1316:(FITs), have often been offered to electricity consumers to install and operate solar-electric generating systems, and in some countries such subsidies are the only way photovoltaics can remain economically profitable. In Germany FIT subsidies are generally around €0.13 above the normal retail price of a kWh (€0.05). PV FITs have been crucial for the adoption of the industry, and are available to consumers in over 50 countries as of 2011. Germany and Spain have been the most important countries regarding offering subsidies for PV, and the policies of these countries have driven demand in the past. Some US solar cell manufacturing companies have repeatedly complained that the dropping prices of PV module costs have been achieved due to subsidies by the government of China, and the dumping of these products below fair market prices. US manufacturers generally recommend high tariffs on foreign supplies to allow them remain profitable. In response to these concerns, the Obama administration began to levy tariffs on US consumers of these products in 2012 to raise prices for domestic manufacturers. The USA, however, also subsidies the industry, offering consumers a 30% federal tax credit to purchase modules. In Hawaii federal and state subsidies chop off up to two thirds of the installation costs.
1293:(LCOE) is the cost per kWh based on the costs distributed over the project lifetime, and is thought to be a better metric for calculating viability than price per wattage. LCOEs vary dramatically depending on the location. The LCOE can be considered the minimum price customers will have to pay the utility company in order for it to break even on the investment in a new power station. Grid parity is roughly achieved when the LCOE falls to a similar price as conventional local grid prices, although in actuality the calculations are not directly comparable. Large industrial PV installations had reached grid parity in California in 2011. Grid parity for rooftop systems was still believed to be much farther away at this time. Many LCOE calculations are not thought to be accurate, and a large amount of assumptions are required. Module prices may drop further, and the LCOE for solar may correspondingly drop in the future.
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777:, a group III element, are added to make a p-type semiconductor rich in electron holes. Typically using a seed crystal, an ingot of this solution is grown from the liquid polycrystalline. The ingot may also be cast in a mold. Wafers of this semiconductor material are cut from the bulk material with wire saws, and then go through surface etching before being cleaned. Next, the wafers are placed into a phosphorus vapor deposition furnace which lays a very thin layer of phosphorus, a group V element, which creates an n-type semiconducting surface. To reduce energy losses, an anti-reflective coating is added to the surface, along with electrical contacts. After finishing the cell, cells are connected via electrical circuit according to the specific application and prepared for shipping and installation.
2217:(OPV) are a relatively new area of research. The tradition OPV cell structure layers consist of a semi-transparent electrode, electron blocking layer, tunnel junction, holes blocking layer, electrode, with the sun hitting the transparent electrode. OPV replaces silver with carbon as an electrode material lowering manufacturing cost and making them more environmentally friendly. OPV are flexible, low weight, and work well with roll-to roll manufacturing for mass production. OPV uses "only abundant elements coupled to an extremely low embodied energy through very low processing temperatures using only ambient processing conditions on simple printing equipment enabling energy pay-back times". Current efficiencies range 1–6.5%, however theoretical analyses show promise beyond 10% efficiency.
2082:(CIGS), and amorphous silicon (a-Si). After being deposited onto the substrate the semiconducting layers are separated and connected by electrical circuit by laser scribing. Perovskite solar cells are a very efficient solar energy converter and have excellent optoelectronic properties for photovoltaic purposes, but their upscaling from lab-sized cells to large-area modules is still under research. Thin-film photovoltaic materials may possibly become attractive in the future, because of the reduced materials requirements and cost to manufacture modules consisting of thin-films as compared to silicon-based wafers. In 2019 university labs at Oxford, Stanford and elsewhere reported perovskite solar cells with efficiencies of 20-25%.
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access and metering charge, energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the highest 30min energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charges when electricity prices are reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in
Australia and Germany. However, for sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late afternoon to early evening, for example in residential communities. Overall, energy investment is largely an economic decision and it is better to make investment decisions based on systematic evaluation of options in operational improvement, energy efficiency, onsite generation and energy storage.
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production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a photovoltaic module can significantly influence the performance of a complete string. Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be increasingly different over time, negatively affecting the overall performance of the plant.
49:
1073:' can be seen as the portion of time during the useful lifetime of the module in which the energy production is polluting. At best, this means that a 30-year old panel has produced clean energy for 97% of its lifetime, or that the silicon in the modules in a solar panel produce 97% less greenhouse gas emissions than a coal-fired plant for the same amount of energy (assuming and ignoring many things). Some studies have looked beyond EPBT and GWP to other environmental effects. In one such study, conventional energy mix in Greece was compared to multi-si PV and found a 95% overall reduction in effects including carcinogens, eco-toxicity, acidification, eutrophication, and eleven others.
482:, in combination with latitude and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m will produce 200 kWh/yr at Standard Test Conditions if exposed to the Standard Test Condition solar irradiance value of 1000 W/m for 2.74 hours a day. Usually solar panels are exposed to sunlight for longer than this in a given day, but the solar irradiance is less than 1000 W/m for most of the day. A solar panel can produce more when the Sun is high in Earth's sky and will produce less in cloudy conditions or when the Sun is low in the sky; usually the Sun is lower in the sky in the winter.
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PVs. Because organic photovoltaics require very high purity and are relatively reactive they must be encapsulated which vastly increases the cost of manufacturing and means that they are not feasible for large scale-up. Dye-sensitized PVs are similar in efficiency to OPVs but are significantly easier to manufacture. However, these dye-sensitized photovoltaics present storage problems because the liquid electrolyte is toxic and can potentially permeate the plastics used in the cell. Quantum dot solar cells are solution-processed, meaning they are potentially scalable, but currently they peak at 12% efficiency.
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voltage VOC and the maximum power Pmax. In general, it is known that VOC shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for ISC this correlation is direct, but weaker, so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in VOC. As a consequence, Pmax decreases when T increases. This correlation between the power output of a solar cell and the working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell.
2100:. CIS and CIGS are often used interchangeably within the CIS/CIGS community. The cell structure includes soda lime glass as the substrate, Mo layer as the back contact, CIS/CIGS as the absorber layer, cadmium sulfide (CdS) or Zn (S,OH)x as the buffer layer, and ZnO:Al as the front contact. CIGS is approximately 1/100th the thickness of conventional silicon solar cell technologies. Materials necessary for assembly are readily available, and are less costly per watt of solar cell. CIGS based solar devices resist performance degradation over time and are highly stable in the field.
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2518:. However, electricity networks traditionally are not designed to deal with two-way energy transfer, which may introduce technical issues. An over-voltage issue may come out as the electricity flows from these PV households back to the network. There are solutions to manage the over-voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at electricity distributor level, re-conductor the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions.
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dropped rapidly to $ 2.00/W. Manufacturers were able to maintain a positive operating margin despite a 50% drop in income due to innovation and reductions in costs. In late 2011, factory-gate prices for crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules suddenly dropped below the $ 1.00/W mark, taking many in the industry by surprise, and has caused a number of solar manufacturing companies to go bankrupt throughout the world. The $ 1.00/W cost is often regarded in the PV industry as marking the achievement of
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price changes, the complexity of the PV supply chain, which involves a large number of manufacturing processes, the balance of system (BOS) and installation costs associated with complete PV systems, the choice of different distribution channels, and differences between regional markets within which PV is being deployed". Further complexities result from the many different policy support initiatives that have been put in place to facilitate photovoltaics commercialisation in various countries.
682:, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres (3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.
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2322:. In 2008 the Far Niente Winery pioneered the world's first "floatovoltaic" system by installing 994 photovoltaic solar panels onto 130 pontoons and floating them on the winery's irrigation pond. A benefit of the set up is that the panels are kept at a lower temperature than they would be on land, leading to a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion. The floating panels also reduce the amount of water lost through evaporation and inhibit the growth of algae.
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recycling solar waste. Data required to investigate their impact are sometimes affected by a rather large amount of uncertainty. The values of human labor and water consumption, for example, are not precisely assessed due to the lack of systematic and accurate analyses in the scientific literature. One difficulty in determining effects due to PV is to determine if the wastes are released to the air, water, or soil during the manufacturing phase.
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1258:, which claims that solar cell prices fall 20% for every doubling of industry capacity. The Fraunhofer Institute defines the 'learning rate' as the drop in prices as the cumulative production doubles, some 25% between 1980 and 2010. Although the prices for modules have dropped quickly, current inverter prices have dropped at a much lower rate, and in 2019 constitute over 61% of the cost per kWp, from a quarter in the early 2000s.
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silicon. Strong seasonal variations are also observed in such thin-film technologies because the influence of the solar spectrum is much greater. For example, for modules of amorphous silicon, micromorphic silicon or cadmium telluride, we are talking about annual degradation rates for the first years of between 3% and 4%. However, other technologies, such as CIGS, show much lower degradation rates, even in those early years.
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1092:) as conventional Si devices but promises to lower the cost of each device by both reducing material and energy consumption during manufacturing. The global market share of CdTe was 4.7% in 2008. This technology's highest power conversion efficiency is 21%. The cell structure includes glass substrate (around 2 mm), transparent conductor layer, CdS buffer layer (50–150 nm), CdTe absorber and a metal contact layer.
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energy somehow (current battery technology cannot store enough power). These costs are not factored into LCOE calculations, nor are special subsidies or premiums that may make buying solar power more attractive. The unreliability and temporal variation in generation of solar and wind power is a major problem. Too much of these volatile power sources can cause instability of the entire grid.
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failure. Another disadvantage is that the solar cell is not ideal for large scale application because of its low efficiency. Some of the benefits for DSC is that it can be used in a variety of light levels (including cloudy conditions), it has a low production cost, and it does not degrade under sunlight, giving it a longer lifetime then other types of thin film solar cells.
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2011. Including the prices paid by industrial installations, the national installed price drops to $ 3.45/W. This is markedly higher than elsewhere in the world, in
Germany homeowner rooftop installations averaged at $ 2.24/W. The cost differences are thought to be primarily based on the higher regulatory burden and lack of a national solar policy in the US.
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transport energy costs in the EPBT. The EPBT has also been defined completely differently as "the time needed to compensate for the total renewable- and non-renewable primary energy required during the life cycle of a PV system" in another study, which also included installation costs. This energy amortization, given in years, is also referred to as
144:; it shows scalability in respect of power needs and silicon has large availability in the Earth's crust, although other materials required in PV system manufacture such as silver may constrain further growth in the technology. Other major constraints identified include competition for land use. The use of PV as a main source requires
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typically lowest, but not zero, when PV is generating electricity. This can be seen in Figure 1 of this paper:. For residential properties with private PV facilities networked to the grid, the owner may be able earn extra money when the time of generation is included, as electricity is worth more during the day than at night.
738:(p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands. In doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation energy to decrease twenty-fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (E
2397:(MPPT) for each module individually, measure performance data for monitoring, and provide additional safety features. Such modules can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to decrease.
2111:(1,700 to 2,200 kWh/m/y) and power conversion efficiency (7.8 – 9.12%). EPBT ranges from 0.2 to 1.4 years, while harmonized value of EPBT was found 1.393 years. Toxicity is an issue within the buffer layer of CIGS modules because it contains cadmium and gallium. CIS modules do not contain any heavy metals.
2311:. In this case the angle between the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66 degrees. During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this axis to follow the Sun. Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building (
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Many different configurations of OPV exist using different materials for each layer. OPV technology rivals existing PV technologies in terms of EPBT even if they currently present a shorter operational lifetime. A 2013 study analyzed 12 different configurations all with 2% efficiency, the EPBT ranged
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China has the world's largest solar power capacity, with 390 GW of installed capacity in 2022 compared with about 200 GW in the
European Union, according to International Energy Agency data. Other countries with the world's largest solar power capacities include the United States, Japan and
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Some environmentalists have promoted the idea that government incentives should be used in order to expand the PV manufacturing industry to reduce costs of PV-generated electricity much more rapidly to a level where it is able to compete with fossil fuels in a free market. This is based on the theory
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As of 2017 power-purchase agreement prices for solar farms below $ 0.05/kWh are common in the United States, and the lowest bids in some
Persian Gulf countries were about $ 0.03/kWh. The goal of the United States Department of Energy is to achieve a levelised cost of energy for solar PV of $ 0.03/kWh
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Because energy demands rise and fall over the course of the day, and solar power is limited by the fact that the sun sets, solar power companies must also factor in the additional costs of supplying a more stable alternative energy supplies to the grid in order to stabilize the system, or storing the
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Overall the manufacturing process of creating solar photovoltaics is simple in that it does not require the culmination of many complex or moving parts. Because of the solid-state nature of PV systems, they often have relatively long lifetimes, anywhere from 10 to 30 years. To increase the electrical
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There is no silver bullet in electricity or energy demand and bill management, because customers (sites) have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns. Electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily
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One of the major causes for the decreased performance of cells is overheating. The efficiency of a solar cell declines by about 0.5% for every 1 degree
Celsius increase in temperature. This means that a 100 degree increase in surface temperature could decrease the efficiency of a solar cell by about
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Crystalline silicon photovoltaics are only one type of PV, and while they represent the majority of solar cells produced currently there are many new and promising technologies that have the potential to be scaled up to meet future energy needs. As of 2018, crystalline silicon cell technology serves
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Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it) in electricity systems with high use of air conditioning. Since large-scale PV operation requires back-up in the form of spinning reserves, its marginal cost of generation in the middle of the day is
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By the end of 2012 Chinese manufacturers had production costs of $ 0.50/W in the cheapest modules. In some markets distributors of these modules can earn a considerable margin, buying at factory-gate price and selling at the highest price the market can support ('value-based pricing'). In
California
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have similar environmental effects but can slightly outperform CIGS and CZTS. A study on environmental impacts of SWCNT PVs by Celik et al., including an existing 1% efficient device and a theoretical 28% efficient device, found that, compared to monocrystalline Si, the environmental impacts from 1%
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The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions, mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T of the p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current ISC, the open circuit
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For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar cells to create a
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1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C. The actual voltage and current output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending on geographic location, time of day, the day of
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of energy per year. However, in
Michigan, which receives only 1400 kWh/m/year, annual energy yield will drop to 280 kWh for the same panel. At more northerly European latitudes, yields are significantly lower: 175 kWh annual energy yield in southern England under the same conditions.
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of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful—almost 10,000 times more than the 13 TW equivalent of average power consumed in 2005 by humans. This abundance leads to the suggestion that it will not be long before solar energy will become the world's primary energy source. Additionally,
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that matches the solar spectrum. This will enhance the electrical and optical properties. Improving the method of charge collection is also useful for increasing the efficiency. There are several groups of materials that are being developed. Ultrahigh-efficiency devices (η>30%) are made by using
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of laboratory-scale devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009 to 25.7% in 2021 in single-junction architectures, and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.8%, exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells. Perovskite solar cells have therefore
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Likewise, the application of solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly and the worldwide installed capacity reached one terawatt in April 2022. The total power output of the world's PV capacity in a calendar year is now beyond 500 TWh of electricity. This represents 2% of worldwide electricity demand.
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for PV, but most experts do not believe this price point is sustainable. Technological advancements, manufacturing process improvements, and industry re-structuring, may mean that further price reductions are possible. The average retail price of solar cells as monitored by the
Solarbuzz group fell
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Although wholesale module prices remained flat at around $ 3.50 to $ 4.00/W in the early 2000s due to high demand in
Germany and Spain afforded by generous subsidies and shortage of polysilicon, demand crashed with the abrupt ending of Spanish subsidies after the market crash of 2008, and the price
485:
Two location dependant factors that affect solar PV yield are the dispersion and intensity of solar radiation. These two variables can vary greatly between each country. The global regions that have high radiation levels throughout the year are the middle east, Northern Chile, Australia, China, and
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Recent developments in organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs) have made significant advancements in power conversion efficiency from 3% to over 15% since their introduction in the 1980s. To date, the highest reported power conversion efficiency ranges 6.7–8.94% for small molecule, 8.4–10.6% for polymer
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mounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middle axis of a rectangular solar panel. In case the zenith distance of the Sun reaches zero, the "ladder" may be rotated to the north or the south to avoid a solar module producing a shadow on a lower one. Instead of an exactly vertical
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A photovoltaic system, or solar PV system is a power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and directly convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric
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PV reached grid parity in 2011, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail electricity prices (though often still above the power station prices for coal or gas-fired generation without their distribution and other costs). Grid parity had been reached in 19 markets in 2014.
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Nonetheless, the energy payback time has shortened significantly over the last years, as crystalline silicon cells became ever more efficient in converting sunlight, while the thickness of the wafer material was constantly reduced and therefore required less silicon for its manufacture. Within the
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Thus, estimates of the environmental impact of PV have focused on carbon dioxide equivalents per kWh or energy pay-back time (EPBT). The EPBT describes the timespan a PV system needs to operate in order to generate the same amount of energy that was used for its manufacture. Another study includes
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Other possible future PV technologies include organic, dye-sensitized and quantum-dot photovoltaics. Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) fall into the thin-film category of manufacturing, and typically operate around the 12% efficiency range which is lower than the 12–21% typically seen by silicon-based
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The largest challenge for photovoltaic technology is the purchase price per watt of electricity produced. Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in converting
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However, there have been issues with DSCs, many of which come from the liquid electrolyte. The solvent is hazardous, and will permeate most plastics. Because it is liquid, it is unstable to temperature variation, leading to freezing in cold temperatures and expansion in warm temperatures causing
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There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics covering every technological domain under the sun. From the fields of the agricultural industry as a power source for irrigation to its usage in remote health care facilities to refrigerate medical supplies. Other
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Honduras generated the highest percentage of its energy from solar in 2019, 14.8%. As of 2019, Vietnam has the highest installed capacity in
Southeast Asia, about 4.5 GW. The annualized installation rate of about 90 W per capita per annum places Vietnam among world leaders. Generous Feed-in
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Note that the prices mentioned above are for bare modules, another way of looking at module prices is to include installation costs. In the US, according to the Solar Energy Industries Association, the price of installed rooftop PV modules for homeowners fell from $ 9.00/W in 2006 to $ 5.46/W in
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There have been major changes in the underlying costs, industry structure and market prices of solar photovoltaics technology, over the years, and gaining a coherent picture of the shifts occurring across the industry value chain globally is a challenge. This is due to: "the rapidity of cost and
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Solar photovoltaic power is not entirely "clean energy": production produces greenhouse gas emissions, materials used to build the cells are potentially unsustainable and will run out eventually, the technology uses toxic substances which cause pollution, and there are no viable technologies for
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On the other hand, if we analyze the performance of thin-film photovoltaic modules, an initial period of strong degradation is observed (which can last several months and up to two years), followed by a later stage in which the degradation stabilizes, being then comparable to that of crystalline
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process occurs at high temperatures of more than 1000 °C and is very energy intensive, using about 11 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per produced kilogram of silicon. The energy requirements of this process makes the energy cost per unit of silicon produced relatively inelastic, which means that the
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and refer to the difference between the energy expended to harvest an energy source and the amount of energy gained from that harvest. The NEG and EROI also take the operating lifetime of a PV system into account and a working life of 25 to 30 years is typically assumed. From these metrics, the
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Temperature sensitivity is usually described by temperature coefficients, each of which expresses the derivative of the parameter to which it refers with respect to the junction temperature. The values of these parameters, which can be found in any data sheet of the photovoltaic module, are the
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have been in use since the 1990s. Photovoltaic modules were first mass-produced in 2000, when the German government funded a one hundred thousand roof program. Decreasing costs has allowed PV to grow as an energy source. This has been partially driven by massive Chinese government investment in
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While there are many types of PV systems known to be effective, crystalline silicon PV accounted for around 90% of the worldwide production of PV in 2013. Manufacturing silicon PV systems has several steps. First, polysilicon is processed from mined quartz until it is very pure (semi-conductor
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The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease is due to its exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-term
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estimated that 52,000 people per year die prematurely in the U.S. from coal-fired power plant pollution and all but one of these deaths could be prevented from using PV to replace coal. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling
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DSC technology, sample preparation at high temperatures is very effective because higher temperatures produce more suitable textural properties. Another example of DSCs is the copper complex with Cu (II/I) as a redox shuttle with TMBY (4,4',6,6'-tetramethyl-2,2'bipyridine). DSCs show great
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In general, the most important component of solar panels, which accounts for much of the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, is the refining of the polysilicon. As to how much percentage of the EPBT this silicon depends on the type of system. A fully autarkic system requires additional
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There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study, the degradation of crystalline silicon modules is very regular, oscillating between 0.8% and 1.0% per year.
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been the fastest-advancing solar technology as of 2016. With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and very low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become commercially attractive. Core problems and research subjects include their short- and long-term stability.
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photovoltaic systems (mono-si) have an average efficiency of 14.0%. The cells tend to follow a structure of front electrode, anti-reflection film, n-layer, p-layer, and back electrode, with the sun hitting the front electrode. EPBT ranges from 1.7 to 2.7 years. The cradle to gate of
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As TPV systems generally work at lower temperatures than solar cells, their efficiencies tend to be low. Offsetting this through the use of multi-junction cells based on non-silicon materials is common, but generally very expensive. This currently limits TPV to niche roles like
292:
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One journalist theorised in 2012 that if the energy bills of Americans were forced upwards by imposing an extra tax of $ 50/ton on carbon dioxide emissions from coal-fired power, this could have allowed solar PV to appear more cost-competitive to consumers in most locations.
1146:) processes are expected to be similar to those of current thin film technologies of CIGS and CdTe, respectively. While the absorber layer of SWCNT PV is expected to be synthesized with CoMoCAT method. by Contrary to established thin films such as CIGS and CdTe, CZTS, Zn
6578:
Min, Hanul; Lee, Do Yoon; Kim, Junu; Kim, Gwisu; Lee, Kyoung Su; Kim, Jongbeom; Paik, Min Jae; Kim, Young Ki; Kim, Kwang S.; Kim, Min Gyu; Shin, Tae Joo; Il Seok, Sang (21 October 2021). "Perovskite solar cells with atomically coherent interlayers on SnO2 electrodes".
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A 2015 review of EPBT estimates of first and second-generation PV suggested that there was greater variation in embedded energy than in efficiency of the cells implying that it was mainly the embedded energy that needs to reduce to have a greater reduction in EPBT.
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Renewable energy technologies have generally gotten cheaper since their invention. Renewable energy systems have become cheaper to build than fossil fuel power plants across much of the world, thanks to advances in wind and solar energy technology, in particular.
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tariff (FIT) and government supporting policies such as tax exemptions were the key to enable Vietnam's solar PV boom. Underlying drivers include the government's desire to enhance energy self-sufficiency and the public's demand for local environmental quality.
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Photovoltaic power potential map estimates, how many kWh of electricity can be produced from a 1 kWp free-standing c-Si modules, optimally inclined towards the Equator. The resulting long-term average is calculated based on weather data of at least 10 recent
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There is an ongoing effort to increase the conversion efficiency of PV cells and modules, primarily for competitive advantage. In order to increase the efficiency of solar cells, it is important to choose a semiconductor material with an appropriate
2178:(DSCs) are a novel thin film solar cell. These solar cells operate under ambient light better than other photovoltaic technologies. They work with light being absorbed in a sensitizing dye between two charge transport materials. Dye surrounds TiO
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of the Sun is greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontally as a whole and each module additionally around a horizontal axis. In such a tower the modules can follow the Sun exactly. Such a device may be described as a
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Dos Reis Benatto, Gisele A.; Roth, Bérenger; Madsen, Morten V.; Hösel, Markus; Søndergaard, Roar R.; Jørgensen, Mikkel; Krebs, Frederik C. (2014). "Carbon: The Ultimate Electrode Choice for Widely Distributed Polymer Solar Cells".
4036:
Piliougine, M.; Oukaja, A.; Sánchez-Friera, P.; Petrone, G.; Sánchez-Pacheco, J.F.; Spagnuolo, G.; Sidrach-de-Cardona, M. (2021). "Analysis of the degradation of single-crystalline silicon modules after 21 years of operation".
794:, pollution, water depletion and others, are unavailable for PV. Instead, studies have tried to estimate the impact and potential impact of various types of PV, but these estimates are usually restricted to simply assessing
3523:
Schygulla, Patrick; Beutel, Paul; Heckelmann, Stefan; Höhn, Oliver; Klitzke, Malte; Schön, Jonas; Oliva, Eduard; Predan, Felix; Schachtner, Michael; Siefer, Gerald; Helmers, Henning; Dimroth, Frank; Lackner, David (2022).
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High generation during the middle of the day reduces the net generation demand, but higher peak net demand as the sun goes down can require rapid ramping of utility generating stations, producing a load profile called the
564:, Golden, Colorado, USA, which was set in lab conditions, under extremely concentrated light. The record in real-world conditions is also held by NREL, who developed triple junction cells with a tested efficiency of 39.5%.
7000:"OPV for mobile applications: An evaluation of roll-to-roll processed indium and silver free polymer solar cells through analysis of life cycle, cost and layer quality using inline optical and functional inspection tools"
552:
As of 2024, the world record for solar cell efficiency is 47.6%, set in May 2022 by Fraunhofer ISE, with a III-V four-junction concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) cell. This beat the previous record of 47.1%, set in 2019 by
1962:
applications include power generation at various scales and attempts to integrate them into homes and public infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electrical devices.
4557:
Bhandari, K. P., Collier, J. M., Ellingson, R. J. & Apul, D. S. (2015). "Energy payback time (EPBT) and energy return on energy invested (EROI) of solar photovoltaic systems: A systematic review and meta-analysis".
830:, storage, etc.) which significantly increase the energy cost of manufacture, but in a simple rooftop system, some 90% of the energy cost is from silicon, with the remainder coming from the inverters and module frame.
2382:
OPVs, and 7–21% for perovskite OPVs. OPVs are expected to play a major role in the PV market. Recent improvements have increased the efficiency and lowered cost, while remaining environmentally-benign and renewable.
209:
expected a growth by over 1 TW from 2022 to 2027. In some instances, PV has offered the cheapest source of electrical power in regions with a high solar potential, with a bid for pricing as low as 0.015 US$
6997:
Espinosa, Nieves; Lenzmann, Frank O.; Ryley, Stephen; Angmo, Dechan; Hösel, Markus; Søndergaard, Roar R.; Huss, Dennis; Dafinger, Simone; Gritsch, Stefan; Kroon, Jan M.; Jørgensen, Mikkel; Krebs, Frederik C. (2013).
818:. The EPBT depends vastly on the location where the PV system is installed (e.g. the amount of sunlight available and the efficiency of the electrical grid) and on the type of system, namely the system's components.
606:, state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with a DC clamp meter or shunt and logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger.
276:
In 1994, Japan followed in their footsteps and conducted a similar program with 539 residential PV systems installed. Since, many countries have continued to produce and finance PV systems in an exponential speed.
4712:
152:
power lines causing additional costs, and also has a number of other specific disadvantages such as variable power generation which have to be balanced. Production and installation does cause some pollution and
742:) is so low, the boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons.
6054:
Haugan, H. J.; Elhamri, S.; Szmulowicz, F.; Ullrich, B.; Brown, G. J.; Mitchel, W. C. (2008). "Study of residual background carriers in midinfrared InAs/GaSb superlattices for uncooled detector operation".
5053:
Alharbi, Fahhad; Bass, John D.; Salhi, Abdelmajid; Alyamani, Ahmed; Kim, Ho-Cheol; Miller, Robert D. (2011). "Abundant non-toxic materials for thin film solar cells: Alternative to conventional materials".
6724:
Freitag, Marina; Teuscher, Joël; Saygili, Yasemin; Zhang, Xiaoyu; Giordano, Fabrizio; Liska, Paul; Hua, Jianli; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M.; Moser, Jacques-E.; Grätzel, Michael; Hagfeldt, Anders (17 June 2017).
4082:
Piliougine, M.; Oukaja, A.; Sidrach-de-Cardona, M.; Spagnuolo, G. (2022). "Analysis of the degradation of amorphous silicon-based modules after 11 years of exposure by means of IEC60891:2021 procedure 3".
4976:
Celik, I., Mason, B. E., Phillips, A. B., Heben, M. J., & Apul, D. S. (2017). Environmental Impacts from Photovoltaic Solar Cells Made with Single Walled Carbon Nanotubes. Environmental Science &
6969:
Espinosa, Nieves; García-Valverde, Rafael; Urbina, Antonio; Krebs, Frederik C. (2011). "A life cycle analysis of polymer solar cell modules prepared using roll-to-roll methods under ambient conditions".
1946:
in 2010 claimed that 1,845 GW of PV systems worldwide could be generating approximately 2,646 TWh/year of electricity by 2030, and by 2050 over 20% of all electricity could be provided by PV.
181:
for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries. Panel prices dropped by a factor of 4 between 2004 and 2011. Module prices dropped by about 90% over the 2010s.
2469:
Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental
4128:
Piliougine, M.; Sánchez-Friera, P.; Petrone, G.; Sánchez-Pacheco, J.F.; Spagnuolo, G.; Sidrach-de-Cardona, M. (2022). "New model to study the outdoor degradation of thin-film photovoltaic modules".
5383:
2070:, a mineral with semiconductor properties, on a substrate in vacuum. The substrate is often glass or stainless-steel, and these semiconducting layers are made of many types of materials including
769:
output of a PV system, the manufacturer must simply add more photovoltaic components. Because of this, economies of scale are important for manufacturers as costs decrease with increasing output.
6224:
Matteocci, Fabio; Vesce, Luigi; Kosasih, Felix Utama; Castriotta, Luigi Angelo; Cacovich, Stefania; Palma, Alessandro Lorenzo; Divitini, Giorgio; Ducati, Caterina; Di Carlo, Aldo (17 July 2019).
2485:
In some states of the United States, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost if the homeowner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of
1042:(multi-si) photovoltaic cells are simpler and cheaper than mono-si, however tend to make less efficient cells, an average of 13.2%. EPBT ranges from 1.5 to 2.6 years. The cradle to gate of CO
4837:
Gaidajis, G. & Angelakoglou, K. (2012). "Environmental performance of renewable energy systems with the application of life-cycle assessment: a multi-Si photovoltaic module case study".
721:, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail.
2786:
2514:
For behind-the-meter rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes two-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid, allowing for
542:. Reflectance losses are accounted for by the quantum efficiency value, as they affect "external quantum efficiency". Recombination losses are accounted for by the quantum efficiency, V
727:(also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents. This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%.
1154:, and SWCNT PVs are made from earth abundant, nontoxic materials and have the potential to produce more electricity annually than the current worldwide consumption. While CZTS and Zn
837:. from 1998, the energy payback time was higher than 10 years for the former system in 1997, while for a standard rooftop system the EPBT was calculated as between 3.5 and 8 years.
506:, which are collected by both the electrodes. The absorption and collection efficiencies of a solar cell depend on the design of transparent conductors and active layer thickness.
6942:
Krebs, Frederik C.; Jørgensen, Mikkel (2013). "Polymer and organic solar cells viewed as thin film technologies: What it will take for them to become a success outside academia".
7667:
1138:) and single-walled carbon nano-tubes (SWCNT). These thin films are currently only produced in the lab but may be commercialized in the future. The manufacturing of CZTS and (Zn
4802:
Yue D.; You F.; Darling S. B. (2014). "Domestic and overseas manufacturing scenarios of silicon-based photovoltaics: Life cycle energy and environmental comparative analysis".
6649:
Sun, Kai; Wang, Yanyan; Xu, Haoyuan; Zhang, Jing; Zhu, Yuejin; Hu, Ziyang (2019). "Short-Term Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells Affected by In Situ Interface Modification".
2378:
GaAs and GaInP2 semiconductors with multijunction tandem cells. High-quality, single-crystal silicon materials are used to achieve high-efficiency, low cost cells (η>20%).
2563:
1921:
7683:
Miller, Wendy; Liu, Lei Aaron; Amin, Zakaria; Gray, Matthew (2018). "Involving occupants in net-zero-energy solar housing retrofits: An Australian sub-tropical case study".
5259:
7158:
Geisz, John F.; France, Ryan M.; Schulte, Kevin L.; Steiner, Myles A.; Norman, Andrew G.; Guthrey, Harvey L.; Young, Matthew R.; Song, Tao; Moriarty, Thomas (April 2020).
3541:
Geisz, John F.; France, Ryan M.; Schulte, Kevin L.; Steiner, Myles A.; Norman, Andrew G.; Guthrey, Harvey L.; Young, Matthew R.; Song, Tao; Moriarty, Thomas (April 2020).
2748:
2489:
developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels. Now known as
1057:
to produce the same amount of energy as required to manufacture the silicon in the modules in it (excluding the silver, glass, mounts and other components), 0.97 years in
1269:
By 2024, massive increases of production of solar panels in China had caused module prices to drop to as low as $ 0.11/W, an over 90 percent reduction from 2011 prices.
6502:
Kojima, Akihiro; Teshima, Kenjiro; Shirai, Yasuo; Miyasaka, Tsutomu (6 May 2009). "Organometal Halide Perovskites as Visible-Light Sensitizers for Photovoltaic Cells".
2473:
already have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.
1162:
offer good promise for these reasons, the specific environmental implications of their commercial production are not yet known. Global warming potential of CZTS and Zn
2457:
Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses in the US were approximately 7.2% in 1995).
427:
may be less than or greater than this rated value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors. Solar photovoltaic array
7453:
1203:
6540:
7279:
Sun, Y.; Welch, G. C.; Leong, W. L.; Takacs, C. J.; Bazan, G. C.; Heeger, A. J. (2011). "Solution-processed small-molecule solar cells with 6.7% efficiency".
5847:
798:, because these are new technologies and the total environmental impact of their components and disposal methods are unknown, even for commercially available
546:
ratio, and fill factor values. Resistive losses are predominantly accounted for by the fill factor value, but also contribute to the quantum efficiency and V
7381:
7321:
6689:
4636:
2365:
solar cells, developed at National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Colorado, US. The highest efficiencies achieved without concentration include a material by
273:
In 1989, the German Research Ministry initiated the first ever program to finance PV roofs (2200 roofs). A program led by Walter Sandtner in Bonn, Germany.
7541:
2446:
PV installations could ideally operate for 100 years or even more with little maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so after the initial
5376:
4986:
Agboola, A. E. Development and model formulation of scalable carbon nanotube processes: HiPCO and CoMoCAT process models;Louisiana State University, 2005.
2401:
half. Self-cooling solar cells are one solution to this problem. Rather than using energy to cool the surface, pyramid and cone shapes can be formed from
7522:
5811:
4665:
4011:
3691:. National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Electrical Industry (3rd ed.). Orland Park, IL: American Technical Publishers, Inc.
2194:
performance with artificial and indoor light. From a range of 200 lux to 2,000 lux, these cells operate at conditions of a maximum efficiency of 29.7%.
6037:
2328:
is a technology that contrary to conventional flat-plate PV systems uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but highly efficient,
854:
5840:
4409:
3929:
3772:
1250:
from $ 3.50/watt to $ 2.43/watt over the course of 2011. In 2013 wholesale prices had fallen to $ 0.74/W. This has been cited as evidence supporting '
121:, which generate electrical power. PV installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop-mounted, wall-mounted or floating. The mount may be fixed or use a
4996:
Wadia, C., Alivisatos, A. P. & Kammen, D. M. (2009). "Materials Availability Expands the Opportunity for Large-Scale Photovoltaics Deployment".
3821:
898:
that slice crystalline silicon ingots into wafers have also improved by reducing the kerf loss and making it easier to recycle the silicon sawdust.
6410:
6355:
5039:
4585:
4540:
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4371:
4303:
3047:
Elements of electro-biology,: or the voltaic mechanism of man; of electro-pathology, especially of the nervous system; and of electro-therapeutics
2819:
2438:
Solar power is pollution-free during use, which enables it to cut down on pollution when it is substituted for other energy sources. For example,
1099:-eq/kWh is around 18 grams (cradle to gate). CdTe has the fastest EPBT of all commercial PV technologies, which varies between 0.3 and 1.2 years.
5981:
5714:
5191:
4457:
Anctil, A., Babbitt, C. W., Raffaelle, R. P. & Landi, B. J. (2013). "Cumulative energy demand for small molecule and polymer photovoltaics".
1049:
Assuming that the following countries had a high-quality grid infrastructure as in Europe, in 2020 it was calculated it would take 1.28 years in
7424:
7334:
3789:
2369:
at 35.8% using a proprietary triple-junction manufacturing technology in 2009, and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7% also using a triple-layer design).
5771:
3089:
2189:
acts as conduction band in an n-type semiconductor; the scaffold for adorned dye molecules and transports elections during excitation. For TiO
1095:
CdTe PV systems require less energy input in their production than other commercial PV systems per unit electricity production. The average CO
8656:
8333:
4440:
3124:
2965:
7663:
L. Liu, W. Miller, and G. Ledwich. (2017) Solutions for reducing facilities electricity costs. Australian Ageing Agenda. 39-40. Available:
4433:
2958:
2619:
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3201:
2941:
398:
226:
that 'or projects with low cost financing that tap high quality resources, solar PV is now the cheapest source of electricity in history.
8302:
8138:
7582:
6170:
Di Giacomo, Francesco; Castriotta, Luigi A.; Kosasih, Felix U.; Di Girolamo, Diego; Ducati, Caterina; Di Carlo, Aldo (20 December 2020).
5211:
5139:
4759:
Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Solar Photovoltaics, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 2012, 1–2.
4653:
Vasilis Fthenakis; Rolf Frischknecht; Marco Raugei; Hyung Chul Kim; Erik Alsema; Michael Held; Mariska de Wild-Scholten (November 2011).
2567:
8011:
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Bazilian, M.; Onyeji, I.; Liebreich, M.; MacGill, I.; Chase, J.; Shah, J.; Gielen, D.; Arent, D.; Landfear, D.; Zhengrong, S. (2013).
1226:
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PV systems using crystalline silicon, by far the majority of the systems in practical use, have such a high EPBT because silicon is
8473:
7614:
4173:
Platzer, Michael (27 January 2015). "U.S. Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Industry Trends, Global Competition, Federal Support".
3525:
2096:
Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a thin film solar cell based on the copper indium diselenide (CIS) family of chalcopyrite
1998:
1111:, a theoretical limit for first and second generation PV cells. The thickness of a third generation device is less than 1 μm.
1088:
which are collectively known as second-generation devices. This new thin-film device also shares similar performance restrictions (
526:
efficiency values. Because these parameters can be difficult to measure directly, other parameters are measured instead, including
7479:
6125:"Electron Microscopy Characterization of P3 Lines and Laser Scribing-Induced Perovskite Decomposition in Perovskite Solar Modules"
8440:
8435:
7769:
5290:
5269:
1107:
Third-generation PVs are designed to combine the advantages of both the first and second generation devices and they do not have
133:
2510:
Grids with high penetration of renewable energy sources generally need more flexible generation rather than baseload generation.
9358:
8801:
8180:
3630:
France, Ryan M.; Geisz, John F.; Song, Tao; Olavarria, Waldo; Young, Michelle; Kibbler, Alan; Steiner, Myles A. (18 May 2022).
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1309:
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4517:
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140:. Solar PV has specific advantages as an energy source: once installed, its operation does not generate any pollution or any
3329:"Assessing current and future techno-economic potential of concentrated solar power and photovoltaic electricity generation"
310:
6548:
6310:"Comparative alternative materials assessment to screen toxicity hazards in the life cycle of CIGS thin film photovoltaics"
5444:
5409:
5307:
3632:"Triple-junction solar cells with 39.5% terrestrial and 34.2% space efficiency enabled by thick quantum well superlattices"
3401:
2242:
2235:
561:
457:
7114:
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4682:
4626:"The Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROI) of Photovoltaics: Methodology and Comparisons with Fossil Fuel Life Cycles"
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2649:
431:
are typically under 25% when not coupled with storage, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.
17:
1942:
In 2017, it was thought probable that by 2030 global PV installed capacities could be between 3,000 and 10,000 GW.
8494:
7846:
5354:
4772:
Krebs, F. C. (2009). "Fabrication and processing of polymer solar cells: a review of printing and coating techniques".
4744:"Life Cycle Assessment of Future Photovoltaic Electricity Production from Residential-scale Systems Operated in Europe"
4328:
Collier, J., Wu, S. & Apul, D. (2014). "Life cycle environmental impacts from CZTS (copper zinc tin sulfide) and Zn
2654:
1978:
1054:
845:
519:
6428:. Proceedings of the 21st International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference. Vol. 28. Fukuoka, Japan.
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Solar photovoltaics formed the largest body of research among the seven sustainable energy types examined in a global
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8499:
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OWID credits source data to: Nemet (2009); Farmer & Lafond (2016); International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).
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2589:
2312:
1982:
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7633:"Power Quality and Rooftop-Photovoltaic Households: An Examination of Measured Data at Point of Customer Connection"
7538:
6553:
5511:
4892:
Goe, M. & Gaustad, G. (2014). "Strengthening the case for recycling photovoltaics: An energy payback analysis".
2749:"Solar Panels Reduce CO2 Emissions More Per Acre Than Trees — and Much More Than Corn Ethanol – State of the Planet"
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6631:
3458:
Kumar, Ankush (3 January 2017). "Predicting efficiency of solar cells based on transparent conducting electrodes".
2153:
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1977:
current from DC to AC, as well as mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories. PV systems range from small,
1488:
1399:
5682:"An economic analysis of agrophotovoltaics: Opportunities, risks and strategies towards a more efficient land use"
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study, with the annual scientific output growing from 9,094 publications in 2011 to 14,447 publications in 2019.
1081:
763:
502:
Schematic of charge collection by solar cells. Light transmits through transparent conducting electrode creating
7824:
4625:
2063:
as the basis for several PV module types, including monocrystalline, multicrystalline, mono PERC, and bifacial.
9200:
8821:
8766:
8592:
8118:
7912:
7861:
7029:
García-Valverde, R.; Miguel, C.; Martínez-Béjar, R.; Urbina, A. (2009). "Life cycle assessment study of a 4.2k
2664:
2091:
1695:
515:
48:
7519:
7248:"Towards High Performance Organic Photovoltaic Cells: A Review of Recent Development in Organic Photovoltaics"
6307:
1233:–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "
9681:
9474:
9348:
8900:
8425:
6271:
6172:"Upscaling Inverted Perovskite Solar Cells: Optimization of Laser Scribing for Highly Efficient Mini-Modules"
6123:
Kosasih, Felix Utama; Rakocevic, Lucija; Aernouts, Tom; Poortmans, Jef; Ducati, Caterina (11 December 2019).
5785:
4654:
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1956:
1290:
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1027:
724:
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5157:
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technologies are under development and policies are being produced that encourage recycling from producers.
795:
8712:
8692:
8072:
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7346:
2394:
1192:
5106:
9235:
9225:
8602:
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7762:
7739:
6226:"Fabrication and Morphological Characterization of High-Efficiency Blade-Coated Perovskite Solar Modules"
3828:
2470:
1174:-eq/kWh while their corresponding EPBT were found 1.85 and 0.78 years, respectively. Overall, CdTe and Zn
1089:
799:
219:
206:
190:
149:
61:
5118:
3985:
1026:
modules are the most extensively studied PV type in terms of LCA since they are the most commonly used.
401:
connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for
334:
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sunlight which can be used to power equipment or to
9764:
9754:
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8454:
8328:
8175:
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3721:
2709:"Toward an integrated assessment of the performance of photovoltaic systems for electricity generation"
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2325:
2157:
1990:
1649:
1327:
In many countries there is access to capital is lacking to develop PV projects. To solve this problem,
557:
3328:
3289:
2435:
solar radiation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m) among renewable energies.
667:
is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. V
164:
Photovoltaic systems have long been used in specialized applications as stand-alone installations and
9759:
9042:
8092:
8026:
8001:
7841:
5917:
3796:
2901:"The technological system of production and innovation: The case of photovoltaic technology in China"
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1039:
554:
129:
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6710:
3890:
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709:
Techniques for estimating these coefficients from experimental data can be found in the literature.
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https://www.australianageingagenda.com.au/2017/10/27/solutions-reducing-facility-electricity-costs/
7448:
Potential lives saved by replacing coal with solar photovoltaic electricity production in the U.S.
6908:"Electron and Hole Transport Layers: Their Use in Inverted Bulk Heterojunction Polymer Solar Cells"
4556:
3855:
Temperature coefficients of degraded crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules at outdoor conditions
2629:
2075:
2002:
1580:
1234:
791:
165:
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3001:
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7902:
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5681:
4242:
Fthenakis, V. M., Kim, H. C. & Alsema, E. (2008). "Emissions from photovoltaic life cycles".
1361:
1115:
1108:
424:
412:
Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly in solar modules.
83:
2558:
may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
2066:
Another newer technology, thin-film PV, are manufactured by depositing semiconducting layers of
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6632:"World record again at HZB: Almost 30 % efficiency for next-generation tandem solar cells"
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1069:, India. Outside of Europe, where net grid efficiencies are lower, it would take longer. This '
603:
7590:
7160:"Six-junction III–V solar cells with 47.1% conversion efficiency under 143 Suns concentration"
5733:"Jointly reforming the prices of industrial fuels and residential electricity in Saudi Arabia"
3543:"Six-junction III–V solar cells with 47.1% conversion efficiency under 143 Suns concentration"
3228:
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Do, Thang Nam; Burke, Paul J.; Baldwin, Kenneth G. H.; Nguyen, Chinh The (1 September 2020).
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A number of solar modules may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if the
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173:. Improvements in manufacturing technology and efficiency have also led to decreasing costs.
6819:
Nikolaidou, Katerina; Sarang, Som; Ghosh, Sayantani (2019). "Nanostructured photovoltaics".
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8577:
8552:
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7804:
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Prof. Gordon Aubrecht (Ohio State at Marion) TEDxColumbus, The Innovators – 18 October 2012
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2405:, and attached to the surface of a solar panel. Doing so allows visible light to reach the
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1672:
1603:
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1403:
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last ten years, the amount of silicon used for solar cells declined from 16 to 6 grams per
874:
660:
622:
531:
367:
335:
262:
223:
6368:
4718:. Fraunhofer ISE, 24th European PV Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition. September 2009.
3327:
Köberle, Alexandre C.; Gernaat, David E. H. J.; van Vuuren, Detlef P. (1 September 2015).
486:
Southwestern USA. In a high-yield solar area like central Colorado, which receives annual
8:
9625:
9399:
9315:
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8966:
8960:
8920:
8261:
8241:
8208:
8016:
7952:
7892:
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3102:
1971:
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has been proposed to accelerate development of solar photovoltaic projects. For example,
1023:
479:
406:
379:
359:
347:
328:
110:
87:
7696:
7498:
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5918:"Underlying drivers and barriers for solar photovoltaics diffusion: The case of Vietnam"
5748:
5630:
5557:
5323:
5009:
4944:
4905:
4850:
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4612:
Energy Pay Back time comparison for Photovoltaic Cells (Alsema, Frankl, Kato, 1998, p. 5
4349:
4255:
3558:
3527:
Quadruple Junction Solar Cell with 47.6 % Conversion Efficiency under Concentration
3471:
3344:
3158:
1277:
9733:
9453:
9047:
8955:
8297:
8256:
8203:
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7856:
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6888:
6844:
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6666:
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6392:
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Eisenberg, D. A., Yu, M., Lam, C. W., Ogunseitan, O. A. & Schoenung, J. M. (2013).
6253:
6198:
6171:
6152:
6080:
6010:
5963:
5891:
5657:
5614:
5595:
5474:
5335:
5308:"Securitization of residential solar photovoltaic assets: Costs, risks and uncertainty"
4956:
4862:
4534:
4474:
4285:
4155:
4110:
4064:
3878:
3866:
3669:
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3586:
3423:
3374:
2920:
2730:
2214:
2210:
1366:
1321:
527:
523:
503:
448:
383:
170:
6371:"Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of thin-film photovoltaic electricity generation"
6225:
6124:
3253:
2160:
and all-inorganic cesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture.
9615:
9573:
9479:
9379:
9010:
8323:
8318:
8251:
8047:
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7907:
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7083:
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6465:
6396:
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6370:
6329:
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6245:
6203:
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6144:
5967:
5955:
5846:. International Energy Agency — Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 30 March 2015.
5791:
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2108:
2071:
890:. In the same period, the thickness of a c-Si wafer was reduced from 300 μm, or
7734:
7611:
7465:
6892:
6758:
6341:
6084:
5478:
5339:
4960:
4478:
4289:
2900:
52:
Charging station in France that provides energy for electric cars using solar energy
9620:
9005:
8852:
8380:
8364:
8348:
8338:
7809:
7700:
7644:
7539:
U.S. Climate Change Technology Program – Transmission and Distribution Technologies
7502:
7296:
7259:
7179:
7159:
7075:
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7011:
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4092:
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3653:
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3542:
3475:
3356:
3348:
3301:
3172:
3027:
2912:
2811:
2726:
2722:
2358:
In 2019, the world record for solar cell efficiency at 47.1% was achieved by using
2043:
2035:
1251:
1230:
849:
599:
487:
402:
258:
202:
194:
99:
37:
7704:
7054:
6727:"Dye-sensitized solar cells for efficient power generation under ambient lighting"
6726:
6571:
6325:
4823:
4623:
4505:
2350:
8292:
8223:
7671:
7618:
7545:
7526:
7385:
7133:
7127:
NAPA VALLEY'S FAR NIENTE WINERY INTRODUCES FIRST-EVER "FLOATOVOLTAIC" SOLAR ARRAY
6983:
6955:
6041:
5067:
4879:
Photovoltaics Report. (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, ISE, 2015).
4858:
4785:
4357:
4141:
3352:
3272:
3128:
3109:
2945:
2916:
2815:
2386:
2294:
841:
428:
102:. The photovoltaic effect is commercially used for electricity generation and as
8862:
7506:
6629:
6460:
6443:
5941:
5757:
5732:
5331:
4995:
3657:
3189:
3002:"KAHRAMAA and Siraj Energy Sign Agreements for Al-Kharsaah Solar PV Power Plant"
2493:, Property Assessed Clean Energy, 30 U.S. states have duplicated this solution.
415:
Photovoltaic module power is measured under standard test conditions (STC) in "W
9353:
9038:
8945:
8702:
8677:
8343:
8195:
8097:
8087:
8057:
7814:
7569:
6924:
6907:
6840:
6600:
6309:
6295:
5639:
5613:
Adeh, Elnaz H.; Good, Stephen P.; Calaf, M.; Higgins, Chad W. (7 August 2019).
5460:
5414:
4571:
3305:
3004:. Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation "KAHRAMAA". 20 January 2020
2713:
2490:
2451:
2329:
2319:
2014:
1759:
1328:
1313:
1255:
1127:
827:
811:
375:
362:. There is also a smaller market for stand alone systems for remote dwellings,
355:
320:
254:
235:
178:
154:
145:
141:
95:
7233:
7183:
7079:
4127:
3631:
3566:
2979:
573:
9743:
9728:
9709:
9536:
9394:
9389:
9384:
9033:
9015:
8910:
8287:
8277:
8190:
8082:
7221:
Sharp Develops Solar Cell with World's Highest Conversion Efficiency of 35.8%
7191:
5959:
5648:
4655:"Methodology Guidelines on Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaic Electricity"
4241:
3706:
3665:
3574:
3487:
3370:
3313:
2333:
2281:
2097:
1483:
491:
390:
363:
122:
7220:
6750:
5565:
2570:
any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against
1183:
SWCNT was ~18 times higher due mainly to the short lifetime of three years.
866:
675:
directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable.
581:
Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC):
9594:
9557:
9433:
9425:
9363:
8925:
8810:
8732:
8687:
8420:
7308:
6884:
6805:
6662:
6608:
6523:
6469:
6333:
6249:
6241:
6207:
6148:
6140:
6098:
5666:
5591:
5539:
5025:
4952:
4743:
4281:
4081:
3852:
3265:
3143:"Review of Solutions to Global Warming, Air Pollution, and Energy Security"
2515:
2447:
2390:
2258:
2182:
2103:
Reported global warming potential impacts of CIGS ranges 20.5–58.8 grams CO
2019:
1375:
468:
467:
is the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via
371:
174:
158:
114:
103:
32:
4600:"An analysis of the energy efficiency of photovoltaic cells in reducing CO
4395:"An analysis of the energy efficiency of photovoltaic cells in reducing CO
3853:
Piliougine, M.; Oukaja, A.; Sidrach-de-Cardona, M.; Spagnuolo, G. (2021).
1035:-eq/kWh ranges from 37.3 to 72.2 grams when installed in Southern Europe.
350:
are used for grid-connected systems for power generation. In this case an
9599:
9420:
8971:
8883:
8868:
8727:
8697:
8672:
8430:
8067:
8042:
7264:
7247:
7028:
3031:
2604:
2246:
1690:
1644:
1246:
870:
815:
705:δ: Coefficient of variation of Pmax with respect to T, given by ∂Pmax/∂T.
511:
338:. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting
299:
295:
249:) meaning "light", and from "volt", the unit of electromotive force, the
137:
79:
3606:"Scientists just broke the record for the highest efficiency solar cell"
2128:
1046:-eq/kWh ranges from 28.5 to 69 grams when installed in Southern Europe.
882:
production process itself will not become more efficient in the future.
9541:
9515:
9510:
9505:
9443:
9438:
9052:
8982:
8915:
8213:
8185:
7963:
7649:
7632:
7399:"Study: Air pollution causes 200,000 early deaths each year in the U.S"
7015:
6797:
6623:
6188:
5950:
5574:
4729:
4150:
4105:
4059:
3930:"Solarplaza Potential Induced Degradation: Combatting a Phantom Menace"
3361:
2523:
2406:
2304:
2277:
2273:
2262:
2141:
2067:
2051:
2047:
1943:
702:α: Coefficient of variation of ISC with respect to T, given by ∂ISC/∂T.
582:
577:
This chart illustrates the effect of clouds on solar energy production.
472:
453:
394:
343:
324:
286:
198:
118:
7425:"The US could prevent a lot of deaths by switching from coal to solar"
7199:
6515:
6442:
Manser, Joseph S.; Christians, Jeffrey A.; Kamat, Prashant V. (2016).
6169:
6076:
5982:"China to add 55-65 GW of solar power capacity in 2021 -industry body"
5583:
5017:
4272:
4263:
3582:
3479:
3443:
Solar photovoltaics: data from a 25-m2 array in Cambridgeshire in 2006
3064:
Solar Power for the World: What You Wanted to Know about Photovoltaics
2847:
Solar Power for the World: What You Wanted to Know about Photovoltaics
2253:. A basic thermophotovoltaic system consists of a hot object emitting
9448:
9000:
8504:
8410:
8282:
7468:. IEA PVPS Task 1 Workshop, 25–27 June 1997, Utrecht, The Netherlands
7300:
5542:(2017). "Terawatt-scale photovoltaics: Trajectories and challenges".
5469:
4624:
Marco Raugei; Pere Fullana-i-Palmer; Vasilis Fthenakis (March 2012).
4506:
Ibon Galarraga, M. González-Eguino, Anil Markandya (1 January 2011).
4470:
4096:
4050:
4035:
3862:
3530:. International Conference on Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy 2022.
3204:. Renewableenergyaccess.com. 23 March 2007. Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
3176:
2620:
Copper in renewable energy § Solar photovoltaic power generation
1994:
1986:
1575:
1332:
887:
672:
650:
510:
Several factors affect a cell's conversion efficiency, including its
490:
of 2000 kWh/m/year, a panel can be expected to produce 400
420:
339:
244:
9716:
8874:
6535:
6533:
6424:
Werner, Jürgen H.; Zapf-Gottwick, R.; Koch, M.; Fischer, K. (2011).
2245:(TPV) energy conversion is a direct conversion process from heat to
2156:
as the light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials, such as
2038:
that converts light photons into current. The absorbed photons make
8717:
8707:
8682:
6369:
Kim, H. C., Fthenakis, V., Choi, J. K. & Turney, D. E. (2012).
3648:
2708:
2410:
2374:
2266:
1008:
895:
878:
590:
303:
186:
41:
7631:
Miller, Wendy; Liu, Aaron; Amin, Zakaria; Wagner, Andreas (2018).
7480:"Producer Responsibility and Recycling Solar Photovoltaic Modules"
7335:
Solar Electronics, Panel Integration and the Bankability Challenge
6968:
6444:"Intriguing Optoelectronic Properties of Metal Halide Perovskites"
4327:
3453:
3451:
2530:
Implications for electricity bill management and energy investment
2054:
convert some of the light energy absorbed into electrical energy.
802:, let alone experimental prototypes with no commercial viability.
265:). The term "photovoltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.
185:
In 2022, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to more than 1
9704:
8722:
6530:
6495:
6122:
5212:"Sunny Uplands: Alternative energy will no longer be alternative"
3963:
3390:
3388:
2023:
1897:
1874:
1713:
1529:
1241:
In 1977 crystalline silicon solar cell prices were at $ 76.67/W.
1058:
891:
699:β: VOC variation coefficient with respect to T, given by ∂VOC/∂T.
594:
91:
7747:
6772:
Raga, Sonia R.; Fabregat-Santiago, Francisco (23 January 2013).
4428:
4426:
4424:
4422:
8779:
7572:. Solar Cells Info (16 October 2007). Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
6861:
6437:
6435:
6223:
5772:
Utilities' Honest Assessment of Solar in the Electricity Supply
3448:
3131:. Encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net. Retrieved on 12 December 2010.
3024:
100% renewable energy with pumped-hydro-energy storage in Nepal
2402:
2250:
1851:
1828:
1805:
1782:
1736:
1621:
1370:
Worldwide growth of photovoltaics on a semi-log plot since 1992
1066:
1050:
790:, which look at all different environment effects ranging from
638:
327:
to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons by the
169:
developing solar production capacity since 2000, and achieving
7103:
GE Invests, Delivers One of World's Largest Solar Power Plants
6423:
6053:
5445:"A Review of Solar Photovoltaic Levelized Cost of Electricity"
5176:
3385:
2937:
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century (REN21),
2784:
2050:
and photo transistors are a few examples of photo detectors.
1201:
6686:"Supramolecular Multichromophoric Dye Sensitized Solar Cells"
6298:. nrel.gov (16 September 2019). Retrieved on 31 October 2019.
5865:
5777:
5715:"Done Deal: The First Securitization Of Rooftop Solar Assets"
4419:
3522:
3226:
2308:
2027:
1667:
1598:
1552:
1506:
1460:
1410:, once the world's largest producer, have been slowing down.
1062:
774:
735:
291:
238:
215:
75:
6432:
5833:
5774:. Greentechmedia.com (7 May 2012). Retrieved on 31 May 2013.
4836:
4732:. HZDR - Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. 4 April 2014.
3905:"Are Solar Panels Affected by Weather? - Energy Informative"
498:
6723:
6501:
5293:. Greentechmedia.com (2013-06-18). Retrieved on 2015-04-15.
5184:"Solar (photovoltaic) panel prices vs. cumulative capacity"
3283:
3281:
3202:
BP Solar to Expand Its Solar Cell Plants in Spain and India
3090:"Number of Residential PV Installation in Japan: 1994-2003"
2951:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2650:
Quantum efficiency § Quantum efficiency of solar cells
2454:
are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.
2149:
1282:
718:
618:
586:
250:
6996:
6005:
6003:
5291:
Solar PV Module Costs to Fall to 36 Cents per Watt by 2017
5162:. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. 2020.
3050:. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 15.
2307:, meaning that it is parallel to the rotation axis of the
2303:
tower one can choose a tower with an axis directed to the
2221:
from 0.29 to 0.52 years for 1 m of PV. The average CO
814:. The lower the EPBT, the lower the environmental cost of
717:
The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain,
8847:
7223:. Physorg.com. 22 October 2009. Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
7157:
6044:. Epia.org (22 September 2012). Retrieved on 31 May 2013.
4801:
3540:
3288:
Kannan, Nadarajah; Vakeesan, Divagar (1 September 2016).
3195:
2439:
211:
7621:. Dsireusa.org (4 April 2011). Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
5346:
5052:
3629:
3326:
3278:
2864:
2005:
systems only account for a small portion of the market.
319:
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating
56:
7583:"Berkeley FIRST Solar Financing – City of Berkeley, CA"
7558:
Fraunhofer: 41.1% efficiency multi-junction solar cells
6000:
602:, direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading,
7105:. Huliq.com (12 April 2007). Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
6630:
Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie.
1985:
systems with capacities from a few to several tens of
1436:
Installed and total solar power capacity in 2022 (MW)
1324:
will cause the prices of the solar products to halve.
9693:
6818:
6771:
6441:
5615:"Solar PV Power Potential is Greatest Over Croplands"
5410:"China's solar growth sends module prices plummeting"
4336:(zinc phosphide) thin film PV (photovoltaic) cells".
1417:
A key barrier is limited transmission grid capacity.
780:
522:
efficiency, charge carrier collection efficiency and
5915:
5612:
4459:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
4085:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
4039:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
3207:
2787:"Re-considering the economics of photovoltaic power"
157:, though only a fraction of the emissions caused by
7630:
7570:
Study Sees Solar Cost-Competitive In Europe By 2015
7278:
7148:. Forbes (18 April 2012). Retrieved on 31 May 2013.
6774:"Temperature effects in dye-sensitized solar cells"
6035:
Solar Photovoltaic Electricity Empowering the World
5703:
The Potential of Securitization in Solar PV Finance
5689:
The Constitutional Economics Network Working Papers
5442:
2336:and a cooling system to increase their efficiency.
2148:compound, most commonly a hybrid organic–inorganic
1102:
1076:
1018:
613:
Electrical characteristics include nominal power (P
5443:Branker, K.; Pathak, M.J.M.; Pearce, J.M. (2011).
5382:. Deutsche Bank Markets Research. 6 January 2014.
4926:
4891:
4713:"Reaching kerf loss below 100 μm by optimizations"
3397:"Photovoltaic Solar Resource of the United States"
902:Key parameters for material and energy efficiency
773:grade). This is melted down when small amounts of
27:Method to produce electricity from solar radiation
7682:
7117:. SFGate (29 May 2008). Retrieved on 31 May 2013.
6219:
6217:
5355:"A YEAR OF CRACKING ICE: 10 PREDICTIONS FOR 2014"
4972:
4970:
3217:. Technologyreview.com. Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
3140:
2318:Where land may be limited, PV can be deployed as
205:source in terms of global capacity. In 2022, the
9741:
5783:
3502:"Photovoltaic Cell Conversion Efficiency Basics"
3230:Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering
3183:
1272:
796:energy costs of the manufacture and/or transport
253:, which in turn comes from the last name of the
8464:
7234:Recent Developments in High Efficiency PV cells
5538:
5133:
5131:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4381:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2107:-eq/kWh of electricity generated for different
177:and financial incentives, such as preferential
7477:
6941:
6648:
6214:
5812:"Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets 2017"
5804:
5534:
5532:
5512:"Is Germany Making Too Much Renewable Energy?"
5377:"2014 Outlook: Let the Second Gold Rush Begin"
5301:
5299:
5119:Solar Power 50% Cheaper By Year End – Analysis
4967:
3422:
3287:
2843:
2706:
1320:that when the manufacturing capacity doubles,
757:
568:
405:sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and
8795:
8657:List of countries by photovoltaics production
8334:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
7763:
7560:. renewableenergyfocus.com (28 January 2009).
5787:Are we using science for smarter development?
5305:
5235:
4675:
4441:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems
3394:
3227:Luque, Antonio & Hegedus, Steven (2003).
2966:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems
2880:"Why did renewables become so cheap so fast?"
2170:
1114:Two new promising thin film technologies are
40:, a sustainable housing community project in
7520:Advantages and disadvantages of solar energy
7322:EPFL Achieves 21% Efficiency for Perovskites
7245:
6577:
6409:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6354:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5821:. International Energy Agency. 19 April 2017
5253:
5251:
5137:
5128:
5038:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4771:
4584:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4539:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4491:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4378:
4370:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4302:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3953:
3275:. Remenergyco.com. Retrieved on 31 May 2013.
3043:
2763:
2702:
2700:
1934:for a complete and continuously updated list
1193:Photovoltaic system § Costs and economy
840:The EPBT relates closely to the concepts of
478:The efficiency of the solar cells used in a
8139:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
7379:Renewable Energy: Is the Future in Nuclear?
5854:
5679:
5673:
5529:
5296:
5140:"A Silver Lining in Declining Solar Prices"
4839:Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems
3290:"Solar energy for future world: - A review"
685:
562:National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
456:energy conversion efficiencies since 1976 (
409:has advanced considerably in recent years.
189:(TW) covering nearly two percent of global
8802:
8788:
8012:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
7770:
7756:
7096:
5730:
5485:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5432:
5257:
3719:
3428:"Sustainable Energy - without the hot air"
3192:. Solarbuzz.com. Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
2892:
2057:
1304:
434:
7648:
7466:Environmental Aspects of PV Power Systems
7263:
7146:Napa Winery Pioneers Solar Floatovoltaics
6923:
6485:"Perovskites power up the solar industry"
6459:
6386:
6197:
6187:
5949:
5756:
5701:Lowder, T., & Mendelsohn, M. (2013).
5656:
5638:
5573:
5468:
5352:
5248:
5231:
5229:
4606:. University of Portsmouth. 31 May 2009.
4499:
4443:. 16 September 2020. pp. 36, 43, 46.
4271:
4214:"Are we headed for a solar waste crisis?"
4149:
4104:
4058:
3647:
3360:
3166:
3112:. Mrsolar.com. Retrieved 12 December 2010
2805:
2697:
2590:Learn how and when to remove this message
2332:solar cells. These systems sometimes use
2288:
2114:
8474:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
7450:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
7361:
7359:
6905:
6504:Journal of the American Chemical Society
6426:Toxic substances in photovoltaic modules
5606:
5509:
5449:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
5206:
5204:
5202:
5159:Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2019
4560:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
3294:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
3026:. In: Clean Energy 5, 2, 2021, 243–253,
2707:Lo Piano, Samuele; Mayumi, Kozo (2017).
2505:
2349:
2127:
1365:
1276:
1254:', an observation similar to the famous
1225:
572:
497:
447:
309:
290:
55:
47:
31:
8441:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
8436:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
7115:Winery goes solar with 'Floatovoltaics'
6683:
5911:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5862:"Renewables 2011: Global Status Report"
5429:
5260:"Solar Energy Is Ready. The U.S. Isn't"
5194:from the original on 29 September 2023.
5074:
4671:from the original on 24 September 2015.
4512:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 37.
4172:
3603:
2898:
2385:Several companies have begun embedding
1965:
234:The term "photovoltaic" comes from the
14:
9742:
9359:Financial incentives for photovoltaics
6972:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
6944:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
6937:
6935:
6482:
6230:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
6129:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
5493:"Renewables Investment Breaks Records"
5407:
5353:Liebreich, Michael (29 January 2014).
5226:
4774:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
4244:Environmental Science & Technology
4012:"Bonding in Metals and Semiconductors"
3720:Bowden, Stuart; Honsberg, Christiana.
3686:
2228:
1310:Financial incentives for photovoltaics
389:Photovoltaic power generation employs
8783:
7751:
7478:McDonald, N.C.; Pearce, J.M. (2010).
7369:. oecd.org. Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
7356:
7246:Yu, J.; Zheng, Y.; Huang, J. (2014).
7067:
6692:from the original on 9 December 2022.
6289:
6028:
5389:from the original on 29 November 2014
5199:
4887:
4885:
4797:
4795:
4767:
4765:
4755:
4753:
4552:
4550:
4452:
4450:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4237:
4235:
3457:
3022:Sunil Prasad Lohani, Andrew Blakers:
2877:
2635:Electromotive force § Solar cell
1449:
1446:
1084:(CdTe) is one of the fastest-growing
826:components ('Balance of System', the
397:containing a semiconductor material.
9676:
8762:
6549:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
5902:
5238:"The End of the Nuclear Renaissance"
4998:Environmental Science and Technology
4610:from the original on 25 March 2015.
3954:(www.inspire.cz), INSPIRE CZ s.r.o.
3402:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
3215:Large-Scale, Cheap Solar Electricity
3060:
2939:Renewables 2010 Global Status Report
2542:
2280:collection from larger systems like
2236:Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion
2185:which are in a sintered network. TiO
860:
458:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
8479:List of photovoltaic power stations
7548:. (PDF) . Retrieved on 3 June 2012.
7464:Nieuwlaar, Evert and Alsema, Erik.
6932:
6778:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
5784:Straza; Schneegans (11 June 2021).
5731:Matar, Walid; Anwer, Murad (2017).
5510:Hockenos, Paul (10 February 2021).
5306:Alafita, T.; Pearce, J. M. (2014).
4689:. Simcoa Operations. Archived from
4415:from the original on 25 March 2015.
3134:
3087:
2450:of building any solar power plant,
2269:being emitted from the hot object.
1011:, Life Cycle Assessment, March 2015
24:
8495:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
7898:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
7847:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
7714:
7033:stand-alone photovoltaic system".
5868:. 2011. p. 22. Archived from
5850:from the original on 7 April 2015.
5107:Renewable energy costs drop in '09
4927:Brown, G. F. & Wu, J. (2009).
4882:
4792:
4762:
4750:
4642:from the original on 8 March 2016.
4547:
4447:
4310:
4232:
3857:. Vol. 29. pp. 558–570.
3773:"REC Alpha Black Series Factsheet"
3266:Massachusetts: a Good Solar Market
3147:Energy & Environmental Science
3061:Palz, Wolfgang (21 October 2013).
2655:Renewable energy commercialization
2424:Pollution and energy in production
1925:Snapshot of Global PV Markets 2023
1090:Shockley-Queisser efficiency limit
846:energy returned on energy invested
781:Environmental costs of manufacture
731:photons to retrievable electrons.
425:power output at a particular place
148:systems or global distribution by
125:to follow the sun across the sky.
25:
9781:
9470:Building-integrated photovoltaics
8500:Building-integrated photovoltaics
7997:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
7903:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
7777:
6541:"Best Research-Cell Efficiencies"
5841:"Snapshot of Global PV 1992–2014"
5680:TROMMSDORFF, Maximillian (2016).
5214:. The Economist. 21 November 2012
3395:Billy Roberts (20 October 2008).
2313:building-integrated photovoltaics
2225:-eq/kWh for OPV is 54.922 grams.
1221:
951:Wafer thickness / layer thickness
374:, roadside emergency telephones,
128:Photovoltaic technology helps to
9727:
9715:
9703:
9675:
9664:
9663:
8873:
8867:
8861:
8809:
8761:
8750:
8749:
7872:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
7676:
7657:
7624:
7605:
7575:
7563:
7551:
7532:
7529:. Retrieved on 25 December 2013.
7513:
7471:
7458:
7442:
7417:
7391:
7372:
7340:
7333:St. John, Jeff (23 August 2012)
7327:
7315:
7272:
7239:
7226:
7214:
7151:
7139:
7120:
7108:
7061:
7022:
7004:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
6990:
6962:
6899:
6855:
6812:
6765:
6717:
6677:
6642:
6476:
6417:
6388:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00423.x
6362:
6301:
6264:
6163:
6116:
6091:
6047:
5974:
5884:
5765:
5236:Quiggin, John (3 January 2012).
4929:"Third generation photovoltaics"
3747:"Open-Circuit Voltage (Battery)"
2547:
2496:
2234:This section is an excerpt from
2120:This section is an excerpt from
2080:copper indium gallium diselenide
2008:
1997:. Nowadays, most PV systems are
1896:
1873:
1850:
1827:
1804:
1781:
1758:
1735:
1712:
1689:
1666:
1643:
1620:
1597:
1574:
1551:
1528:
1505:
1482:
1459:
1428:Top 20 PV countries in 2022 (MW)
1103:Effects from third generation PV
1077:Impact from second generation PV
1019:Effects from first generation PV
929:Derate cell to module efficiency
894:, to about 160–190 μm. The
539:
440:This section is an excerpt from
8007:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
7888:List of semiconductor materials
7074:. Green Energy and Technology.
6483:Hamers, Laurel (26 July 2017).
5724:
5708:
5695:
5503:
5401:
5369:
5284:
5150:
5138:Harris, Arno (31 August 2011).
5112:
5100:
5084:. Apricus Solar. Archived from
5046:
4989:
4980:
4920:
4873:
4830:
4736:
4722:
4705:
4683:"Production Process of Silicon"
4646:
4617:
4592:
4206:
4181:
4166:
4121:
4075:
4029:
4004:
3978:
3947:
3922:
3897:
3846:
3814:
3782:
3765:
3739:
3713:
3680:
3623:
3597:
3534:
3516:
3416:
3320:
3259:
3247:
3220:
3115:
3096:
3081:
3054:
3037:
3016:
2994:
2968:. 16 September 2020. p. 4.
2640:List of photovoltaics companies
2354:Best research-cell efficiencies
1950:
1339:in the solar industry in 2013.
869:by the reduction of high-grade
857:can be derived by calculation.
764:List of photovoltaics companies
8119:Incremental conductance method
7913:Copper indium gallium selenide
7862:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
7324:. dyesol.com (8 December 2015)
6552:. 30 June 2022. Archived from
6314:Journal of Hazardous Materials
6296:Best Research Cell Efficiences
5357:. Bloomberg New Energy Finance
5258:Wells, Ken (25 October 2012).
4914:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.01.036
4509:Handbook of Sustainable Energy
4175:Congressional Research Service
3604:Ozdemir, Derya (20 May 2022).
3213:Bullis, Kevin (23 June 2006).
2972:
2931:
2878:Roser, Max (1 December 2020).
2741:
2727:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.102
2665:Solar module quality assurance
2463:Solar cell research investment
2092:Copper indium gallium selenide
848:(EROI). They are both used in
712:
657:), and module efficiency (%).
452:Reported timeline of research
280:
117:, each comprising a number of
13:
1:
9475:Passive solar building design
8901:Passive solar building design
8426:South African Solar Challenge
7705:10.1016/j.solener.2017.10.008
7055:10.1016/j.solener.2009.03.012
6375:Journal of Industrial Ecology
6326:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.06.007
4933:Laser & Photonics Reviews
4824:10.1016/j.solener.2014.04.008
4730:"Silicon kerf loss recycling"
4087:. Progress in Photovoltaics.
4041:. Progress in Photovoltaics.
3822:"LBS Poly 260 275 Data sheet"
3256:Retrieved on 7 September 2012
2691:
2670:Solar photovoltaic monitoring
2625:Cost of electricity by source
2615:Anomalous photovoltaic effect
2610:American Solar Energy Society
2502:Impact on electricity network
2416:
2339:
1957:Applications of photovoltaics
1291:levelised cost of electricity
1273:Levelised cost of electricity
1170:were found 38 and 30 grams CO
725:Potential-induced degradation
8073:Photovoltaic mounting system
7740:Resources in other libraries
6984:10.1016/j.solmat.2010.08.020
6956:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.05.032
5082:"Insolation Levels (Europe)"
5068:10.1016/j.renene.2011.03.010
4859:10.1080/10286608.2012.710608
4786:10.1016/j.solmat.2008.10.004
4358:10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.076
4142:10.1016/j.renene.2022.05.063
3353:10.1016/j.energy.2015.05.145
3254:The PVWatts Solar Calculator
2917:10.1016/j.respol.2018.10.003
2899:Shubbak, Mahmood H. (2019).
2850:. CRC Press. pp. 131–.
2816:10.1016/j.renene.2012.11.029
2572:Knowledge's inclusion policy
2395:maximum power point tracking
1433:
1186:
800:first generation solar cells
346:, but today the majority of
245:
229:
7:
8078:Maximum power point tracker
7507:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.023
6761:– via www.nature.com.
6461:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00136
5942:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111561
5758:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.07.060
5408:Crooks, Ed (5 April 2024).
5332:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.12.045
4664:. IEA-PVPS. pp. 8–10.
3658:10.1016/j.joule.2022.04.024
3504:. U.S. Department of Energy
2538:
2471:high efficiency solar cells
2158:methylammonium lead halides
1086:thin film based solar cells
1055:rooftop photovoltaic system
758:Manufacturing of PV systems
645:), maximum power current (I
641:), maximum power voltage (V
569:Performance and degradation
354:is required to convert the
261:, inventor of the battery (
220:International Energy Agency
207:International Energy Agency
150:high-voltage direct current
132:because it emits much less
62:International Space Station
10:
9786:
8978:Photovoltaic power station
8329:Solar panels on spacecraft
8176:Solar-powered refrigerator
8134:Concentrated photovoltaics
8114:Perturb and observe method
7893:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
7232:Deb, Satyen K. (May 2000)
6925:10.3390/electronics3010132
6601:10.1038/s41586-021-03964-8
6011:"Snapshot 2020 – IEA-PVPS"
5640:10.1038/s41598-019-47803-3
5461:10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.104
5109:Reuters, 23 November 2009.
4746:. IEA-PVPS. 13 March 2015.
4572:10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.057
3610:interestingengineering.com
3460:Journal of Applied Physics
3306:10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.022
3141:Jacobson, Mark Z. (2009).
2343:
2326:Concentrator photovoltaics
2233:
2176:Dye-sensitized solar cells
2171:Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
2119:
2089:
2034:. A photo detector has a
2012:
1969:
1954:
1894:
1871:
1848:
1825:
1802:
1779:
1756:
1733:
1710:
1687:
1664:
1641:
1618:
1595:
1572:
1549:
1526:
1503:
1480:
1457:
1359:
1190:
761:
439:
284:
268:
239:
90:, a phenomenon studied in
9659:
9638:
9608:
9587:
9566:
9550:
9524:
9488:
9462:
9419:
9412:
9372:
9341:
9308:
9299:
9279:
9081:
9043:artificial photosynthesis
9024:
8991:
8934:
8891:
8882:
8859:
8840:
8817:
8745:
8665:
8649:
8640:
8518:
8487:
8453:
8373:
8357:
8311:
8270:
8168:
8161:
8106:
8035:
8027:Heterojunction solar cell
8002:Dye-sensitized solar cell
7962:
7951:
7926:
7880:
7842:Multi-junction solar cell
7832:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
7792:
7785:
7735:Resources in your library
7544:27 September 2007 at the
7184:10.1038/s41560-020-0598-5
7080:10.1007/978-3-642-19965-3
6906:Lattante, Sandro (2014).
6865:Advanced Energy Materials
6808:– via pubs.rsc.org.
6272:"Thin Film Photovoltaics"
4529:– via Google Books.
4218:Environmentalprogress.org
3687:Dunlop, James P. (2012).
3567:10.1038/s41560-020-0598-5
3271:12 September 2012 at the
2944:13 September 2014 at the
2645:Photoelectrochemical cell
2413:rays (which carry heat).
2154:tin halide-based material
2032:electromagnetic radiation
1989:, to large utility-scale
1918:
1406:, while installations in
1355:
1237:" of solar photovoltaics.
1040:multi-crystalline silicon
1005:
833:In an analysis by Alsema
560:solar cells developed at
520:charge carrier separation
166:grid-connected PV systems
9579:Solar water disinfection
9073:Thermoelectric generator
8510:Strasskirchen Solar Park
8401:American Solar Challenge
8247:Solar-powered flashlight
8234:Solar-powered calculator
8229:Solar cell phone charger
7918:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
7525:26 December 2013 at the
7452:80 (2017), pp. 710–715.
7367:Energy at the Crossroads
7347:Self-cooling Solar Cells
6841:10.1088/2399-1984/ab02b5
4016:2012books.lardbucket.org
2948:, Paris, 2010, pp. 1–80.
2630:Energy demand management
2393:. These modules perform
2076:copper indium diselenide
1342:
1028:Mono-crystalline silicon
792:global warming potential
686:Influence of temperature
678:The peak power rating, W
516:thermodynamic efficiency
471:into electricity by the
393:composed of a number of
155:greenhouse gas emissions
142:greenhouse gas emissions
84:semiconducting materials
9287:Solar Shade Control Act
9068:Space-based solar power
8416:Frisian Solar Challenge
8386:List of solar car teams
8144:Space-based solar power
8124:Constant voltage method
8053:Solar charge controller
7939:Timeline of solar cells
7934:Growth of photovoltaics
7384:16 January 2014 at the
6751:10.1038/nphoton.2017.60
6684:Goodson, Flynt (2014).
6057:Applied Physics Letters
5566:10.1126/science.aal1288
4189:"How PV Cells Are Made"
3956:"What is PID? — eicero"
3790:"TSM PC/PM14 Datasheet"
3233:. John Wiley and Sons.
3127:12 October 2010 at the
3122:The photovoltaic effect
2844:Palz, Wolfgang (2013).
2389:into PV modules called
2163:Solar-cell efficiencies
2132:A perovskite solar cell
2085:
2058:Experimental technology
1362:Growth of photovoltaics
1335:offered the first U.S.
1305:Subsidies and financing
1301:for utility companies.
1116:copper zinc tin sulfide
1109:Shockley-Queisser limit
671:can be measured with a
435:Solar cell efficiencies
130:mitigate climate change
74:) is the conversion of
9651:Solar power by country
9326:Thermal energy storage
8951:Nanocrystal solar cell
8906:Solar air conditioning
8406:Formula Sun Grand Prix
8238:Solar-powered fountain
8181:Solar air conditioning
7982:Quantum dot solar cell
7972:Nanocrystal solar cell
7867:Sun-free photovoltaics
7068:Bauer, Thomas (2011).
6885:10.1002/aenm.201400732
6705:Cite journal requires
6663:10.1002/solr.201900089
6242:10.1021/acsami.9b05730
6141:10.1021/acsami.9b15520
6040:22 August 2012 at the
5497:Renewable Energy World
5265:Bloomberg Businessweek
5144:Renewable Energy World
4953:10.1002/lpor.200810039
4434:"PHOTOVOLTAICS REPORT"
3986:"How Solar Cells Work"
3726:Photovoltaic Education
2959:"PHOTOVOLTAICS REPORT"
2675:Solar power by country
2511:
2355:
2289:Solar module alignment
2201:
2133:
2115:Perovskite solar cells
1932:Solar power by country
1371:
1286:
1285:Cushions-Photovoltaics
1238:
1038:Techniques to produce
788:Life-cycle assessments
578:
507:
461:
316:
307:
218:in 2023. In 2023, the
64:
53:
45:
9532:Salt evaporation pond
9501:Hybrid solar lighting
9321:Phase-change material
8396:World Solar Challenge
8219:Photovoltaic keyboard
8149:PV system performance
8022:Perovskite solar cell
7820:Solar cell efficiency
7132:16 March 2015 at the
3044:Smee, Alfred (1849).
2509:
2353:
2346:Solar cell efficiency
2146:perovskite-structured
2138:perovskite solar cell
2131:
2122:Perovskite solar cell
1369:
1337:asset-backed security
1280:
1229:
631:short-circuit current
576:
501:
465:Solar-cell efficiency
451:
442:Solar-cell efficiency
368:recreational vehicles
313:
294:
59:
51:
35:
9058:Solar thermal rocket
8666:Individual producers
8374:Solar vehicle racing
8063:Solar micro-inverter
7992:Plasmonic solar cell
7837:Thin-film solar cell
7805:Photoelectric effect
7617:9 March 2012 at the
7365:Smil, Vaclav (2006)
7337:. greentechmedia.com
7265:10.3390/polym6092473
5872:on 13 September 2014
3689:Photovoltaic systems
3108:14 July 2011 at the
2685:Theory of solar cell
2680:Solar thermal energy
2215:polymer photovoltaic
1966:Photovoltaic systems
995:Operational lifetime
661:Open-circuit voltage
623:open-circuit voltage
598:the year, amount of
532:open-circuit voltage
348:photovoltaic modules
263:electrochemical cell
224:World Energy Outlook
60:Solar panels on the
9626:Solar water heating
9400:Solar water heating
9316:Grid energy storage
9063:Solar updraft tower
8972:Photovoltaic module
8967:Photovoltaic effect
8921:Solar water heating
8262:Solar traffic light
8242:Solar-powered radio
8209:Solar-powered watch
8017:Printed solar panel
7852:Solar cell research
7697:2018SoEn..159..390M
7670:20 May 2019 at the
7587:cityofberkeley.info
7499:2010EnPol..38.7041M
7293:2012NatMa..11...44S
7176:2020NatEn...5..326G
7071:Thermophotovoltaics
7047:2009SoEn...83.1434G
6877:2014AdEnM...400732D
6833:2019NanoF...3a2002N
6790:2013PCCP...15.2328R
6743:2017NaPho..11..372F
6593:2021Natur.598..444M
6454:(21): 12956–13008.
6236:(28): 25195–25204.
6135:(49): 45646–45655.
6069:2008ApPhL..92g1102H
5934:2020EnPol.14411561D
5749:2017EnPol.109..747M
5631:2019NatSR...911442A
5558:2017Sci...356..141H
5324:2014EnPol..67..488A
5125:, 24 November 2009.
5010:2009EnST...43.2072W
4945:2009LPRv....3..394B
4906:2014ApEn..120...41G
4851:2012CEES...29..231G
4816:2014SoEn..105..669Y
4350:2014Ene....74..314C
4256:2008EnST...42.2168F
3966:on 4 September 2017
3559:2020NatEn...5..326G
3472:2017JAP...121a4502K
3345:2015Ene....89..739K
3159:2009GeCAS..73R.581J
3103:Photovoltaic Effect
2229:Thermophotovoltaics
2140:(PSC) is a type of
2040:electron–hole pairs
1983:building-integrated
1972:Photovoltaic system
1437:
1430:
1398:is followed by the
1071:energy payback time
1065:, and 0.4 years in
1024:Crystalline silicon
903:
855:Energy payback Time
504:electron hole pairs
480:photovoltaic system
407:photovoltaic arrays
399:Copper solar cables
380:cathodic protection
329:photovoltaic effect
111:photovoltaic system
88:photovoltaic effect
18:Photovoltaic module
9454:Solar-powered pump
9048:Solar-pumped laser
8961:Photovoltaic array
8956:Organic solar cell
8939:and related topics
8298:The Quiet Achiever
8257:Solar street light
8204:Solar-powered pump
7977:Organic solar cell
7857:Thermophotovoltaic
7825:Quantum efficiency
7650:10.3390/su10041224
7612:DSIRE Solar Portal
7016:10.1039/C3TA01611K
6798:10.1039/C2CP43220J
6189:10.3390/mi11121127
6099:"Solar PV Modules"
5721:. 21 November 2013
5619:Scientific Reports
5272:on 27 October 2012
5188:OurWorldInData.org
3934:www.solarplaza.com
3909:Energy Informative
3802:on 29 October 2013
3424:David J. C. MacKay
3032:10.1093/ce/zkab011
2512:
2356:
2261:cell similar to a
2243:Thermophotovoltaic
2134:
1927:report, April 2023
1435:
1426:
1372:
1322:economies of scale
1287:
1239:
901:
877:. This coke-fired
734:Chemicals such as
579:
540:§ Fill factor
528:quantum efficiency
508:
462:
336:recharge batteries
317:
308:
201:, PV is the third
191:electricity demand
171:economies of scale
65:
54:
46:
9765:Energy conversion
9755:Quantum chemistry
9691:
9690:
9634:
9633:
9616:Solar combisystem
9574:Soil solarization
9480:Urban heat island
9408:
9407:
9380:Electric aircraft
9295:
9294:
9011:Solar power tower
8777:
8776:
8741:
8740:
8636:
8635:
8449:
8448:
8324:Mauro Solar Riser
8319:Electric aircraft
8252:Solar-powered fan
8157:
8156:
8048:Balance of system
8036:System components
7987:Hybrid solar cell
7947:
7946:
7908:Cadmium telluride
7721:Library resources
7493:(11): 7041–7047.
7089:978-3-642-19964-6
6587:(7881): 444–450.
6516:10.1021/ja809598r
6510:(17): 6050–6051.
6077:10.1063/1.2884264
5797:978-92-3-100450-6
5790:. Paris: UNESCO.
5552:(6334): 141–143.
5499:. 29 August 2011.
5242:National Interest
5169:978-92-9260-244-4
5062:(10): 2753–2758.
5018:10.1021/es8019534
4687:www.simcoa.com.au
4662:www.iea-pvps.org/
4519:978-0-85793-638-7
4406:clca.columbia.edu
4264:10.1021/es071763q
4091:(10): 1176–1187.
3834:on 9 January 2019
3751:Electrical School
3698:978-1-935941-05-7
3480:10.1063/1.4973117
3240:978-0-471-49196-5
3074:978-981-4411-87-5
2980:"Renewables 2019"
2885:Our World in Data
2857:978-981-4411-87-5
2751:. 26 October 2022
2660:Solar cell fabric
2600:
2599:
2592:
2479:Housing subsidies
2367:Sharp Corporation
2265:but tuned to the
2255:thermal radiation
2109:solar irradiation
2072:cadmium telluride
1940:
1939:
1914:
1913:
1211:
1210:
1082:Cadmium telluride
1016:
1015:
940:Module efficiency
896:sawing techniques
875:electric furnaces
861:EPBT improvements
610:continuous flow.
86:that exhibit the
16:(Redirected from
9777:
9760:Electrochemistry
9732:
9731:
9722:Renewable energy
9720:
9719:
9708:
9707:
9699:
9679:
9678:
9667:
9666:
9621:Solar controller
9417:
9416:
9306:
9305:
9006:Parabolic trough
8889:
8888:
8877:
8871:
8865:
8853:Solar irradiance
8804:
8797:
8790:
8781:
8780:
8765:
8764:
8753:
8752:
8647:
8646:
8488:Building-mounted
8466:PV power station
8462:
8461:
8391:Solar challenges
8381:Solar car racing
8349:Solar Challenger
8339:Gossamer Penguin
8166:
8165:
7960:
7959:
7810:Solar irradiance
7790:
7789:
7772:
7765:
7758:
7749:
7748:
7709:
7708:
7680:
7674:
7661:
7655:
7654:
7652:
7628:
7622:
7609:
7603:
7602:
7600:
7598:
7589:. Archived from
7579:
7573:
7567:
7561:
7555:
7549:
7536:
7530:
7517:
7511:
7510:
7484:
7475:
7469:
7462:
7456:
7446:
7440:
7439:
7437:
7435:
7421:
7415:
7414:
7412:
7410:
7405:. 29 August 2013
7395:
7389:
7376:
7370:
7363:
7354:
7344:
7338:
7331:
7325:
7319:
7313:
7312:
7301:10.1038/nmat3160
7281:Nature Materials
7276:
7270:
7269:
7267:
7258:(9): 2473–2509.
7243:
7237:
7230:
7224:
7218:
7212:
7211:
7155:
7149:
7143:
7137:
7124:
7118:
7112:
7106:
7100:
7094:
7093:
7065:
7059:
7058:
7041:(9): 1434–1445.
7026:
7020:
7019:
6994:
6988:
6987:
6978:(5): 1293–1302.
6966:
6960:
6959:
6939:
6930:
6929:
6927:
6903:
6897:
6896:
6859:
6853:
6852:
6816:
6810:
6809:
6784:(7): 2328–2336.
6769:
6763:
6762:
6731:Nature Photonics
6721:
6715:
6714:
6708:
6703:
6701:
6693:
6681:
6675:
6674:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6627:
6621:
6620:
6575:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6559:on 3 August 2022
6558:
6545:
6537:
6528:
6527:
6499:
6493:
6492:
6480:
6474:
6473:
6463:
6448:Chemical Reviews
6439:
6430:
6429:
6421:
6415:
6414:
6408:
6400:
6390:
6366:
6360:
6359:
6353:
6345:
6305:
6299:
6293:
6287:
6286:
6284:
6282:
6276:www.fsec.ucf.edu
6268:
6262:
6261:
6221:
6212:
6211:
6201:
6191:
6167:
6161:
6160:
6120:
6114:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6095:
6089:
6088:
6051:
6045:
6032:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6021:
6007:
5998:
5997:
5995:
5993:
5978:
5972:
5971:
5953:
5913:
5900:
5899:
5888:
5882:
5881:
5879:
5877:
5858:
5852:
5851:
5845:
5837:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5826:
5816:
5808:
5802:
5801:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5728:
5722:
5712:
5706:
5699:
5693:
5692:
5686:
5677:
5671:
5670:
5660:
5642:
5610:
5604:
5603:
5577:
5536:
5527:
5526:
5524:
5522:
5507:
5501:
5500:
5489:
5483:
5482:
5472:
5455:(9): 4470–4482.
5440:
5427:
5426:
5424:
5422:
5405:
5399:
5398:
5396:
5394:
5388:
5381:
5373:
5367:
5366:
5364:
5362:
5350:
5344:
5343:
5303:
5294:
5288:
5282:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5268:. Archived from
5255:
5246:
5245:
5233:
5224:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5208:
5197:
5195:
5180:
5174:
5173:
5154:
5148:
5147:
5135:
5126:
5116:
5110:
5104:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5088:on 17 April 2012
5078:
5072:
5071:
5056:Renewable Energy
5050:
5044:
5043:
5037:
5029:
5004:(6): 2072–2077.
4993:
4987:
4984:
4978:
4974:
4965:
4964:
4924:
4918:
4917:
4889:
4880:
4877:
4871:
4870:
4834:
4828:
4827:
4799:
4790:
4789:
4769:
4760:
4757:
4748:
4747:
4740:
4734:
4733:
4726:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4709:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4698:
4679:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4659:
4650:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4630:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4596:
4590:
4589:
4583:
4575:
4554:
4545:
4544:
4538:
4530:
4528:
4526:
4503:
4497:
4496:
4490:
4482:
4471:10.1002/pip.2226
4465:(7): 1541–1554.
4454:
4445:
4444:
4438:
4430:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4403:
4391:
4376:
4375:
4369:
4361:
4325:
4308:
4307:
4301:
4293:
4275:
4250:(6): 2168–2174.
4239:
4230:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4199:
4193:www.fsec.ucf.edu
4185:
4179:
4178:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4153:
4130:Renewable Energy
4125:
4119:
4118:
4108:
4097:10.1002/pip.3567
4079:
4073:
4072:
4062:
4051:10.1002/pip.3409
4033:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4022:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3997:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3971:
3962:. Archived from
3951:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3940:
3926:
3920:
3919:
3917:
3915:
3901:
3895:
3894:
3888:
3884:
3882:
3874:
3863:10.1002/pip.3396
3850:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3833:
3827:. Archived from
3826:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3801:
3795:. Archived from
3794:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3651:
3642:(5): 1121–1135.
3627:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3616:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3455:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3438:
3432:inference.org.uk
3420:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3409:
3392:
3383:
3382:
3364:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3285:
3276:
3263:
3257:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3224:
3218:
3211:
3205:
3199:
3193:
3190:German PV market
3187:
3181:
3180:
3177:10.1039/B809990C
3170:
3138:
3132:
3119:
3113:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3041:
3035:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3009:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2963:
2955:
2949:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2875:
2862:
2861:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2824:
2818:. Archived from
2809:
2794:Renewable Energy
2791:
2782:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2704:
2595:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2575:
2551:
2550:
2543:
2387:power optimizers
2144:that includes a
2044:depletion region
1979:roof-top mounted
1901:
1900:
1878:
1877:
1855:
1854:
1832:
1831:
1809:
1808:
1786:
1785:
1763:
1762:
1740:
1739:
1717:
1716:
1694:
1693:
1671:
1670:
1648:
1647:
1625:
1624:
1602:
1601:
1579:
1578:
1556:
1555:
1533:
1532:
1510:
1509:
1487:
1486:
1464:
1463:
1438:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1394:, use solar PV.
1206:Source: Apricus
1197:
1196:
1053:, Canada, for a
904:
900:
850:energy economics
600:solar irradiance
429:capacity factors
403:renewable energy
259:Alessandro Volta
248:
242:
241:
203:renewable energy
100:electrochemistry
38:Solar Settlement
21:
9785:
9784:
9780:
9779:
9778:
9776:
9775:
9774:
9770:Optoelectronics
9740:
9739:
9738:
9726:
9714:
9702:
9694:
9692:
9687:
9655:
9630:
9604:
9583:
9562:
9546:
9520:
9484:
9458:
9423:
9404:
9368:
9337:
9301:
9291:
9275:
9077:
9026:
9020:
8987:
8938:
8930:
8878:
8872:
8866:
8857:
8836:
8813:
8808:
8778:
8773:
8737:
8661:
8632:
8514:
8483:
8456:
8445:
8369:
8358:Water transport
8353:
8307:
8293:Solar golf cart
8266:
8224:Solar road stud
8153:
8107:System concepts
8102:
8031:
7954:
7943:
7922:
7876:
7781:
7776:
7746:
7745:
7744:
7729:
7728:
7724:
7717:
7715:Further reading
7712:
7681:
7677:
7672:Wayback Machine
7662:
7658:
7629:
7625:
7619:Wayback Machine
7610:
7606:
7596:
7594:
7581:
7580:
7576:
7568:
7564:
7556:
7552:
7546:Wayback Machine
7537:
7533:
7527:Wayback Machine
7518:
7514:
7482:
7476:
7472:
7463:
7459:
7447:
7443:
7433:
7431:
7423:
7422:
7418:
7408:
7406:
7397:
7396:
7392:
7386:Wayback Machine
7377:
7373:
7364:
7357:
7345:
7341:
7332:
7328:
7320:
7316:
7277:
7273:
7244:
7240:
7231:
7227:
7219:
7215:
7156:
7152:
7144:
7140:
7136:. farniente.com
7134:Wayback Machine
7125:
7121:
7113:
7109:
7101:
7097:
7090:
7066:
7062:
7027:
7023:
6995:
6991:
6967:
6963:
6940:
6933:
6904:
6900:
6860:
6856:
6817:
6813:
6770:
6766:
6722:
6718:
6706:
6704:
6695:
6694:
6682:
6678:
6647:
6643:
6628:
6624:
6576:
6572:
6562:
6560:
6556:
6543:
6539:
6538:
6531:
6500:
6496:
6481:
6477:
6440:
6433:
6422:
6418:
6402:
6401:
6367:
6363:
6347:
6346:
6306:
6302:
6294:
6290:
6280:
6278:
6270:
6269:
6265:
6222:
6215:
6168:
6164:
6121:
6117:
6107:
6105:
6103:www.targray.com
6097:
6096:
6092:
6052:
6048:
6042:Wayback Machine
6033:
6029:
6019:
6017:
6009:
6008:
6001:
5991:
5989:
5980:
5979:
5975:
5914:
5903:
5892:"Snapshot 2020"
5890:
5889:
5885:
5875:
5873:
5860:
5859:
5855:
5843:
5839:
5838:
5834:
5824:
5822:
5814:
5810:
5809:
5805:
5798:
5782:
5778:
5770:
5766:
5729:
5725:
5713:
5709:
5700:
5696:
5684:
5678:
5674:
5611:
5607:
5540:Nancy M. Haegel
5537:
5530:
5520:
5518:
5508:
5504:
5491:
5490:
5486:
5441:
5430:
5420:
5418:
5406:
5402:
5392:
5390:
5386:
5379:
5375:
5374:
5370:
5360:
5358:
5351:
5347:
5304:
5297:
5289:
5285:
5275:
5273:
5256:
5249:
5234:
5227:
5217:
5215:
5210:
5209:
5200:
5182:
5181:
5177:
5170:
5156:
5155:
5151:
5136:
5129:
5117:
5113:
5105:
5101:
5091:
5089:
5080:
5079:
5075:
5051:
5047:
5031:
5030:
4994:
4990:
4985:
4981:
4975:
4968:
4925:
4921:
4890:
4883:
4878:
4874:
4835:
4831:
4800:
4793:
4770:
4763:
4758:
4751:
4742:
4741:
4737:
4728:
4727:
4723:
4715:
4711:
4710:
4706:
4696:
4694:
4693:on 19 June 2014
4681:
4680:
4676:
4668:
4657:
4651:
4647:
4639:
4628:
4622:
4618:
4603:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4577:
4576:
4555:
4548:
4532:
4531:
4524:
4522:
4520:
4504:
4500:
4484:
4483:
4455:
4448:
4436:
4432:
4431:
4420:
4412:
4408:. 31 May 2009.
4401:
4398:
4393:
4392:
4379:
4363:
4362:
4335:
4331:
4326:
4311:
4295:
4294:
4240:
4233:
4223:
4221:
4212:
4211:
4207:
4197:
4195:
4187:
4186:
4182:
4171:
4167:
4126:
4122:
4080:
4076:
4034:
4030:
4020:
4018:
4010:
4009:
4005:
3995:
3993:
3984:
3983:
3979:
3969:
3967:
3952:
3948:
3938:
3936:
3928:
3927:
3923:
3913:
3911:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3886:
3885:
3876:
3875:
3851:
3847:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3824:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3805:
3803:
3799:
3792:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3775:
3771:
3770:
3766:
3756:
3754:
3745:
3744:
3740:
3730:
3728:
3722:"Bypass Diodes"
3718:
3714:
3699:
3685:
3681:
3628:
3624:
3614:
3612:
3602:
3598:
3539:
3535:
3521:
3517:
3507:
3505:
3500:
3499:
3495:
3456:
3449:
3436:
3434:
3421:
3417:
3407:
3405:
3393:
3386:
3325:
3321:
3286:
3279:
3273:Wayback Machine
3264:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3225:
3221:
3212:
3208:
3200:
3196:
3188:
3184:
3168:10.1.1.180.4676
3139:
3135:
3129:Wayback Machine
3120:
3116:
3110:Wayback Machine
3101:
3097:
3088:Noguchi, Masa.
3086:
3082:
3075:
3059:
3055:
3042:
3038:
3021:
3017:
3007:
3005:
3000:
2999:
2995:
2985:
2983:
2978:
2977:
2973:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2946:Wayback Machine
2936:
2932:
2911:(4): 993–1015.
2905:Research Policy
2897:
2893:
2876:
2865:
2858:
2842:
2838:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2807:10.1.1.692.1880
2789:
2783:
2764:
2754:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2705:
2698:
2694:
2689:
2596:
2585:
2579:
2576:
2562:Please help by
2561:
2552:
2548:
2541:
2499:
2452:operating costs
2419:
2409:, but reflects
2348:
2342:
2295:zenith distance
2291:
2286:
2285:
2239:
2231:
2224:
2204:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2173:
2168:
2167:
2125:
2117:
2106:
2094:
2088:
2060:
2017:
2011:
1993:of hundreds of
1974:
1968:
1959:
1953:
1928:
1895:
1872:
1849:
1826:
1803:
1780:
1757:
1734:
1711:
1688:
1665:
1642:
1619:
1596:
1573:
1550:
1527:
1504:
1481:
1458:
1450:Added capacity
1364:
1358:
1345:
1314:feed-in tariffs
1307:
1275:
1224:
1204:
1202:
1195:
1189:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1105:
1098:
1079:
1045:
1034:
1021:
984:Glass thickness
973:Silver per cell
918:Cell efficiency
863:
842:net energy gain
828:power inverters
783:
766:
760:
741:
715:
688:
681:
670:
666:
656:
649:), peak power (
648:
644:
636:
628:
616:
571:
566:
565:
550:ratio values.
549:
545:
537:
445:
437:
418:
289:
283:
271:
232:
179:feed-in tariffs
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9783:
9773:
9772:
9767:
9762:
9757:
9752:
9737:
9736:
9724:
9712:
9689:
9688:
9686:
9685:
9673:
9660:
9657:
9656:
9654:
9653:
9648:
9642:
9640:
9636:
9635:
9632:
9631:
9629:
9628:
9623:
9618:
9612:
9610:
9606:
9605:
9603:
9602:
9597:
9591:
9589:
9585:
9584:
9582:
9581:
9576:
9570:
9568:
9564:
9563:
9561:
9560:
9554:
9552:
9548:
9547:
9545:
9544:
9539:
9534:
9528:
9526:
9522:
9521:
9519:
9518:
9513:
9508:
9503:
9498:
9492:
9490:
9486:
9485:
9483:
9482:
9477:
9472:
9466:
9464:
9460:
9459:
9457:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9436:
9430:
9428:
9414:
9410:
9409:
9406:
9405:
9403:
9402:
9397:
9392:
9387:
9382:
9376:
9374:
9370:
9369:
9367:
9366:
9361:
9356:
9354:Feed-in tariff
9351:
9349:Cost by source
9345:
9343:
9339:
9338:
9336:
9335:
9334:
9333:
9323:
9318:
9312:
9310:
9303:
9297:
9296:
9293:
9292:
9290:
9289:
9283:
9281:
9277:
9276:
9274:
9273:
9268:
9263:
9261:United Kingdom
9258:
9253:
9248:
9243:
9238:
9233:
9228:
9223:
9218:
9213:
9208:
9203:
9198:
9193:
9188:
9183:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9163:
9158:
9153:
9148:
9143:
9138:
9133:
9131:Czech Republic
9128:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9108:
9103:
9098:
9093:
9087:
9085:
9079:
9078:
9076:
9075:
9070:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9050:
9045:
9039:Solar chemical
9036:
9030:
9028:
9022:
9021:
9019:
9018:
9013:
9008:
9003:
8997:
8995:
8989:
8988:
8986:
8985:
8980:
8975:
8969:
8964:
8958:
8953:
8948:
8946:Floating solar
8942:
8940:
8932:
8931:
8929:
8928:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8908:
8903:
8897:
8895:
8886:
8880:
8879:
8860:
8858:
8856:
8855:
8850:
8844:
8842:
8838:
8837:
8835:
8834:
8829:
8824:
8818:
8815:
8814:
8807:
8806:
8799:
8792:
8784:
8775:
8774:
8772:
8771:
8759:
8746:
8743:
8742:
8739:
8738:
8736:
8735:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8715:
8710:
8705:
8703:Solar Frontier
8700:
8695:
8690:
8685:
8680:
8678:Hanwha Q CELLS
8675:
8669:
8667:
8663:
8662:
8660:
8659:
8653:
8651:
8644:
8638:
8637:
8634:
8633:
8631:
8630:
8625:
8623:United Kingdom
8620:
8615:
8610:
8605:
8600:
8595:
8590:
8585:
8580:
8575:
8570:
8565:
8560:
8558:Czech Republic
8555:
8550:
8545:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8524:
8522:
8516:
8515:
8513:
8512:
8507:
8502:
8497:
8491:
8489:
8485:
8484:
8482:
8481:
8476:
8470:
8468:
8459:
8451:
8450:
8447:
8446:
8444:
8443:
8438:
8433:
8428:
8423:
8418:
8413:
8408:
8403:
8398:
8393:
8388:
8383:
8377:
8375:
8371:
8370:
8368:
8367:
8361:
8359:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8351:
8346:
8344:Qinetiq Zephyr
8341:
8336:
8331:
8326:
8321:
8315:
8313:
8309:
8308:
8306:
8305:
8300:
8295:
8290:
8285:
8280:
8274:
8272:
8271:Land transport
8268:
8267:
8265:
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8236:
8231:
8226:
8221:
8216:
8211:
8206:
8201:
8198:
8196:Solar backpack
8193:
8188:
8183:
8178:
8172:
8170:
8163:
8159:
8158:
8155:
8154:
8152:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8110:
8108:
8104:
8103:
8101:
8100:
8098:Synchronverter
8095:
8090:
8088:Solar shingles
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8065:
8060:
8058:Solar inverter
8055:
8050:
8045:
8039:
8037:
8033:
8032:
8030:
8029:
8024:
8019:
8014:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7979:
7974:
7968:
7966:
7957:
7949:
7948:
7945:
7944:
7942:
7941:
7936:
7930:
7928:
7924:
7923:
7921:
7920:
7915:
7910:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7884:
7882:
7878:
7877:
7875:
7874:
7869:
7864:
7859:
7854:
7849:
7844:
7839:
7834:
7829:
7828:
7827:
7817:
7815:Solar constant
7812:
7807:
7802:
7796:
7794:
7787:
7783:
7782:
7775:
7774:
7767:
7760:
7752:
7743:
7742:
7737:
7731:
7730:
7719:
7718:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7710:
7675:
7656:
7637:Sustainability
7623:
7604:
7593:on 2 June 2013
7574:
7562:
7550:
7531:
7512:
7470:
7457:
7441:
7416:
7390:
7371:
7355:
7339:
7326:
7314:
7271:
7238:
7225:
7213:
7170:(4): 326–335.
7150:
7138:
7119:
7107:
7095:
7088:
7060:
7021:
6989:
6961:
6931:
6898:
6854:
6811:
6764:
6737:(6): 372–378.
6716:
6707:|journal=
6676:
6657:(9): 1900089.
6641:
6622:
6570:
6529:
6494:
6475:
6431:
6416:
6361:
6300:
6288:
6263:
6213:
6162:
6115:
6090:
6046:
6027:
5999:
5988:. 23 July 2021
5973:
5901:
5883:
5853:
5832:
5803:
5796:
5776:
5764:
5723:
5707:
5694:
5672:
5605:
5528:
5516:Foreign Policy
5502:
5484:
5428:
5415:Wood Mackenzie
5400:
5368:
5345:
5295:
5283:
5247:
5225:
5198:
5175:
5168:
5149:
5127:
5111:
5099:
5073:
5045:
4988:
4979:
4966:
4939:(4): 394–405.
4919:
4894:Applied Energy
4881:
4872:
4845:(4): 231–238.
4829:
4791:
4780:(4): 394–412.
4761:
4749:
4735:
4721:
4704:
4674:
4645:
4616:
4601:
4591:
4546:
4518:
4498:
4446:
4418:
4396:
4377:
4333:
4329:
4309:
4231:
4220:. 21 June 2017
4205:
4180:
4165:
4120:
4074:
4045:(8): 907–919.
4028:
4003:
3977:
3946:
3921:
3896:
3845:
3813:
3781:
3764:
3753:. 13 June 2018
3738:
3712:
3697:
3679:
3622:
3596:
3553:(4): 326–335.
3533:
3515:
3493:
3447:
3415:
3384:
3319:
3277:
3258:
3246:
3239:
3219:
3206:
3194:
3182:
3153:(2): 148–173.
3133:
3114:
3095:
3080:
3073:
3053:
3036:
3015:
2993:
2971:
2950:
2930:
2891:
2863:
2856:
2836:
2825:on 31 May 2014
2762:
2740:
2714:Applied Energy
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2580:September 2022
2555:
2553:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2495:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2418:
2415:
2360:multi-junction
2344:Main article:
2341:
2338:
2334:solar trackers
2330:multi-junction
2320:floating solar
2290:
2287:
2282:steam turbines
2240:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2203:
2200:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2172:
2169:
2126:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2104:
2098:semiconductors
2090:Main article:
2087:
2084:
2059:
2056:
2015:Photodetectors
2013:Main article:
2010:
2007:
1999:grid-connected
1991:power stations
1970:Main article:
1967:
1964:
1955:Main article:
1952:
1949:
1938:
1937:
1916:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1893:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1801:
1797:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1765:United Kingdom
1755:
1751:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1709:
1705:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1663:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1640:
1636:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1617:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1594:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1502:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1448:
1447:Total capacity
1445:
1442:
1382:More than 100
1360:Main article:
1357:
1354:
1344:
1341:
1329:securitization
1306:
1303:
1274:
1271:
1223:
1222:Hardware costs
1220:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1188:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1128:zinc phosphide
1123:
1119:
1104:
1101:
1096:
1078:
1075:
1043:
1032:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1003:
1002:
999:
996:
992:
991:
988:
985:
981:
980:
977:
974:
970:
969:
966:
963:
959:
958:
955:
952:
948:
947:
944:
941:
937:
936:
933:
930:
926:
925:
922:
919:
915:
914:
911:
908:
862:
859:
782:
779:
759:
756:
739:
714:
711:
707:
706:
703:
700:
687:
684:
679:
668:
664:
654:
646:
642:
637:, measured in
634:
626:
617:, measured in
614:
570:
567:
555:multi-junction
547:
543:
535:
446:
438:
436:
433:
423:). The actual
416:
376:remote sensing
321:electric power
302:directly from
285:Main article:
282:
279:
270:
267:
231:
228:
222:stated in its
146:energy storage
134:carbon dioxide
96:photochemistry
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9782:
9771:
9768:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9758:
9756:
9753:
9751:
9750:Photovoltaics
9748:
9747:
9745:
9735:
9730:
9725:
9723:
9718:
9713:
9711:
9706:
9701:
9700:
9697:
9684:
9683:
9674:
9672:
9671:
9662:
9661:
9658:
9652:
9649:
9647:
9646:Photovoltaics
9644:
9643:
9641:
9637:
9627:
9624:
9622:
9619:
9617:
9614:
9613:
9611:
9609:Water heating
9607:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9592:
9590:
9586:
9580:
9577:
9575:
9572:
9571:
9569:
9565:
9559:
9556:
9555:
9553:
9549:
9543:
9540:
9538:
9537:Solar furnace
9535:
9533:
9530:
9529:
9527:
9523:
9517:
9514:
9512:
9509:
9507:
9504:
9502:
9499:
9497:
9494:
9493:
9491:
9487:
9481:
9478:
9476:
9473:
9471:
9468:
9467:
9465:
9461:
9455:
9452:
9450:
9447:
9445:
9442:
9440:
9437:
9435:
9432:
9431:
9429:
9427:
9422:
9418:
9415:
9411:
9401:
9398:
9396:
9395:Solar vehicle
9393:
9391:
9390:Solar balloon
9388:
9386:
9385:Electric boat
9383:
9381:
9378:
9377:
9375:
9371:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9350:
9347:
9346:
9344:
9340:
9332:
9329:
9328:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9319:
9317:
9314:
9313:
9311:
9307:
9304:
9298:
9288:
9285:
9284:
9282:
9278:
9272:
9269:
9267:
9266:United States
9264:
9262:
9259:
9257:
9254:
9252:
9249:
9247:
9244:
9242:
9239:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9227:
9224:
9222:
9219:
9217:
9214:
9212:
9209:
9207:
9204:
9202:
9199:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9089:
9088:
9086:
9084:
9080:
9074:
9071:
9069:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9049:
9046:
9044:
9040:
9037:
9035:
9034:Magnetic sail
9032:
9031:
9029:
9023:
9017:
9016:Solar tracker
9014:
9012:
9009:
9007:
9004:
9002:
8999:
8998:
8996:
8994:
8990:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:(solar panel)
8973:
8970:
8968:
8965:
8963:(and systems)
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8947:
8944:
8943:
8941:
8937:
8936:Photovoltaics
8933:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8912:
8911:Solar chimney
8909:
8907:
8904:
8902:
8899:
8898:
8896:
8894:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8881:
8876:
8870:
8864:
8854:
8851:
8849:
8846:
8845:
8843:
8839:
8833:
8830:
8828:
8825:
8823:
8820:
8819:
8816:
8812:
8805:
8800:
8798:
8793:
8791:
8786:
8785:
8782:
8770:
8769:
8760:
8758:
8757:
8748:
8747:
8744:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8670:
8668:
8664:
8658:
8655:
8654:
8652:
8648:
8645:
8643:
8639:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8599:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8586:
8584:
8581:
8579:
8576:
8574:
8571:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8525:
8523:
8521:
8517:
8511:
8508:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8496:
8493:
8492:
8490:
8486:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8471:
8469:
8467:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8452:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8417:
8414:
8412:
8409:
8407:
8404:
8402:
8399:
8397:
8394:
8392:
8389:
8387:
8384:
8382:
8379:
8378:
8376:
8372:
8366:
8363:
8362:
8360:
8356:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8316:
8314:
8312:Air transport
8310:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8294:
8291:
8289:
8288:Solar roadway
8286:
8284:
8281:
8279:
8278:Solar vehicle
8276:
8275:
8273:
8269:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8237:
8235:
8232:
8230:
8227:
8225:
8222:
8220:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8199:
8197:
8194:
8192:
8191:Solar charger
8189:
8187:
8184:
8182:
8179:
8177:
8174:
8173:
8171:
8167:
8164:
8160:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8117:
8115:
8112:
8111:
8109:
8105:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8089:
8086:
8084:
8083:Solar tracker
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8040:
8038:
8034:
8028:
8025:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8015:
8013:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7973:
7970:
7969:
7967:
7965:
7961:
7958:
7956:
7950:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7931:
7929:
7925:
7919:
7916:
7914:
7911:
7909:
7906:
7904:
7901:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7885:
7883:
7879:
7873:
7870:
7868:
7865:
7863:
7860:
7858:
7855:
7853:
7850:
7848:
7845:
7843:
7840:
7838:
7835:
7833:
7830:
7826:
7823:
7822:
7821:
7818:
7816:
7813:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7800:Photovoltaics
7798:
7797:
7795:
7791:
7788:
7784:
7780:
7779:Photovoltaics
7773:
7768:
7766:
7761:
7759:
7754:
7753:
7750:
7741:
7738:
7736:
7733:
7732:
7727:
7726:Photovoltaics
7722:
7706:
7702:
7698:
7694:
7690:
7686:
7679:
7673:
7669:
7666:
7660:
7651:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7627:
7620:
7616:
7613:
7608:
7592:
7588:
7584:
7578:
7571:
7566:
7559:
7554:
7547:
7543:
7540:
7535:
7528:
7524:
7521:
7516:
7508:
7504:
7500:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7487:Energy Policy
7481:
7474:
7467:
7461:
7455:
7451:
7445:
7430:
7426:
7420:
7404:
7400:
7394:
7387:
7383:
7380:
7375:
7368:
7362:
7360:
7352:
7348:
7343:
7336:
7330:
7323:
7318:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7275:
7266:
7261:
7257:
7253:
7249:
7242:
7235:
7229:
7222:
7217:
7209:
7205:
7201:
7197:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7164:Nature Energy
7161:
7154:
7147:
7142:
7135:
7131:
7128:
7123:
7116:
7111:
7104:
7099:
7091:
7085:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7072:
7064:
7056:
7052:
7048:
7044:
7040:
7036:
7032:
7025:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7005:
7001:
6993:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6973:
6965:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6938:
6936:
6926:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6902:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6858:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6830:
6827:(1): 012002.
6826:
6822:
6815:
6807:
6803:
6799:
6795:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6768:
6760:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6736:
6732:
6728:
6720:
6712:
6699:
6691:
6687:
6680:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6652:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6626:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6590:
6586:
6582:
6574:
6555:
6551:
6550:
6542:
6536:
6534:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6513:
6509:
6505:
6498:
6490:
6486:
6479:
6471:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6438:
6436:
6427:
6420:
6412:
6406:
6398:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6381:: S110–S121.
6380:
6376:
6372:
6365:
6357:
6351:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6304:
6297:
6292:
6277:
6273:
6267:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6220:
6218:
6209:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6181:
6177:
6176:Micromachines
6173:
6166:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6119:
6104:
6100:
6094:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6063:(7): 071102.
6062:
6058:
6050:
6043:
6039:
6036:
6031:
6016:
6012:
6006:
6004:
5987:
5983:
5977:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5943:
5939:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5923:
5922:Energy Policy
5919:
5912:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5897:
5893:
5887:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5857:
5849:
5842:
5836:
5820:
5813:
5807:
5799:
5793:
5789:
5788:
5780:
5773:
5768:
5759:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5737:Energy Policy
5734:
5727:
5720:
5716:
5711:
5704:
5698:
5690:
5683:
5676:
5668:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5609:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5546:
5541:
5535:
5533:
5517:
5513:
5506:
5498:
5494:
5488:
5480:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5439:
5437:
5435:
5433:
5417:
5416:
5411:
5404:
5385:
5378:
5372:
5356:
5349:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5312:Energy Policy
5309:
5302:
5300:
5292:
5287:
5271:
5267:
5266:
5261:
5254:
5252:
5243:
5239:
5232:
5230:
5213:
5207:
5205:
5203:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5179:
5171:
5165:
5161:
5160:
5153:
5145:
5141:
5134:
5132:
5124:
5120:
5115:
5108:
5103:
5087:
5083:
5077:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5057:
5049:
5041:
5035:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4992:
4983:
4973:
4971:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4923:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4888:
4886:
4876:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4833:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4796:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4768:
4766:
4756:
4754:
4745:
4739:
4731:
4725:
4714:
4708:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4678:
4667:
4663:
4656:
4649:
4638:
4634:
4627:
4620:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4595:
4587:
4581:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4553:
4551:
4542:
4536:
4521:
4515:
4511:
4510:
4502:
4494:
4488:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4453:
4451:
4442:
4435:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4411:
4407:
4400:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4373:
4367:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4305:
4299:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4236:
4219:
4215:
4209:
4194:
4190:
4184:
4176:
4169:
4161:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4124:
4116:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4078:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4032:
4017:
4013:
4007:
3991:
3990:HowStuffWorks
3987:
3981:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3950:
3935:
3931:
3925:
3910:
3906:
3900:
3892:
3880:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3849:
3830:
3823:
3817:
3798:
3791:
3785:
3774:
3768:
3752:
3748:
3742:
3727:
3723:
3716:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3694:
3690:
3683:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3626:
3611:
3607:
3600:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3547:Nature Energy
3544:
3537:
3529:
3528:
3519:
3503:
3497:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3466:(1): 014502.
3465:
3461:
3454:
3452:
3444:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3419:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3391:
3389:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3323:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3300:: 1092–1105.
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3282:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3262:
3255:
3250:
3242:
3236:
3232:
3231:
3223:
3216:
3210:
3203:
3198:
3191:
3186:
3178:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3118:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3099:
3091:
3084:
3076:
3070:
3067:. CRC Press.
3066:
3065:
3057:
3049:
3048:
3040:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3003:
2997:
2981:
2975:
2967:
2960:
2954:
2947:
2943:
2940:
2934:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2895:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2859:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2840:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2750:
2744:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2721:(2): 167–74.
2720:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2703:
2701:
2696:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2591:
2583:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2556:This section
2554:
2545:
2544:
2536:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2508:
2501:
2500:
2497:Disadvantages
2494:
2492:
2488:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2449:
2444:
2441:
2436:
2433:
2430:The 122
2423:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2391:smart modules
2388:
2383:
2379:
2376:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2361:
2352:
2347:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2321:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2226:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2199:
2195:
2184:
2183:nanoparticles
2177:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2130:
2123:
2112:
2110:
2101:
2099:
2093:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2055:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2009:Photo sensors
2006:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1963:
1958:
1948:
1945:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1899:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1876:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1853:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1830:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1807:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1784:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1761:
1753:
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1489:United States
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1454:
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1439:
1432:
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1405:
1401:
1400:United States
1397:
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1377:
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1298:
1294:
1292:
1284:
1279:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1252:Swanson's law
1248:
1242:
1236:
1235:learning rate
1232:
1231:Swanson's law
1228:
1219:
1215:
1207:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1184:
1129:
1117:
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868:
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747:
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611:
607:
605:
601:
596:
592:
588:
584:
575:
563:
559:
556:
551:
541:
538:) ratio, and
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
505:
500:
496:
493:
489:
483:
481:
476:
474:
470:
469:photovoltaics
466:
459:
455:
450:
443:
432:
430:
426:
422:
413:
410:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
391:solar modules
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
372:electric cars
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
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312:
305:
301:
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167:
162:
160:
156:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
124:
123:solar tracker
120:
116:
115:solar modules
112:
107:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
68:Photovoltaics
63:
58:
50:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
9680:
9668:
9595:Desalination
9588:Desalination
9567:Disinfection
9558:Solar cooker
9525:Process heat
9426:horticulture
9413:Applications
9373:Applications
9364:Net metering
9300:Distribution
9236:South Africa
9226:Saudi Arabia
9027:and proposed
9025:Experimental
8993:Concentrated
8935:
8926:Thermal mass
8811:Solar energy
8767:
8754:
8733:Yingli Solar
8713:Sungen Solar
8688:Motech Solar
8642:PV companies
8603:South Africa
8421:Solar Splash
8162:Applications
8093:Solar mirror
7953:Photovoltaic
7799:
7778:
7725:
7688:
7685:Solar Energy
7684:
7678:
7659:
7640:
7636:
7626:
7607:
7595:. Retrieved
7591:the original
7586:
7577:
7565:
7553:
7534:
7515:
7490:
7486:
7473:
7460:
7449:
7444:
7432:. Retrieved
7428:
7419:
7407:. Retrieved
7403:News.mit.edu
7402:
7393:
7374:
7353:. 2014-09-18
7350:
7342:
7329:
7317:
7284:
7280:
7274:
7255:
7251:
7241:
7228:
7216:
7167:
7163:
7153:
7141:
7122:
7110:
7098:
7070:
7063:
7038:
7035:Solar Energy
7034:
7030:
7024:
7010:(24): 7037.
7007:
7003:
6992:
6975:
6971:
6964:
6947:
6943:
6915:
6911:
6901:
6868:
6864:
6857:
6824:
6821:Nano Futures
6820:
6814:
6781:
6777:
6767:
6734:
6730:
6719:
6698:cite journal
6679:
6654:
6650:
6644:
6635:
6625:
6584:
6580:
6573:
6561:. Retrieved
6554:the original
6547:
6507:
6503:
6497:
6489:Science News
6488:
6478:
6451:
6447:
6425:
6419:
6405:cite journal
6378:
6374:
6364:
6350:cite journal
6317:
6313:
6303:
6291:
6279:. Retrieved
6275:
6266:
6233:
6229:
6182:(12): 1127.
6179:
6175:
6165:
6132:
6128:
6118:
6106:. Retrieved
6102:
6093:
6060:
6056:
6049:
6030:
6018:. Retrieved
6015:iea-pvps.org
6014:
5990:. Retrieved
5985:
5976:
5925:
5921:
5895:
5886:
5874:. Retrieved
5870:the original
5856:
5835:
5823:. Retrieved
5818:
5806:
5786:
5779:
5767:
5740:
5736:
5726:
5718:
5710:
5702:
5697:
5688:
5675:
5625:(1): 11442.
5622:
5618:
5608:
5549:
5543:
5519:. Retrieved
5515:
5505:
5496:
5487:
5452:
5448:
5419:. Retrieved
5413:
5403:
5391:. Retrieved
5371:
5359:. Retrieved
5348:
5315:
5311:
5286:
5274:. Retrieved
5270:the original
5263:
5241:
5216:. Retrieved
5187:
5178:
5158:
5152:
5143:
5122:
5114:
5102:
5090:. Retrieved
5086:the original
5076:
5059:
5055:
5048:
5034:cite journal
5001:
4997:
4991:
4982:
4936:
4932:
4922:
4897:
4893:
4875:
4842:
4838:
4832:
4807:
4804:Solar Energy
4803:
4777:
4773:
4738:
4724:
4707:
4697:17 September
4695:. Retrieved
4691:the original
4686:
4677:
4661:
4648:
4633:www.bnl.gov/
4632:
4619:
4611:
4594:
4580:cite journal
4563:
4559:
4523:. Retrieved
4508:
4501:
4487:cite journal
4462:
4458:
4405:
4366:cite journal
4341:
4337:
4298:cite journal
4247:
4243:
4222:. Retrieved
4217:
4208:
4196:. Retrieved
4192:
4183:
4174:
4168:
4133:
4129:
4123:
4088:
4084:
4077:
4042:
4038:
4031:
4019:. Retrieved
4015:
4006:
3994:. Retrieved
3992:. April 2000
3989:
3980:
3968:. Retrieved
3964:the original
3959:
3949:
3937:. Retrieved
3933:
3924:
3912:. Retrieved
3908:
3899:
3854:
3848:
3836:. Retrieved
3829:the original
3816:
3804:. Retrieved
3797:the original
3784:
3767:
3755:. Retrieved
3750:
3741:
3729:. Retrieved
3725:
3715:
3688:
3682:
3639:
3635:
3625:
3613:. Retrieved
3609:
3599:
3550:
3546:
3536:
3526:
3518:
3506:. Retrieved
3496:
3463:
3459:
3442:
3435:. Retrieved
3431:
3418:
3406:. Retrieved
3400:
3336:
3332:
3322:
3297:
3293:
3261:
3249:
3229:
3222:
3209:
3197:
3185:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3117:
3098:
3083:
3063:
3056:
3046:
3039:
3023:
3018:
3006:. Retrieved
2996:
2984:. Retrieved
2974:
2953:
2933:
2908:
2904:
2894:
2883:
2846:
2839:
2827:. Retrieved
2820:the original
2797:
2793:
2753:. Retrieved
2743:
2718:
2712:
2586:
2577:
2564:spinning off
2557:
2533:
2520:
2516:net metering
2513:
2484:
2468:
2456:
2448:capital cost
2445:
2437:
2429:
2399:
2384:
2380:
2371:
2363:concentrator
2357:
2324:
2317:
2292:
2259:photovoltaic
2241:
2219:
2209:
2205:
2196:
2174:
2135:
2102:
2095:
2065:
2061:
2036:p–n junction
2020:Photosensors
2018:
1975:
1960:
1951:Applications
1941:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1380:
1376:bibliometric
1373:
1350:
1346:
1326:
1318:
1308:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1243:
1240:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1113:
1106:
1094:
1080:
1048:
1037:
1022:
1007:
990:3.5 mm
976:9.6 g/m
957:4.0 μm
884:
864:
839:
834:
832:
824:
820:
812:payback time
807:
804:
784:
771:
767:
752:
748:
744:
733:
729:
723:
716:
708:
693:
689:
677:
659:
612:
608:
580:
558:concentrator
509:
484:
477:
463:
414:
411:
388:
333:
318:
275:
272:
233:
184:
175:Net metering
163:
159:fossil fuels
138:fossil fuels
127:
108:
104:photosensors
71:
67:
66:
29:
9734:Environment
9600:Solar still
9496:Daylighting
9434:Agrivoltaic
9421:Agriculture
9206:New Zealand
9201:Netherlands
8884:Solar power
8728:Trina Solar
8673:First Solar
8613:Switzerland
8593:Netherlands
8431:Tour de Sol
8129:Fill factor
8068:Solar cable
8043:Solar panel
7964:Solar cells
7691:: 390–404.
7643:(4): 1224.
7454:open access
7434:30 December
7409:30 December
7287:(1): 44–8.
6918:: 132–164.
6912:Electronics
6871:(15): n/a.
6636:HZB Website
6320:: 534–542.
5951:1885/206307
5743:: 747–756.
5575:10945/57762
5393:22 November
5318:: 488–498.
5218:28 December
4977:Technology.
4810:: 669–678.
4566:: 133–141.
4344:: 314–321.
4224:30 December
4151:10630/29061
4136:: 857–869.
4106:10630/24064
4060:10630/29057
3970:4 September
3939:4 September
3887:|work=
3508:6 September
3437:20 November
3362:1874/319865
3339:: 739–756.
2829:4 September
2800:: 329–338.
2605:Agrivoltaic
2407:solar cells
2247:electricity
2052:Solar cells
2048:Photodiodes
2003:stand-alone
1696:Netherlands
1650:South Korea
1281:AWM Munich
1256:Moore's Law
1247:grid parity
987:4.0 mm
965:190 μm
954:190 μm
871:quartz sand
816:solar power
713:Degradation
695:following:
512:reflectance
395:solar cells
325:solar cells
300:electricity
296:Solar cells
281:Solar cells
199:wind powers
119:solar cells
80:electricity
9744:Categories
9542:Solar pond
9516:Solar Tuki
9511:Solar lamp
9506:Light tube
9444:Polytunnel
9439:Greenhouse
9083:By country
9053:Solar sail
8983:Solar cell
8916:Solar pond
8650:By country
8520:By country
8455:Generation
8365:Solar boat
8214:Solar Tuki
8200:Solar tree
8186:Solar lamp
8169:Appliances
7793:Technology
7597:9 February
7236:. nrel.gov
6281:5 November
5992:15 October
5928:: 111561.
5276:1 November
4604:emissions"
4399:emissions"
4273:1874/32964
4198:5 November
4021:9 December
3996:9 December
3960:eicero.com
3649:2203.15593
3008:26 January
2986:26 January
2692:References
2568:relocating
2524:duck curve
2417:Advantages
2340:Efficiency
2305:polar star
2278:waste heat
2276:power and
2274:spacecraft
2263:solar cell
2142:solar cell
2068:perovskite
1944:Greenpeace
1386:, such as
1312:, such as
1191:See also:
1126:or CZTS),
844:(NEG) and
808:break-even
762:See also:
583:irradiance
524:conduction
488:insolation
473:solar cell
454:solar cell
421:watts peak
344:spacecraft
342:and other
340:satellites
287:Solar cell
257:physicist
9449:Row cover
9181:Lithuania
9101:Australia
9001:Heliostat
8528:Australia
8505:Solar Ark
8411:Solar Cup
8303:Sunmobile
8283:Solar car
7881:Materials
7429:USA TODAY
7208:216289881
7192:2058-7546
6950:: 73–76.
6849:162176556
6671:202229877
6651:Solar RRL
6617:239052065
6397:153386434
6258:206497286
6157:204967452
6108:3 October
5968:225245522
5960:0301-4215
5649:2045-2322
5600:206654326
5470:1974/6879
4900:: 41–48.
4867:110058349
4535:cite book
4160:248926054
4115:248487635
4069:234831264
3889:ignored (
3879:cite book
3871:233976803
3838:9 January
3707:828685287
3674:247778421
3666:2542-4351
3591:216289881
3575:2058-7546
3488:0021-8979
3379:108996432
3371:0360-5442
3314:1364-0321
3163:CiteSeerX
2925:158742469
2802:CiteSeerX
2735:156783885
2030:or other
1995:megawatts
1987:kilowatts
1930:Also see
1581:Australia
1421:Germany.
1384:countries
1333:SolarCity
1187:Economics
1001:30 years
962:Kerf loss
907:Parameter
888:watt-peak
673:voltmeter
651:watt-peak
585:of 1,000
384:pipelines
323:by using
298:generate
230:Etymology
44:, Germany
9670:Category
9639:See also
9489:Lighting
9463:Building
9342:Adoption
9331:seasonal
9302:and uses
9246:Thailand
9216:Portugal
9211:Pakistan
8841:Concepts
8832:Timeline
8756:Category
8718:Sunpower
8708:Solyndra
8683:JA Solar
8618:Thailand
8538:Bulgaria
7786:Concepts
7668:Archived
7615:Archived
7542:Archived
7523:Archived
7382:Archived
7309:22057387
7252:Polymers
7130:Archived
6893:96990654
6806:23295858
6759:10780585
6690:Archived
6609:34671136
6524:19366264
6470:27327168
6342:26540719
6334:23811631
6250:31268662
6208:33419276
6149:31663326
6085:39187771
6038:Archived
5896:IEA-PVPS
5848:Archived
5667:31391497
5592:28408563
5479:73523633
5384:Archived
5361:24 April
5340:11079398
5192:Archived
5190:. 2023.
5092:14 April
5026:19368216
4961:13179665
4666:Archived
4637:Archived
4608:Archived
4479:94279905
4410:Archived
4290:20850468
4282:18409654
3914:14 March
3615:7 August
3408:17 April
3269:Archived
3125:Archived
3106:Archived
2942:Archived
2539:See also
2487:Berkeley
2411:infrared
2375:band gap
2267:spectrum
2074:(CdTe),
2001:, while
1922:IEA-PVPS
1009:IEA-PVPS
1006:Source:
998:30 years
979:–
968:–
879:smelting
867:produced
591:spectrum
589:, solar
352:inverter
304:sunlight
193:. After
187:terawatt
113:employs
42:Freiburg
9696:Portals
9682:Commons
9551:Cooking
9309:Storage
9256:Ukraine
9231:Somalia
9221:Romania
9196:Myanmar
9191:Morocco
9146:Germany
9141:Georgia
9136:Denmark
9111:Belgium
9106:Austria
9096:Armenia
9091:Albania
8893:Thermal
8848:The Sun
8827:Outline
8768:Commons
8723:Suntech
8598:Romania
8568:Germany
8533:Belgium
8457:systems
7927:History
7693:Bibcode
7495:Bibcode
7289:Bibcode
7200:1659948
7172:Bibcode
7043:Bibcode
6873:Bibcode
6829:Bibcode
6786:Bibcode
6739:Bibcode
6589:Bibcode
6563:12 July
6199:7767295
6065:Bibcode
5986:Reuters
5930:Bibcode
5825:11 July
5745:Bibcode
5658:6685942
5627:Bibcode
5584:1352502
5554:Bibcode
5545:Science
5521:7 March
5421:12 July
5320:Bibcode
5123:Reuters
5006:Bibcode
4941:Bibcode
4902:Bibcode
4847:Bibcode
4812:Bibcode
4346:Bibcode
4252:Bibcode
3757:30 June
3731:29 June
3583:1659948
3555:Bibcode
3468:Bibcode
3341:Bibcode
3155:Bibcode
2251:photons
2211:Organic
2078:(CIS),
2042:in the
2024:sensors
1903:Belgium
1880:Ukraine
1719:Vietnam
1565:13,500
1535:Germany
1496:17,800
1493:113,000
1473:86,100
1470:393,000
1408:Germany
1059:Catania
910:Mono-Si
892:microns
810:energy
639:amperes
604:soiling
269:History
255:Italian
92:physics
9710:Energy
9251:Turkey
9186:Mexico
9176:Kosovo
9161:Israel
9151:Greece
9121:Canada
9116:Brazil
8573:Greece
8563:France
8543:Canada
7955:system
7723:about
7307:
7206:
7198:
7190:
7086:
6891:
6847:
6804:
6757:
6669:
6615:
6607:
6581:Nature
6522:
6468:
6395:
6340:
6332:
6256:
6248:
6206:
6196:
6155:
6147:
6083:
6020:10 May
5966:
5958:
5876:31 May
5819:report
5794:
5719:Forbes
5665:
5655:
5647:
5598:
5590:
5582:
5477:
5338:
5166:
5024:
4959:
4865:
4516:
4477:
4338:Energy
4288:
4280:
4158:
4113:
4067:
3869:
3806:4 June
3705:
3695:
3672:
3664:
3589:
3581:
3573:
3486:
3377:
3369:
3333:Energy
3312:
3237:
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