1781, he was teaching 150 students. Because Priestley's New Meeting salary was only 100 894:

Priestley's views that scientific inquiries be presented with all reasoning in one's discovery path, including false leads and mistakes. He contrasted his narrative approach with Newton's analytical proof-like approach which did not facilitate future researchers to continue the inquiry. Priestley reported some of his own discoveries in the second section, such as the

1250: 2000:. Priestley's original experiments on "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen), combustion, and water provided Lavoisier with the data he needed to construct much of his system; yet Priestley never accepted Lavoisier's new theories and continued to defend phlogiston theory for the rest of his life. Lavoisier's system was based largely on the 2539:. This they intended to lease or sell in 400-acre (160 ha) plots, with payment deferred to seven annual instalments, with interest. His brothers, William and Henry, bought a 284-acre (115 ha) plot of woodland which they attempted to transform into a farm, later called "Fairhill", felling and uprooting trees, and making 1606:(1774), claiming that only the form of worship had been altered, not its substance, and attacking those who followed religion as a fashion. Priestley attended Lindsey's church regularly in the 1770s and occasionally preached there. He continued to support institutionalised Unitarianism for the rest of his life, writing several 1988:, the first of what proved to be a series of attacks on phlogiston theory; it was against these attacks that Priestley responded in 1783. While Priestley accepted parts of Lavoisier's theory, he was unprepared to assent to the major revolutions Lavoisier proposed: the overthrow of phlogiston, a chemistry based conceptually on 2683:, to which he had been previously elected a member in 1785. He was hampered by lack of news from Europe; unaware of the latest scientific developments, Priestley was no longer on the forefront of discovery. Although the majority of his publications focused on defending phlogiston theory, he also did some original work on 51: 1295:), in 1772. He paid careful attention to the history of optics and presented excellent explanations of early optics experiments, but his mathematical deficiencies caused him to dismiss several important contemporary theories. He followed the (corpuscular) particle theory of light, influenced by the works of Reverend 903:

properties of materials and on the electrical effects of chemical transformations demonstrated Priestley's early and ongoing interest in the relationship between chemical substances and electricity. Based on experiments with charged spheres, Priestley was among the first to propose that electrical force followed an

2816:(1781), writing that he "knew how to combine his paradoxical teaching with the interests of religion". Indeed, it was Priestley's aim to "put the most 'advanced' Enlightenment ideas into the service of a rationalized though heterodox Christianity, under the guidance of the basic principles of scientific method". 570:. Hartley aimed to construct a Christian philosophy in which both religious and moral "facts" could be scientifically proven, a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life. In his third year at Daventry, Priestley committed himself to the ministry, which he described as "the noblest of all professions". 1010:, became one of Priestley's few friends in Leeds, of whom he wrote: "I never chose to publish any thing of moment relating to theology, without consulting him." Although Priestley had extended family living around Leeds, they do not appear to have communicated. Schofield conjectures that they considered him a 2349:. Priestley's works had always had a millennial cast, but after the beginning of the French Revolution, this strain increased. He wrote to a younger friend that while he himself would not see the Second Coming, his friend "may probably live to see it ... It cannot, I think be more than twenty years ." 1795:. He first tested it on mice, who surprised him by surviving quite a while entrapped with the air, and then on himself, writing that it was "five or six times better than common air for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and, I believe, every other use of common atmospherical air". He had discovered 3926:

May we not infer from this experiment, that the attraction of electricity is subject to the same laws with that of gravitation, and is therefore according to the squares of the distances; since it is easily demonstrated, that were the earth in the form of a shell, a body in the inside of it would not

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which he may have contracted after landing at New York. Mary Priestley's health, already poor, deteriorated further; although William's wife, Margaret Foulke-Priestley, moved in with the couple to nurse Mary 24 hours a day, Mary Priestley died 17 September 1796. Priestley then moved in with his elder

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Priestley's refusal to accept Lavoisier's "new chemistry"—such as the conservation of mass—and his determination to adhere to a less satisfactory theory has perplexed many scholars. Schofield explains it thus: "Priestley was never a chemist; in a modern, and even a Lavoisierian, sense, he was never a

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writes, it "has been seen as a branch of physics, or chemistry, or natural philosophy, or some highly idiosyncratic version of Priestley's own invention". Furthermore, the volumes were both a scientific and a political enterprise for Priestley, in which he argues that science could destroy "undue and

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was "the most valuable" work he ever published. In demanding that his readers apply the logic of the emerging sciences and comparative history to the Bible and Christianity, he alienated religious and scientific readers alike—scientific readers did not appreciate seeing science used in the defence of

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All of the books Priestley published while at Warrington emphasised the study of history; Priestley considered it essential for worldly success as well as religious growth. He wrote histories of science and Christianity in an effort to reveal the progress of humanity and, paradoxically, the loss of a

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The most exhaustive biography of Priestley is Robert Schofield's two-volume work; several older one-volume treatments exist: those of Gibbs, Holt and Thorpe. Graham and Smith focus on Priestley's life in America and Uglow and Jackson both discuss Priestley's life in the context of other developments

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describes the two dominant portraits of Priestley: the first depicts him as "a playful innocent" who stumbled across his discoveries; the second portrays him as innocent as well as "warped" for not understanding their implications better. Assessing Priestley's works as a whole has been difficult for

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Priestley continued the educational projects that had always been important to him, helping to establish the "Northumberland Academy" and donating his library to the fledgling institution. He exchanged letters regarding the proper structure of a university with Thomas Jefferson, who used this advice

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Joseph Priestley Jr. left on a visit to England at Christmas 1798, not returning until August 1800. In his absence, his wife Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley and Thomas Cooper became increasing close, collaborating in numerous political essays. Priestley allowed himself to fall too heavily under Elizabeth

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argued that human will was completely determined by natural laws; unlike them, Leibniz argued for a "parallel universe" of immaterial objects (such as human souls) so arranged by God that its outcomes agree exactly with those of the material universe. Leibniz and Priestley share an optimism that God

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wars. According to Schofield, "he entered each controversy with a cheerful conviction that he was right, while most of his opponents were convinced, from the outset, that he was willfully and maliciously wrong. He was able, then, to contrast his sweet reasonableness to their personal rancor", but as

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This proved a very suitable and happy connexion, my wife being a woman of an excellent understanding, much improved by reading, of great fortitude and strength of mind, and of a temper in the highest degree affectionate and generous; feeling strongly for others, and little for herself. Also, greatly

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changes in heat, colour, and particularly volume. His experiments tested "airs" for "their solubility in water, their power of supporting or extinguishing flame, whether they were respirable, how they behaved with acid and alkaline air, and with nitric oxide and inflammable air, and lastly how they

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Considering the extent of Priestley's influence, relatively little scholarship has been devoted to him. In the early 20th century, Priestley was most often described as a conservative and dogmatic scientist who was nevertheless a political and religious reformer. In a historiographic review essay,

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printed extracts from this handbill, asserting that: "Dr Priestley has taken great pains to circulate this address, has travelled through the country for the purpose, and is in fact the patron of it." He challenged Priestley to "clear himself of the accusation" or face prosecution." Barely a month

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and Priestley's most thorough treatment of the subject, it—unusually for the time—distinguished political rights from civil rights with precision and argued for expansive civil rights. Priestley identified separate private and public spheres, contending that the government should have control only

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in 1768, a journal committed to the open and rational inquiry of theological questions. Although he promised to print any contribution, only like-minded authors submitted articles. He was, therefore, obliged to provide much of the journal's content himself. This material also became the basis for

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who encouraged Priestley to perform the experiments he wanted to include in his history. Priestley also consulted with Franklin during the latter's kite experiments. In the process of replicating others' experiments, Priestley became intrigued by unanswered questions and was prompted to undertake

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and Benjamin Vaughan's unease, his own wife's concerns about Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley's dietary care, and his own concerns at the closeness of Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley and Thomas Cooper's relationship, and their adverse influence on Dr Priestley; but this only led to a further estrangement

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As relations between England and France worsened, a removal to France became impracticable. Following the declaration of war of February 1793, and the Aliens Bill of March 1793, which forbade correspondence or travel between England and France, William Priestley left France for America. Joseph

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Let us not, therefore, be discouraged, though, for the present, we should see no great number of churches professedly unitarian .... We are, as it were, laying gunpowder, grain by grain, under the old building of error and superstition, which a single spark may hereafter inflame, so as to

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later wrote of the profound effect that these two books had on him: "I have read his Corruptions of Christianity, and Early Opinions of Jesus, over and over again; and I rest on them ... as the basis of my own faith. These writings have never been answered." Although a few readers such as

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The intellectually stimulating atmosphere of Warrington, often called the "Athens of the North" (of England) during the 18th century, encouraged Priestley's growing interest in natural philosophy. He gave lectures on anatomy and performed experiments regarding temperature with another tutor at

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and other substances and the continuum between conductors and non-conductors. This discovery overturned what he described as "one of the earliest and universally received maxims of electricity", that only water and metals could conduct electricity. This and other experiments on the electrical

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was published to positive reviews. The first half of the text is a history of the study of electricity to 1766; the second and more influential half is a description of contemporary theories about electricity and suggestions for future research. The volume also contains extensive comments on

2214:. Paradoxically, a secular statesman, Burke, argued against science and maintained that religion should be the basis of civil society, whereas a Dissenting minister, Priestley, argued that religion could not provide the basis for civil society and should be restricted to one's private life. 1841:

have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been the first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been the first to describe it as purified "air itself entire without alteration" (that is, the first to explain oxygen without

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wrote to Priestley asking him to direct the education of his children and to act as his general assistant. Although Priestley was reluctant to sacrifice his ministry, he accepted the position, resigning from Mill Hill Chapel on 20 December 1772, and preaching his last sermon on 16 May 1773.

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perspective was closely tied to his optimism regarding scientific progress and the improvement of humanity. He believed that each age would improve upon the previous and that the study of history allowed people to perceive and to advance this progress. Since the study of history was a moral

605:, Suffolk, as a "mistake" for both Priestley and the congregation. Priestley yearned for urban life and theological debate, whereas Needham Market was a small, rural town with a congregation wedded to tradition. Attendance and donations dropped sharply when they discovered the extent of his 467:

of cloth. Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one. He returned home five years later, after his mother died. When his father remarried in 1741, Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle, the wealthy and childless Sarah (d. 1764) and John Keighley, 3 miles

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Priestley's years in Calne were the only ones in his life dominated by scientific investigations; they were also the most scientifically fruitful. His experiments were almost entirely confined to "airs", and out of this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of

1112:. Methodists in Leeds penned a hymn asking God to "the Unitarian fiend expel / And chase his doctrine back to Hell." Priestley wanted to return Christianity to its "primitive" or "pure" form by eliminating the "corruptions" which had accumulated over the centuries. The fourth part of the 2176:. Although they might have succeeded initially, by 1790, with the fears of revolution looming in Parliament, few were swayed by appeals to equal rights. Political cartoons, one of the most effective and popular media of the time, skewered the Dissenters and Priestley. In Parliament, 1780:

In March he wrote to several people regarding the new "air" that he had discovered in August. One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society, and a paper outlining the discovery, titled "An Account of further Discoveries in Air", was published in the Society's journal

1272:, Priestley continued his electrical and chemical experiments (the latter aided by a steady supply of carbon dioxide from a neighbouring brewery). Between 1767 and 1770, he presented five papers to the Royal Society from these initial experiments; the first four papers explored 4866:

Schofield (2004), 151–52; for an analysis of Priestley's contributions to each man's work, see Schofield's chapter "Science and the Lunar Society"; see also Jackson, 200–01; Gibbs, 141–47; Thorpe, 93–102; Holt, 127–32; Uglow, 349–50; for a history of the Lunar Society, see

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principles with alchemy and insubstantial air, mocking the scientific work done by both Priestley and French chemists. He made much in his later writings of the connections between "Gunpowder Joe", science, and Lavoisier—who was improving gunpowder for the French in their

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Although discouraged by friends from using such inflammatory language, Priestley refused to back down from his opinions in print and he included it, forever branding himself as "Gunpowder Joe". After the publication of this seeming call for revolution in the midst of the

806:. These charts are in fact timelines; they have been described as the most influential timelines published in the 18th century. Both were popular for decades, and the trustees of Warrington were so impressed with Priestley's lectures and charts that they arranged for the 5027:

The importance and extent of free inquiry in matters of religion: a sermon, preached before the congregations of the Old and New Meeting of Protestant Dissenters at Birmingham. 5 November 1785. To which are added, reflections on the present state of free inquiry in this

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In August 1774 he isolated an "air" that appeared to be completely new, but he did not have an opportunity to pursue the matter because he was about to tour Europe with Shelburne. While in Paris, Priestley replicated the experiment for others, including French chemist

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has chosen the chain of events benevolently; however, Priestley believed that the events were leading to a glorious millennial conclusion, whereas for Leibniz the entire chain of events was optimal in and of itself, as compared with other conceivable chains of events.

549:, a Dissenting academy. Because he was already widely read, Priestley was allowed to omit the first two years of coursework. He continued his intense study; this, together with the liberal atmosphere of the school, shifted his theology further leftward and he became a 2430:. A decree of 26 August 1792 by the French National Assembly conferred French citizenship on Joseph Priestley and others who had "served the cause of liberty" by their writings. Priestley accepted French citizenship, considering it "the greatest of honours". In the 2423:; tradespeople feared the family's business; and Priestley's Royal Academy friends distanced themselves. As the penalties became harsher for those who spoke out against the government, Priestley examined options for removing himself and his family from England. 2322:. Friends helped the couple rebuild their lives, contributing money, books, and laboratory equipment. Priestley tried to obtain restitution from the government for the destruction of his Birmingham property, but he was never fully reimbursed. He also published 395:

and books on history; he prepared some of the most influential early timelines. The educational writings were among Priestley's most popular works. Arguably his metaphysical works, however, had the most lasting influence, as now considered primary sources for

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Dr Priestley suffered a bilious and bowel condition throughout his adult life, with episodes of severe diarrhoea, for which Margaret Foulke-Priestley seems to have suggested a diet that used maize flour (US Cornmeal), and excluded wheat flour. (Tony Rail,

1268:, he described the scientist as promoting the "security and happiness of mankind". Priestley's science was eminently practical and he rarely concerned himself with theoretical questions; his model was his close friend, Benjamin Franklin. When he moved to 1556:, Priestley maintained that materialism and determinism could be reconciled with a belief in God. He criticised those whose faith was shaped by books and fashion, drawing an analogy between the scepticism of educated men and the credulity of the masses. 6954: 6169: 2205:(1790), tied natural philosophers, and specifically Priestley, to the French Revolution, writing that radicals who supported science in Britain "considered man in their experiments no more than they do mice in an air pump". Burke also associated 2140:

produce an instantaneous explosion; in consequence of which that edifice, the erection of which has been the work of ages, may be overturned in a moment, and so effectually as that the same foundation can never be built upon again ....

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Although Priestley's philosophical work has been characterised as "audacious and original", it partakes of older philosophical traditions on the problems of free will, determinism, and materialism. For example, the 17th-century philosopher

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imperative for Priestley, he also promoted the education of middle-class women, which was unusual at the time. Some scholars of education have described Priestley as the most important English writer on education between the 17th-century

697:. Wedgwood met Priestley in 1762, after a fall from his horse. Wedgwood and Priestley met rarely, but exchanged letters, advice on chemistry, and laboratory equipment. Wedgwood eventually created a medallion of Priestley in cream-on-blue 620:

in the town's Hospital Street; his time there was happier. The congregation cared less about Priestley's heterodoxy and he successfully established a school. Unlike many schoolmasters of the time, Priestley taught his students

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was eventually forced to send troops to the area, he said: "I cannot but feel better pleased that Priestley is the sufferer for the doctrines he and his party have instilled, and that the people see them in their true light."

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was that the only revealed religious truths that could be accepted were those that matched one's experience of the natural world. Since his views of religion were tied deeply to his understanding of nature, the text's

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excelling in every thing relating to household affairs, she entirely relieved me of all concern of that kind, which allowed me to give all my time to the prosecution of my studies, and the other duties of my station.

2676:, he dedicated it to President Jefferson, writing that "it is now only that I can say I see nothing to fear from the hand of power, the government under which I live being for the first time truly favourable to me." 2247:

The animus that had been building against Dissenters and supporters of the American and French Revolutions exploded in July 1791. Priestley and several other Dissenters had arranged to have a celebratory dinner on

745:(1765); Priestley believed this chart would "impress" upon students "a just image of the rise, progress, extent, duration, and contemporary state of all the considerable empires that have ever existed in the world" 5068:

A letter to the Right Honourable William Pitt, ... on the subjects of toleration and church establishments; occasioned by his speech against the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, on Wednesday 28 March

2664:, Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley falsely accused William of having poisoned the family's flour. Although this allegation has attracted the attention of some modern historians, it is believed to be without foundation. 2096:

Although Priestley spent much of this time defending phlogiston theory from the "new chemists", most of what he published in Birmingham was theological. For example, in 1782, he published the fourth volume of his

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many of his later theological and metaphysical works. After only a few years, due to a lack of funds, he was forced to cease publishing the journal. However, he did revive it briefly in 1784 with similar results.

1229:(1765–69) had become the standard legal guide. Blackstone's book stated that dissent from the Church of England was a crime and that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects. Furious, Priestley lashed out with his 1040:

was one of the oldest and most respected Dissenting congregations in England; however, during the early 18th century the congregation had fractured along doctrinal lines and was losing members to the charismatic

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Joseph Priestley, radical thinker : a catalogue to accompany the exhibit at the Chemical Heritage Foundation commemorating the 200th anniversary of the death of Joseph Priestley, 23 August 2004 to 29 July

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Perhaps prompted by Mary Priestley's ill health, or financial problems, or a desire to prove himself to the community that had rejected him in his childhood, Priestley moved with his family from Warrington to

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by various political factions vying for Priestley's endorsement. Priestley declined their entreaties, hoping to avoid political discord in his new country. Before travelling to a new home in the backwoods of

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Schofield (2004), 4–11, 406; Gibbs, 91–94; Jackson, 122, 124, 143–52, 158–62; Thorpe, 80–85; Watts, 96; Holt, 70–94 (includes large quotations from Priestley's letters sent from Europe to Shelburne's sons).

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beliefs; now, falling increasingly under the influence of Thomas Cooper and Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley, he was unable to avoid becoming embroiled in political controversy. In 1798, when, in response to the

4804: 2092:: An anti-Priestley cartoon shows him trampling on the Bible and burning documents representing English freedom. "Essays on Matter and Spirit", "Gunpowder", and "Revolution Toasts" bulge from his pockets. 1307:, it was not popular and had only one edition, although it was the only English book on the topic for 150 years. The hastily written text sold poorly; the cost of researching, writing, and publishing the 2844:

Priestley has been remembered by the towns in which he served as a reforming educator and minister and by the scientific organisations he influenced. Two educational institutions have been named in his

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In 1780 the Priestleys moved to Birmingham and spent a happy decade surrounded by old friends, until they were forced to flee in 1791 by religiously motivated mob violence in what became known as the

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By the time he died in 1804, Priestley had been made a member of every major scientific society in the Western world and he had discovered numerous substances. The 19th-century French naturalist

2591:, which attacked Adams, defended free trade, and advocated a form of Jeffersonian isolationism. In the same year, a small package, addressed vaguely: "Dr Priestley in America," was seized by the 1849:. In typical Priestley fashion, he prefaced the paper with a history of the study of respiration. A year later, clearly influenced by Priestley, Lavoisier was also discussing respiration at the 1853:. Lavoisier's work began the long train of discovery that produced papers on oxygen respiration and culminated in the overthrow of phlogiston theory and the establishment of modern chemistry. 4897:

année 1777 (1780): 592–600. The next, most notable installment was "Réflexions sur le phlogistique, pour servir de suite à la théorie de la combustion et de la calcination publiée en 1777"

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also has strong claims to the discovery, Priestley published his findings first. Scheele discovered it by heating potassium nitrate, mercuric oxide, and many other substances in about 1772.

1233:(1769), correcting Blackstone's interpretation of the law, his grammar (a highly politicised subject at the time), and history. Blackstone, chastened, altered subsequent editions of his 922:

Priestley's strength as a natural philosopher was qualitative rather than quantitative and his observation of "a current of real air" between two electrified points would later interest

5617:'s brother, William, was arrested and found to have a letter from Vaughan. In France, to avoid arrest as an Englishmen, he assumed the name of Jean Martin, and lived quietly at Passy. ( 6046: 6903: 5809: 1639: 7110: 3679: 3028: 751: 2897:

renamed the building housing its Applied Sciences department as the Joseph Priestley Building, as part of an effort to rename all campus buildings after prominent local figures.

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By 1801, Priestley had become so ill that he could no longer write or experiment. He died on the morning of 6 February 1804, aged seventy and was buried at Riverview Cemetery in

3867:

Other early investigators who suspected that the electrical force diminished with distance as the gravitational force did (i.e., as the inverse square of the distance) included

475:—and his aunt sought the best education for him, intending him to enter ministry. During his youth, Priestley attended local schools, where he learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. 1212:

over the public sphere. Education and religion, in particular, he maintained, were matters of private conscience and should not be administered by the state. Priestley's later

685:, although he would have preferred to teach mathematics and natural philosophy. He fitted in well at Warrington, and made friends quickly. These included the doctor and writer 1997: 6128: 4288:

Directions for impregnating water with fixed air; in order to communicate to it the peculiar spirit and virtues of Pyrmont water, and other mineral waters of a similar nature

2116:

Jefferson and other Rational Dissenters approved of the work, many others reviewed it harshly because of its extreme theological positions, particularly its rejection of the

1594:

decided to found a new Christian denomination that would not restrict its members' beliefs, Priestley and others hurried to his aid. On 17 April 1774, Lindsey held the first

8706: 2329:

The couple's friends urged them to leave Britain and emigrate to either France or the new United States, even though Priestley had received an appointment to preach for the

2904:, Pennsylvania, has presented the Priestley Award to a "distinguished scientist whose work has contributed to the welfare of humanity". Priestley's work is recognised by a 1237:: he rephrased the offending passages and removed the sections claiming that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects, but he retained his description of Dissent as a crime. 1194:, which restricted the rights of Dissenters. They could not hold political office, serve in the armed forces, or attend Oxford and Cambridge unless they subscribed to the 307:

by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide, having isolated it in 1774. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of

8741: 2195:

Dissenters such as Priestley who supported the French Revolution came under increasing suspicion as scepticism regarding the revolution grew. In its propaganda against "

2157: 1949:, a group of manufacturers, inventors, and natural philosophers who assembled monthly to discuss their work. The core of the group included men such as the manufacturer 843:. Despite Priestley's busy teaching schedule, he decided to write a history of electricity. Friends introduced him to the major experimenters in the field in Britain— 8736: 7295: 2535:

Priestley's son Joseph Priestley Jr. was a leading member of a consortium that had purchased 300,000 acres (120,000 ha) of virgin woodland between the forks of

1845:

In his paper "Observations on Respiration and the Use of the Blood", Priestley was the first to suggest a connection between blood and air, although he did so using

2893:

were refurbished as part of a £4m refurbishment plan in 2006 and renamed as the Priestley Laboratories in his honour as a prominent chemist from Leeds. In 2016 the

5267:

An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the Riots in Birmingham. To which are added, strictures on a pamphlet, entitled 'Thoughts on the late riot at Birmingham.

2643:

Priestley's original 1804 gravestone in Riverview Cemetery, Northumberland, Pennsylvania; visible at right is part of the new stone, placed in front of it in 1971.

4796: 486:

was necessary for salvation, but doubted he had had one. This emotional distress eventually led him to question his theological upbringing, causing him to reject

2587:

sought to enlarge the navy and mobilise the militia into what Priestley and Cooper saw as a 'standing army', Priestley published an anonymous newspaper article:

315:, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defend 7150: 4611: 3068: 1647: 3683:. London: Printed for C. Henderson under the Royal Exchange; T. Becket and De Hondt in the Strand; and by J. Johnson and Davenport, in Pater-Noster-Row, 1765. 2426:

Joseph Priestley's son William was presented to the French Assembly and granted letters of naturalisation on 8 June 1792. Priestley learned about it from the

2199:", Pitt's administration used the "gunpowder" statement to argue that Priestley and other Dissenters wanted to overthrow the government. Burke, in his famous 8761: 2611:, 20 August 1798, added that Priestley "has told us who Mr MBP is, and has confirmed me in the opinion of their both being spies in the interest of France." 598: 8731: 8631: 8581: 8326: 7166: 3084: 1474: 1201:

Priestley's friends, particularly other Rational Dissenters, urged him to publish a work on the injustices experienced by Dissenters; the result was his

1198:

of the Church of England. Dissenters repeatedly petitioned Parliament to repeal the Acts, arguing that they were being treated as second-class citizens.

6854: 1377:

regarding him as "the father of our industry". In 1773, the Royal Society recognised Priestley's achievements in natural philosophy by awarding him the

1062:

in Britain. This work marked a change in Priestley's theological thinking that is critical to understanding his later writings—it paved the way for his

5209: 6963: 2164:

who asks "Pray, Doctor, is there such a thing as a Devil?", to which Priestley responds "No" while the devil prepares to attack Priestley from behind.

1714:) as well as experimental findings that showed plants revitalised enclosed volumes of air, a discovery that would eventually lead to the discovery of 8756: 8586: 3650:

See Thorpe, 33–44 for a description of life at Warrington; Schofield (1997), 89–90, 93–94; Jackson, 54–58; Uglow, 73–75; Thorpe, 47–50; Holt, 27–28.

2450:

Priestley's sons Harry and Joseph chose to leave England for America in August 1793. Finally Priestley himself followed with his wife, boarding the

7997: 4726: 2419:; vicious political cartoons continued to be published about him; letters were sent to him from across the country, comparing him to the devil and 3455:

Qtd. in Jackson, 33. See Schofield (1997), 40–57; Uglow, 73–74; Jackson, 30–34; Gibbs, 5–10; Thorpe, 17–22; Tapper, 314; Holt, 11–14; Garrett, 54.

2184:

argued against the repeal, a betrayal that angered Priestley and his friends, who had expected the two men's support. Priestley wrote a series of

7967: 2341:, his belief that the end of the world was fast approaching. After comparing Biblical prophecies to recent history, Priestley concluded that the 2549: 1140:

Schofield points out Priestley rarely altered his opinion as a result of these debates. While at Leeds he wrote controversial pamphlets on the

376:, aroused public and governmental contempt; eventually forcing him to flee in 1791, first to London and then to the United States, after a mob 6323:

Kramnick, Isaac (January 1986). "Eighteenth-Century Science and Radical Social Theory: The Case of Joseph Priestley's Scientific Liberalism".

2109:

An History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ, compiled from Original Writers, proving that the Christian Church was at first Unitarian

1280:, while the fifth reported on the conductivity of charcoals from different sources. His subsequent experimental work focused on chemistry and 8746: 7288: 7182: 6967: 6888:: Comprehensive site with bibliography, links to related sites, images, information on manuscript collections, and other helpful information. 4985: 3100: 2103: 1118: 6043: 5956: 3230: 345:, a project that has been called "audacious and original". He believed that a proper understanding of the natural world would promote human 8781: 8641: 7118: 6063: 5952: 4842: 3832: 3036: 889: 6652:

McEvoy, John G. "Joseph Priestley, 'Aerial Philosopher': Metaphysics and Methodology in Priestley's Chemical Thought, from 1762 to 1781".

2326:(1791), which indicted the people of Birmingham for allowing the riots to occur and for "violating the principles of English government". 625:

and even bought scientific instruments for them. Appalled at the quality of the available English grammar books, Priestley wrote his own:

8786: 8636: 8601: 8296: 7158: 7142: 7126: 6900: 6026: 5805: 5511: 5394: 4144: 4036: 3915: 3891: 3076: 3060: 3044: 1734:

of his day. Instead, he focused on gases and "changes in their sensible properties", as had natural philosophers before him. He isolated

1509: 1468: 1203: 1174: 1079: 1050: 765:

and naturalist account of history, arguing that the study of history furthered the comprehension of God's natural laws. Furthermore, his

6995: 3616: 8621: 8606: 8591: 8571: 8566: 7068: 5294:

marks the site of the Gravel Pit Meeting at Ram Place and a brown plaque the site of the Priestleys' house at 113, Lower Clapton Road:

4235:"Newtonian Optics and the Historiography of Light in the 18th Century: A critical Analysis of Joseph Priestley's The History of Optics" 8646: 2135:

had not really reformed the church. In words that would boil over into a national debate, he challenged his readers to enact change:

1884: 3322: 3136: 1731: 8666: 7281: 6736: 6120: 4169:

Remarks on some paragraphs in the fourth volume of Dr. Blackstone's Commentaries on the laws of England, relating to the Dissenters

2431: 1911:, friends and patrons donated money and goods to help continue his investigations. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the 908: 2656:

between William and his sister-in-law. When, a while later, Priestley's household suffered a bout of food poisoning, perhaps from

8776: 8686: 7676: 6666:

McEvoy, John G. "Priestley Responds to Lavoisier's Nomenclature: Language, Liberty, and Chemistry in the English Enlightenment".

6607: 2201: 5475: 2828: 814:

degree in 1764. During this period Priestley also regularly delivered lectures on rhetoric that were later published in 1777 as

553:. Abhorring dogma and religious mysticism, Rational Dissenters emphasised rational analysis of the natural world and the Bible. 8661: 8596: 8576: 7190: 6595:

Kramnick, Isaac. "Eighteenth-Century Science and Radical Social Theory: The Case of Joseph Priestley's Scientific Liberalism".

5598:

Copies of original letters recently written by persons in Paris to Dr. Priestley in America, taken on board of a neutral vessel

5298: 5231: 3108: 2525: 2221:

and published a sermon in 1788 in which he declared that nobody treated enslaved people "with so much cruelty as the English".

757: 5191:

Qtd. in Gibbs, 204; Schofield (2004), 264, 285, 289; Thorpe, 122–44; Uglow, 440–46; Jackson, 248–60; Rose, 68–88; Holt, 154ff.

8711: 8611: 7174: 6591:. Vol. XLV. Oxford; New York : Oxford University Press: Oxford dictionary of national biography. pp. 351–359–. 6392: 6371: 6256: 4736: 4463: 3541: 3165: 3092: 2648: 2570:); Americans knew Priestley less as a man of science and more as a defender of the freedom of the colonies and of Dissenters. 1912: 1867:

Both Priestley and Shelburne's families upheld their Unitarian faith for generations. In December 2013, it was reported that

1548: 1480: 995: 6015: 1602:

in London; he had even designed his own liturgy, of which many were critical. Priestley defended his friend in the pamphlet

8751: 8651: 8448: 6295: 4221:

Proposals for printing by subscription, The history and present state of discoveries relating to vision, light, and colours

2905: 1810: 1433: 1389: 4615:. 3 vols. London W. Bowyer and J. Nichols, 1774–77. There are several different editions of these volumes, each important. 2454:

at Gravesend on 7 April 1794. Five weeks after Priestley left, William Pitt's administration began arresting radicals for

2045: 1726:, he would mix nitrous air with a test sample, over water or mercury, and measure the decrease in volume—the principle of 8696: 6865: 3821:

Schofield (1997), 143–44; Jackson, 65–66; see Schofield (1997), 152 and 231–32 for an analysis of the different editions.

2651:, now living in Philadelphia, was increasingly embarrassed by his father's actions. He confronted his father, expressing 2513: 1225: 381: 5752: 2908:

designation for his discovery of oxygen, made on 1 August 1994, at the Priestley House in Northumberland, Penn., by the

1500:. By studying the natural world, he argued, people would learn how to become more compassionate, happy, and prosperous. 1351:, but was not chosen. Still, he contributed in a small way to the voyage: he provided the crew with a method for making 8438: 8381: 7987: 6881: 5388: 3610: 2366: 1144:

and on Calvinist doctrine; thousands of copies were published, making them some of Priestley's most widely read works.

3198: 2595:

on board a neutral Danish boat. It was found to contain three letters, one of which was signed by the radical printer

8701: 7085: 6809: 6794: 6745: 6697: 6675: 6646: 6631: 6616: 6578: 6543: 6507: 6492: 6477: 6439: 6316: 6274: 6238: 4530: 4500: 3146: 3130: 2952: 2080: 509:

and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time. In preparation for joining a relative in trade in

471:

Priestley was a precocious child—at the age of four, he could flawlessly recite all 107 questions and answers of the

635:, led 20th-century scholars to describe him as "one of the great grammarians of his time". After the publication of 8771: 7094: 7011: 5688:. A pirate edition seems to have been published at Albany NY for Samuel Campbell of New York. (Robert E Schofield, 4338:

Schofield (1997), 251–55; see Holt, 64; Gibbs, 55–56; and Thorpe, 80–81, for the traditional account of this story.

3484: 3012: 2687:

and dreams. Despite Priestley's reduced scientific output, his presence stimulated American interest in chemistry.

2333:

congregation. Priestley was minister between 1793 and 1794 and the sermons he preached there, particularly the two

2149:, pamphleteers stepped up their attacks on Priestley and he and his church were even threatened with legal action. 826: 627: 590: 6659:

McEvoy, John G. "Enlightenment and Dissent in Science: Joseph Priestley and the Limits of Theoretical Reasoning".

2603:, who "like me, thought it necessary to leave England, and for some time is said to have assumed a feigned name." 1610:

of Unitarianism and encouraging the foundation of new Unitarian chapels throughout Britain and the United States.

1454:

Priestley wrote his most important philosophical works during his years with Lord Shelburne. In a series of major

8616: 7992: 6731: 6527:

Crossland, Maurice. "The Image of Science as a Threat: Burke versus Priestley and the 'Philosophic Revolution'".

2958: 1888: 1054:(1772–74), Priestley outlined his theories of religious instruction. More importantly, he laid out his belief in 1045:. Priestley believed that he could strengthen the bonds of the congregation by educating the young people there. 517:, and Arabic. He was tutored by the Reverend George Haggerstone, who first introduced him to higher mathematics, 5082:

Letters to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke, occasioned by his Reflections on the Revolution in France, &c.

4825:

Schofield (2004), 147–50, 196–99, 242–46. Gibbs, 134–40, 169; Uglow, 310–20, 407; Jackson, 227–28; Holt, 132–33.

4758:

Schofield (2004), 105–19; see also Jackson, 126–27, 163–64, 166–74; Gibbs, 118–23; Uglow, 229–31, 241; Holt, 93.

2218: 1769:. After returning to Britain in January 1775, he continued his experiments and discovered "vitriolic acid air" ( 1747: 8656: 7227: 7061: 6011:

commemorating him on the side of the Church of St. Michael and St. Joseph, New Meeting House Lane, Birmingham (

2680: 1027: 981:); except for his membership on the Leeds Library Committee, Priestley was not active in the town's social life 726: 667: 579: 5442:

Gibbs, 207–22; Schofield (2004), 304–18; Thorpe, 145–55; Uglow, 446–49, 453–54; Jackson, 300–05; Holt, 177–78.

631:(1761). His innovations in the description of English grammar, particularly his efforts to dissociate it from 8726: 8681: 8676: 7700: 7325: 6450: 6022:

Retrieved 1 January 2010), and another on the Warrington Salvation Army Citadel, once the home of Priestley (

5205: 4427:

Schofield (2004), 77–91; Garrett, 55; Tapper, 319; Sheps, 138; McEvoy (1983), 50; McEvoy and McGuire, 338–40.

2067:

that his most valuable works were his theological ones because they were "superior dignity and importance".

1675:

usurped authority" and that government has "reason to tremble even at an air pump or an electrical machine".

472: 65: 2405: 1369:

made fortunes from it. For his discovery of carbonated water Priestley has been labelled "the father of the

1104:

shocked and appalled many readers, primarily because it challenged basic Christian orthodoxies, such as the

8626: 7982: 7529: 7232: 7034: 7005: 3770:. London, 1777. Ed. V. M. Bevilacqua & R. Murphy. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1965. 2803: 2691: 2652: 2616: 2517: 2076: 1522: 1449: 1163: 1031: 550: 94: 6891: 6187: 8721: 8691: 8671: 7669: 7437: 6670:. Eds. Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Ferdinando Abbri. Canton, MA: Science History Publications, 1995. 5170: 2580: 2543:

to sweeten the soil by building their own lime kilns. Henry Priestley died 11 December 1795, possibly of

2032: 1687: 916: 557: 365: 235: 214: 40: 7911: 6246: 4702: 4467: 3239: 3001: 2977: 2894: 2837: 2529: 1850: 1787:. Priestley called the new substance "dephlogisticated air", which he made in the famous experiment by 1783: 1406: 1070:(the latter being the belief that a divine being acts in accordance with necessary metaphysical laws). 1015: 1007: 848: 830:

Priestley's "electrical machine for amateur experimentalists", illustrated in the first edition of his

483: 6977: 6586: 4234: 2024: 601:, Priestley's major modern biographer, describes his first "call" in 1755 to the Dissenting parish in 8766: 8716: 7735: 7381: 7341: 7054: 7029: 6958: 6331:(1). Cambridge University Press on behalf of The North American Conference on British Studies: 1–30. 6093: 4475: 3141: 2909: 2401: 2385: 2211: 1572: 1335: 840: 782:

was well received and was employed by many educational institutions, such as New College at Hackney,

5473:(Philadelphia, 1947), 14–24, 52–57. Penn State University Library, The Joseph Priestley Collection. 4624:

See Gibbs 67–83 for a description of all of Priestley's experiments during this time; Thorpe, 170ff.

3565: 2885:, he is memorialised through statues, and plaques commemorating him have been posted in Birmingham, 7760: 7755: 7720: 7685: 7621: 7569: 7429: 7257: 7039: 6513:

Conant, J. B., ed. "The Overthrow of the Phlogiston Theory: The Chemical Revolution of 1775–1789".

6004: 5824:

Walker, William H. (1927). "History of the Priestley house and the movement for its preservation".

4907: 4580:

Letter to a Layman, on the Subject of the Rev. Mr. Lindsey's Proposal for a Reformed English Church

3507:

Schofield (1997), 77–79, 83–85; Uglow, 72; Jackson 49–52; Gibbs, 13–16; Thorpe, 30–32; Holt, 19–23.

2991: 2940: 2874: 2854: 2253: 2177: 1934: 1604:

Letter to a Layman, on the Subject of the Rev. Mr. Lindsey's Proposal for a Reformed English Church

1363:(1772). Priestley did not exploit the commercial potential of carbonated water, but others such as 1327: 1216:

emerged from his belief that the British government was infringing upon these individual freedoms.

452: 444: 433: 368:. The controversial nature of Priestley's publications, combined with his outspoken support of the 71: 3710:

Schofield (2004), 254–59; McLachlan (1987–90), 255–58; Sheps, 138, 141; Kramnick, 12; Holt, 29–33.

3227: 7413: 6989: 5991: 5794:

In accordance with known birth-death dates. His original headstone gives his age as "LXXI" (71).

5201: 4687:

Schofield (2004), 93–105; Uglow, 240–41; see Gibbs 105–16 for a description of these experiments.

4471: 2924: 2812: 2730: 2295: 1974: 1970: 1872: 1868: 1585: 1348: 1003: 994:'s minister. Two sons were born to the Priestleys in Leeds: Joseph, Junior, on 24 July 1768 and 895: 807: 795: 656: 530: 24: 6071: 5684:

Published in two parts, Northumberland-town PA, 1799; printed by Andrew Kennedy who printed the

4835: 1384:

Priestley's friends wanted to find him a more financially secure position. In 1772, prompted by

1122:, became so long that he was forced to issue it separately in 1782. Priestley believed that the 545:

Priestley eventually decided to return to his theological studies and, in 1752, matriculated at

8331: 7883: 7770: 7662: 7461: 7357: 7242: 7198: 7134: 3731: 3116: 3052: 2684: 2669: 2471: 2319: 2132: 1401: 1149: 741: 690: 566:(1749). Hartley's psychological, philosophical, and theological treatise postulated a material 495: 491: 487: 20: 7947: 6841:

A Scientific Autobiography of Joseph Priestley (1733–1804): Selected Scientific Correspondence

6023: 5507: 5378: 4902: 3939: 3912: 3888: 8225: 8038: 7962: 7780: 7641: 7553: 6304: 4326:

Springs and Bottled Waters of the World: Ancient History, Source, Occurrence, Quality and Use

3599: 3531: 2679:

Priestley tried to continue his scientific investigations in America with the support of the

2632:

later, in November and December 1799, Priestley stepped forward in his own defence, with his

2624: 1908: 1857: 1365: 1109: 4158:

Gibbs, 39–43; Uglow, 169; Garrett, 17; Tapper, 315; Holt, 34–37; Philip (1985); Miller, xiv.

1722:. Priestley also developed a "nitrous air test" to determine the "goodness of air". Using a 1299:

and others. Furthermore, he did not include any of the practical sections that had made his

8561: 8556: 8505: 8396: 8220: 8170: 8078: 8063: 8007: 7972: 7868: 7765: 7740: 7102: 6762:: The Use and Teaching of History by Rational Dissent in late Eighteenth-Century England". 6363:

The enlightenment of Joseph Priestley : a study of his life and work from 1733 to 1773

5833: 5618: 5479: 3721: 3309: 3020: 2777: 2615:

and Cooper's influences, even helping hawk a seditious handbill Cooper had printed, around

2415:

Daily life became more difficult for the family: Priestley was burned in effigy along with

2315: 2173: 2009: 1838: 1538: 1277: 1195: 1191: 1097: 1014:. Each year, Priestley travelled to London to consult with his close friend and publisher, 787: 464: 354: 327: 297: 294: 1287:

Priestley published the first volume of his projected history of experimental philosophy,

478:

Around 1749, Priestley became seriously ill and believed he was dying. Raised as a devout

8: 8485: 8240: 8175: 8012: 7873: 7823: 7818: 7654: 6681:

McEvoy, John G. and J.E. McGuire. "God and Nature: Priestley's Way of Rational Dissent".

5093:

Schofield (2004), 269–81; Thorpe, 122–25; Uglow, 409, 435–38; Holt, 142ff; Philip (1985).

2890: 2786: 2661: 2459: 2435: 2036: 1924: 1880: 1599: 927: 562: 369: 320: 114: 7581: 6972: 6423: 6403: 5837: 5729: 5256:

Schaffer, 160; Schofield (2004), 298–99; Thorpe, 145–46; Uglow, 446–49; Jackson, 300–05.

4989:. 2 vols. Birmingham: Printed by Piercy and Jones; London: Printed for J. Johnson, 1782. 2357: 1929: 612:

Priestley's Daventry friends helped him obtain another position and in 1758 he moved to

8525: 8185: 8180: 8134: 8124: 8058: 7750: 7725: 7715: 7019: 7004: 6361: 6348: 6340: 6285: 5785:

Schofield (2004), 400–01; Gibbs, 247–48; Thorpe, 162–65; Jackson, 324–25; Holt, 213–16.

5638:; Schofield (2004), 329–38; Gibbs, 234–37; Jackson, 317–18; Garrett, 63; Holt, 199–204. 5614: 5151: 4493:

The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza, and the Fate of God in the Modern World

4260: 3406:

Schofield (1997), 2–12; Uglow, 72; Jackson, 19–25; Gibbs, 1–4; Thorpe, 1–11; Holt, 1–6.

2882: 2862: 2795: 2750: 2734: 2596: 2330: 1591: 1533: 1437: 1261: 1220: 999: 943: 904: 682: 640: 622: 567: 518: 456: 387:

A scholar and teacher throughout his life, Priestley made significant contributions to

358: 346: 283: 279: 8391: 4458:. Trans. Robert C. Sleigh, Jr. New Haven: Yale University Press (2004), xxxviii, 109. 4106:

See Schofield (1997), 193–201 for an analysis of the journal; Uglow, 169; Holt, 53–55.

2723: 2261: 1571:

argued for absolute determinism and absolute materialism. Like Spinoza and Priestley,

1042: 556:

Priestley later wrote that the book that influenced him the most, save the Bible, was

300:. He published over 150 works, and conducted experiments in several areas of science. 8520: 8470: 8443: 8371: 8250: 8230: 8073: 7878: 7775: 7589: 7397: 7333: 7252: 6917: 6805: 6790: 6741: 6693: 6671: 6642: 6627: 6612: 6574: 6539: 6503: 6488: 6473: 6435: 6388: 6367: 6352: 6312: 6309:

The Invention of Air: A Story of Science, Faith, Revolution, and the Birth of America

6291: 6270: 6252: 6234: 6098: 5384: 5155: 4732: 4526: 4496: 4459: 4264: 4252: 3606: 3537: 2901: 2878: 2846: 2620: 2397: 2342: 2161: 2146: 2051: 2028: 1993: 1981: 1962: 1846: 1766: 1656: 1652: 1273: 856: 717:

On 17 April 1763, they had a daughter, whom they named Sarah after Priestley's aunt.

460: 373: 353:. Priestley, who strongly believed in the free and open exchange of ideas, advocated 316: 185: 5990:

The statue in Birmingham is a 1951 recast, in bronze, of a white marble original by

5295: 5235: 4347:

Schofield (1997), 270–71; Jackson, 120–22; Gibbs, 84–86; Uglow, 239–40; Holt, 64–65.

2443: 1613: 326:

Priestley's science was integral to his theology, and he consistently tried to fuse

8530: 8515: 8510: 8490: 8341: 8316: 8280: 8275: 8210: 8144: 8048: 7952: 7942: 7863: 7790: 7730: 7705: 7625: 7597: 7509: 7025: 6926: 6822: 6332: 5841: 5143: 4242: 3876: 3868: 2923:

Several of his descendants became physicians, including the noted American surgeon

2799: 2600: 2307: 2112: 1989: 1892: 1723: 1497: 1352: 1249: 1067: 1037: 991: 939: 935: 931: 912: 783: 546: 420: 405: 308: 242: 7957: 4247: 3533:

Enlightened joseph priestley : a study of his life and work from 1773 to 1804

3473:

Schofield (1997), 62–69; Jackson, 44–47; Gibbs, 10–11; Thorpe, 22–29; Holt, 15–19.

3173: 2996: 2972: 1289:

The History and Present State of Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light and Colours

934:. Priestley's text became the standard history of electricity for over a century; 8535: 8475: 8386: 8311: 8255: 8205: 7848: 7745: 7561: 7469: 7405: 7247: 7237: 6907: 6885: 6690:

Joseph Priestley Man of Science 1733–1804: An Iconography of a Great Yorkshireman

6382: 6281: 6228:

Revolutionary in Exile: The Emigration of Joseph Priestley to America, 1794–1804.

6050: 6030: 6019: 6012: 5302: 4405:

Schofield (2004), 59–76; Gibbs, 99–100; Holt, 112–24; McEvoy and McGuire, 333–34.

3919: 3895: 3234: 2917: 2628: 2604: 2560: 2552:, whose son, Thomas Jr., was living with the Priestleys, was a frequent visitor. 2536: 2455: 2230: 1950: 1904: 1770: 1735: 1240: 1127:

religion and religious readers dismissed the application of science to religion.

947: 923: 775: 762: 694: 663: 617: 409: 377: 177: 153: 7273: 6913: 6562:

Garrett, Clarke. "Joseph Priestley, the Millennium, and the French Revolution".

6384:

The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804

4678:

Schofield (1997), 259–69; Jackson, 110–14; Thorpe, 76–77, 178–79; Uglow, 229–39.

4311:

How James Watt Invented the Copier: Forgotten Inventions of Our Great Scientists

2743: 1833:

Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of

1686:, NO); "vapor of spirit of salt", later called "acid air" or "marine acid air" ( 864:

and the manuscript of his history of electricity, Canton, Franklin, Watson, and

8500: 8465: 8406: 8361: 8260: 8245: 8139: 8114: 8068: 8022: 8017: 7853: 7785: 7525: 7517: 7493: 7401: 7262: 6555:

Fitzpatrick, Martin. "Joseph Priestley and the Cause of Universal Toleration".

6446: 2870: 2866: 2821: 2791: 2769: 2481: 2338: 2018: 1792: 1719: 1715: 1671: 1568: 1464:

Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind on the Principle of the Association of Ideas

1179: 811: 602: 401: 397: 5147: 4040:. London: Printed for J. Johnson, Vol. I, 1772, Vol. II, 1773, Vol. III, 1774. 3887:(Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 460–62, 2672:. Jefferson and Priestley became close, and when the latter had completed his 463:. He was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley, a 8550: 8460: 8346: 8270: 8235: 8215: 8119: 8083: 7937: 7921: 7906: 7710: 7613: 7605: 7577: 7537: 7445: 6984: 4885:

Schofield (2004), 168; see also Jackson 203–08; Gibbs, 154–61; Uglow, 358–61.

4299:

Schofield (1997), 256–57; Gibbs, 57–59; Thorpe, 76–79; Uglow, 134–36, 232–34.

4256: 3880: 2858: 2807: 2765: 2657: 2540: 2393: 2346: 2303: 2206: 2196: 1946: 1876: 1788: 1699: 1670:

Priestley's work on "airs" is not easily classified. As historian of science

1526: 1385: 1213: 869: 865: 766: 350: 161: 6878: 6500:

Romanticism, Publishing and Dissent: Joseph Johnson and the Cause of Liberty

3323:"Joseph Priestley, Discoverer of Oxygen National Historic Chemical Landmark" 2446:). He declined the honour, on the grounds that he was not fluent in French. 2314:

where he gave a series of lectures on history and natural philosophy at the

2070: 8495: 8455: 8376: 8356: 8321: 8306: 8200: 8195: 8165: 8043: 7633: 7501: 7421: 7373: 7365: 7304: 5206:"Religious Musings: A Desultory Poem, Written on the Christmas Eve of 1794" 3885:

Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics

3428:

Schofield (1997), 14, 28–29; Uglow, 72; Gibbs, 5; Thorpe, 11–12; Holt, 7–9.

3206: 2913: 2773: 2575: 2521: 2416: 2381: 2249: 2235: 2181: 1818: 1814: 1757: 1683: 1595: 1436:

and Priestley took a tour of Europe. According to Priestley's close friend

1410: 1378: 1296: 1168: 1059: 962:(1768). He marketed the book with his brother Timothy, but unsuccessfully. 852: 499: 362: 220: 200: 157: 6624:

Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in Eighteenth-Century Britain

5132:"Rational dissent, enlightenment and abolition of the British slave trade" 4115:

See Schofield (2004), 202–07 for an analysis of Priestley's contributions.

2495: 1945:

Many of the friends that Priestley made in Birmingham were members of the

1895:, which Priestley, as its minister, had once guided towards Unitarianism. 1752: 8480: 8428: 8366: 8336: 8265: 8190: 8160: 8098: 8053: 7545: 7389: 7349: 7317: 6602: 6267:

A World on Fire: A Heretic, an Aristocrat and the Race to Discover Oxygen

6008: 5291: 4929:

Schaffer, 164; Uglow, 356; McEvoy (1983), 56–57; Donovan, 175–76, 180–81.

3725:. London: J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church Yard, 1765 and Joseph Priestley, 2928: 2833: 2508: 1966: 1633: 1489: 1485: 1455: 1063: 1055: 974:

The earliest known portrait of Priestley, known as the "Leeds" portrait (

844: 735: 632: 526: 522: 392: 342: 338: 330: 312: 16:

English chemist, theologian, educator, and political theorist (1733–1804)

6988: 6418:. Eds. Philip B. Dematteis and Peter S. Fosl. Detroit: Gale Group, 2002. 5084:

Birmingham: Printed by Thomas Pearson; sold by J. Johnson, London, 1791.

2639: 2507:

The Priestleys arrived in New York City on 4 June 1794, where they were

1503: 1219:

Priestley also defended the rights of Dissenters against the attacks of

8351: 8129: 8093: 8088: 7838: 7485: 7477: 6668:

Lavoisier in European Context: Negotiating a New Language for Chemistry

6639:

Chemistry Transformed: The Paradigmatic Shift from Phlogiston to Oxygen

5460:

Schofield (2004), 324–32; Thorpe, 155–57; Jackson, 310–14; Holt, 179ff.

3909:

The History and Present State of Electricity, with Original Experiments

3812:

Schofield (1997), 141–42, 152; Jackson, 64; Uglow 75–77; Thorpe, 61–65.

2850: 2592: 2584: 2420: 2265: 2257: 2240: 1958: 1954: 1938: 1861: 1727: 1651:(1774–86). These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the 1543: 1405:

A portrait of Priestley commissioned by his publisher and close friend

1370: 1344: 1311:

convinced Priestley to abandon his history of experimental philosophy.

1281: 1208: 1178:(1768) influenced early 19th-century political philosophers, including 771: 698: 686: 674: 660: 606: 534: 506: 286: 119: 6728:. Studies in Eighteenth Century Culture 36(1) (2007): pp. 55–103. 6344: 5845: 5016:

Schofield (2004), 216–23; Thorpe, 106–08; Holt, 133–39; Philip (1985).

4456:

Confessio Philosophi: Papers Concerning the Problem of Evil, 1671–1678

3692:

Thorpe, 52–54; Schofield (1997), 124–25; Watts, 89, 95–97; Sheps, 136.

1073: 428: 8433: 8401: 8002: 7977: 7858: 7843: 6143: 5272:

Birmingham: Printed by J. Thompson; sold by J. Johnson, London, 1791.

4903:

Lavoisier's 'Reflections on Phlogiston' I: Against Phlogiston Theory"

4097:

See Schofield (1997), 181–88 for analysis of these two controversies.

3879:, both of whom measured the force between plates of a capacitor, and 2916:

in Wiltshire, England. The ACS also awards their highest honour, the

2889:

and Warrington. The main undergraduate chemistry laboratories at the

2781: 2524:, where he gave a series of sermons which led to the founding of the 2499:

The Priestleys' rural Pennsylvania home never became the centre of a

2311: 2302:

Unable to return to Birmingham, the Priestleys eventually settled in

2152: 2056: 1560: 1493: 1429: 1374: 1141: 479: 75: 6053:", 20 October 2006, University of Leeds, Retrieved 25 November 2018. 4239:

Transversal: International Journal for the Historiography of Science

3133: – Many works on Franklin make reference to Priestley 2574:

Since his arrival in America, Priestley had continued to defend his

1663:

of a substance corresponded to the release of a material substance,

337:. In his metaphysical texts, Priestley attempted to combine theism, 50: 7828: 7046: 6935: 6931: 6873: 6751:

Schaffer, Simon. "Priestley Questions: An Historiographic Survey".

6366:. University Park, Pa. : Pennsylvania State University Press. 6336: 6044:

Minister opens £4m 'state-of-the-art' chemistry facilities at Leeds

5380:

Motion toward perfection : the achievement of Joseph Priestley

4697: 3729:. Warrington: Printed by William Eyres, 1765 and Joseph Priestley, 2169: 2090:

DOCTOR PHLOGISTON, The PRIESTLEY politician or the Political Priest

2085: 1738:(CO), but apparently did not realise that it was a separate "air". 1484:(1780)—he argues for a philosophy that incorporates four concepts: 1254:

Optics: The History and Present State of Vision, Light, and Colours

1187: 1186:

Many of Priestley's political writings supported the repeal of the

1157: 1136: 951: 899: 678: 613: 584: 388: 290: 124: 6860: 6174:

Plarr's Lives of the Fellows, Royal College of Surgeons of England

5030:. Birmingham: Printed by M. Swinney; for J. Johnson, London, 1785. 4210:

Schofield (1997), 227, 232–38; see also Gibbs, 47; Kramnick, 9–10.

4149:. London: Printed for J. Dodsley; T. Cadell; and J. Johnson, 1768. 3958:. London: Printed for J. Dodsley; T. Cadell; and J. Johnson, 1768. 3605:. Philadelphia, Penns.: Chemical Heritage Foundation. p. 26. 2503:

community, as the expected emigrants could not afford the journey.

2008:

is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions (i.e., the

1825: 681:

and assumed the post of tutor of modern languages and rhetoric at

8301: 7813: 7210: 6827:

Collected Theological and Miscellaneous Works of Joseph Priestley

5733:. Northumberland: Printed for the author by Andrew Kennedy, 1803. 4591:

Schofield (2004), 26–28; Jackson, 124; Gibbs, 88–89; Holt, 56–64.

3837:. London: Printed for J. Dodsley, J. Johnson and T. Cadell, 1767. 2555: 2544: 2528:. Priestley turned down an opportunity to teach chemistry at the 2334: 2324:

An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the Riots in Birmingham

2117: 1691: 1655:, which Priestley attempted to replace with his own variation of 1640:

Wikisource:An Inventory of the Furniture in Dr. Priestley's Study

1514: 970: 705: 651: 514: 275: 169: 129: 109: 7111:

Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life

4785:

Schofield (2004), 141–43; see also Jackson, 198–99; Holt, 81–82.

4525:. New York: Oxford University Press (1998), 10–13, 1–20, 41–44. 4482:

can be found on the Latin and English Wikisources, respectively.

3680:

Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life

3029:

Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life

2434:

on 5 September 1792, Joseph Priestley was elected to the French

1507:

By 1782, at least a dozen hostile refutations were published to

752:

Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life

4920:

Thorpe, 210; see also Schofield (2004), 169–94; Jackson 216–24.

4901:

année 1783 (1786): 505–538 (translated by Nicholas W. Best as "

3415:

Schofield (1997), 1, 7–8; Jackson, 25–30; Gibbs, 4; Priestley,

2776:. A wide variety of philosophers, scientists, and poets became 2500: 1796: 1707: 1356: 1105: 1093: 1011: 954:) all relied upon it. Priestley wrote a popular version of the 510: 448: 380:

his Birmingham home and church. He spent his last ten years in

334: 304: 145: 6703:

McLachlan, John. "Joseph Priestley and the Study of History".

6487:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2007. 5647:

In December 1799, two of Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley's essays,

4147:; and on the nature of political, civil, and religious liberty 4076:

McLachlan (1987–90), 261; Gibbs, 38; Jackson, 102; Uglow, 169.

2168:

In 1787, 1789, and 1790, Dissenters again tried to repeal the

323:

eventually left him isolated within the scientific community.

254: 7808: 6432:

The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World

6221:

Joseph Priestley: Adventurer in Science and Champion of Truth

2886: 2754: 2217:

Priestley also supported the campaign to abolish the British

1660: 1621: 1617:

Equipment used by Priestley in his experiments on gases, 1775

1425: 1269: 1058:. The doctrines he explicated would become the standards for 987: 875: 437: 6710:

Philip, Mark. "Rational Religion and Political Radicalism".

4025:

Schofield (1997), 170–71; Gibbs, 37; Watts, 93–94; Holt, 44.

3258:

Gray & Harrison: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

2476: 2123:

In 1785, while Priestley was engaged in a pamphlet war over

1806: 6470:

Science, Medicine and Dissent: Joseph Priestley (1733–1804)

5492:

Property inventory assets and debts account book, 1807–1810

4651:

Qtd. in Kramnick, 11–12; see also Schofield (2004), 121–24.

3858:

Schofield (1997), 156–57; Gibbs 28–31; see also Thorpe, 64.

3487:; adapted to the use of schools. With observations on style 2439: 2005: 1659:. According to that 18th-century theory, the combustion or 1343:

Priestley was considered for the position of astronomer on

791: 266: 7684: 2548:

son, Joseph Jr., and his wife Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley.

2160:(dated 22 March 1790). Priestley is preaching in front of 1891:. In 1914, Olive and Noel Middleton had married at Leeds' 573: 7833: 6895: 6726:

Joseph Priestley and the Graphic Invention of Modern Time

6536:

Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration and Revolution

4058:

Schofield (1997), 174; Uglow, 169; Tapper, 315; Holt, 44.

2840:

commemorates Priestley at New Meeting Street, Birmingham.

2071:

Defender of English Dissenters and French revolutionaries

1303:

so useful to practising natural philosophers. Unlike his

6817:

Priestley's Writings on Philosophy, Science and Politics

1460:

An Examination of Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind

513:, he studied French, Italian, and German in addition to 432:

Priestley's birthplace (since demolished) in Fieldhead,

303:

Priestley is credited with his independent discovery of

6789:. Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1970. 5580:, 26 & 27 February 1798, and reprinted in both the 3735:. London: Engraved and published for J. Johnson, 1769; 2390:

Dumourier Dining in State at St James's, on 15 May 1793

415: 7151: