2764:
absorbed. Currently, surface texturing techniques on silicon photovoltaics are drawing much attention. Surface texturing could be done in multiple ways. Etching single crystalline silicon substrate can produce randomly distributed square based pyramids on the surface using anisotropic etchants. Recent studies show that c-Si wafers could be etched down to form nano-scale inverted pyramids. Multicrystalline silicon solar cells, due to poorer crystallographic quality, are less effective than single crystal solar cells, but mc-Si solar cells are still being used widely due to less manufacturing difficulties. It is reported that multicrystalline solar cells can be surface-textured to yield solar energy conversion efficiency comparable to that of monocrystalline silicon cells, through isotropic etching or photolithography techniques. Incident light rays onto a textured surface do not reflect back out to the air as opposed to rays onto a flat surface. Rather some light rays are bounced back onto the other surface again due to the geometry of the surface. This process significantly improves light to electricity conversion efficiency, due to increased light absorption. This texture effect as well as the interaction with other interfaces in the PV module is a challenging optical simulation task. A particularly efficient method for modeling and optimization is the
2019:
for generation of additional voltage. A dual-junction solar cell with a band gap of 1.6–1.8 eV as a top cell can reduce thermalization loss, produce a high external radiative efficiency and achieve theoretical efficiencies over 45%. A tandem cell can be fabricated by growing the GaInP and Si cells. Growing them separately can overcome the 4% lattice constant mismatch between Si and the most common III–V layers that prevent direct integration into one cell. The two cells therefore are separated by a transparent glass slide so the lattice mismatch does not cause strain to the system. This creates a cell with four electrical contacts and two junctions that demonstrated an efficiency of 18.1%. With a fill factor (FF) of 76.2%, the Si bottom cell reaches an efficiency of 11.7% (± 0.4) in the tandem device, resulting in a cumulative tandem cell efficiency of 29.8%. This efficiency exceeds the theoretical limit of 29.4% and the record experimental efficiency value of a Si 1-sun solar cell, and is also higher than the record-efficiency 1-sun GaAs device. However, using a GaAs substrate is expensive and not practical. Hence researchers try to make a cell with two electrical contact points and one junction, which does not need a GaAs substrate. This means there will be direct integration of GaInP and Si.
817:
require that the cells and arrays are both highly efficient and extremely lightweight. Some newer technology implemented on satellites are multi-junction photovoltaic cells, which are composed of different p–n junctions with varying bandgaps in order to utilize a wider spectrum of the sun's energy. Additionally, large satellites require the use of large solar arrays to produce electricity. These solar arrays need to be broken down to fit in the geometric constraints of the launch vehicle the satellite travels on before being injected into orbit. Historically, solar cells on satellites consisted of several small terrestrial panels folded together. These small panels would be unfolded into a large panel after the satellite is deployed in its orbit. Newer satellites aim to use flexible rollable solar arrays that are very lightweight and can be packed into a very small volume. The smaller size and weight of these flexible arrays drastically decreases the overall cost of launching a satellite due to the direct relationship between payload weight and launch cost of a launch vehicle.
3267:- A large-scale planetary ball mill (PULVERISETTE P5 5/4 classic line) was used. Impurity-free PV recycled cells/silicon were loaded inside a stainless-steel milling container together with five hardened steel balls (diameter of 25.4 mm). The sample was milled at a rotation speed of 160 rpm for 15 h at room temperature under an argon atmosphere of 300 kPa. During high-energy ball milling, particle size was reduced to nanometer level (<100 nm). The same process was used to produce a PV nano-Si/graphite hybrid except for commercial graphite powder (Product-282863, Sigma-Aldrich, powder <20 μm, synthetic) which was added with eight hardened steel balls. The mixture was milled at a rotation speed of 160 rpm for 20 h at room temperature under an argon atmosphere of 300 kPa. A hybrid of PV nano-Si/graphite with a weight ratio of 5 wt% PV nano-Si and 95 wt% graphite was obtained.
940:
2786:
encapsulants have included roughened glass surfaces, diffractive elements, prism arrays, air prisms, v-grooves, diffuse elements, as well as multi-directional waveguide arrays. Prism arrays show an overall 5% increase in the total solar energy conversion. Arrays of vertically aligned broadband waveguides provide a 10% increase at normal incidence, as well as wide-angle collection enhancement of up to 4%, with optimized structures yielding up to a 20% increase in short circuit current. Active coatings that convert infrared light into visible light have shown a 30% increase. Nanoparticle coatings inducing plasmonic light scattering increase wide-angle conversion efficiency up to 3%. Optical structures have also been created in encapsulation materials to effectively "cloak" the metallic front contacts.
1464:
3128: : The Middle East and Africa has also experienced significant growth in solar energy deployment in recent years, with over 8 GW installations in 2020. The solar market in the Middle East and Africa has been driven by the low-cost generation of solar energy, the diversification of energy sources, the fight against climate change and rural electrification are motivated. Some of the notable countries for solar energy in the Middle East and Africa are Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Morocco and South Africa. However, the solar market in the Middle East and Africa also faces several obstacles, including social unrest, regulatory uncertainty and technical barriers.
2749:
919:
1147:
1899:. Based on the previous literature and some theoretical analysis, there are several reasons why GaAs has such high power conversion efficiency. First, GaAs bandgap is 1.43ev which is almost ideal for solar cells. Second, because Gallium is a by-product of the smelting of other metals, GaAs cells are relatively insensitive to heat and it can keep high efficiency when temperature is quite high. Third, GaAs has the wide range of design options. Using GaAs as active layer in solar cell, engineers can have multiple choices of other layers which can better generate electrons and holes in GaAs.
965:
2203:. They assumed no carriers were collected at the IB and that the device was under full concentration. They found the maximum efficiency to be 63.2%, for a bandgap of 1.95eV with the IB 0.71eV from either the valence or conduction band. Under one sun illumination the limiting efficiency is 47%. Several means are under study to realize IB semiconductors with such optimum 3-bandgap configuration, namely via materials engineering (controlled inclusion of deep level impurities or highly-mismatched alloys) and nano-structuring (quantum-dots in host hetero-crystals).
1386:
3122: : Latin America has emerged as a promising region for solar energy development in recent years, with over 10 GW of installations in 2020. The solar market in Latin America has been driven by abundant solar resources, falling costs, competitive auctions and growing electricity demand. Some of the leading countries for solar energy in Latin America are Brazil, Mexico, Chile and Argentina. However, the solar market in Latin America also faces some challenges, such as political instability, financing gaps and power transmission bottlenecks.
361:
2106:. Based on 1977 US and Spanish patents by Luque, a practical bifacial cell was proposed with a front face as anode and a rear face as cathode; in previously reported proposals and attempts both faces were anodic and interconnection between cells was complicated and expensive. In 1980, Andrés Cuevas, a PhD student in Luque's team, demonstrated experimentally a 50% increase in output power of bifacial solar cells, relative to identically oriented and tilted monofacial ones, when a white background was provided. In 1981 the company
2973:
1276:
982:
3141:
10776:
1605:
3319:
3210:, 195 countries agreed to reduce their carbon emissions by shifting their focus away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energy sources. Owing to this, Solar will be a major contributor to electricity generation all over the world. So, there will be a plethora of solar panels to be recycled after the end of their life cycle. In fact, many researchers around the globe have voiced their concern about finding ways to use silicon cells after recycling.
2086:
52:
10897:
2828:
2067:
ways to solve this. Energy and environmental sustainability of perovskite solar cells and tandem perovskite are shown to be dependent on the structures. Photonic front contacts for light management can improve the perovskite cells' performance, via enhanced broadband absorption, while allowing better operational stability due to protection against the harmful high-energy (above
Visible) radiation. The inclusion of the toxic element
1914:
3004:
4698:
264:
10788:
856:'s task force which was looking for projects 30 years in the future and in April 1973 he founded Solar Power Corporation (SPC), a wholly owned subsidiary of Exxon at that time. The group had concluded that electrical power would be much more expensive by 2000, and felt that this increase in price would make alternative energy sources more attractive. He conducted a market study and concluded that a
1619:(mono-Si) solar cells feature a single-crystal composition that enables electrons to move more freely than in a multi-crystal configuration. Consequently, monocrystalline solar panels deliver a higher efficiency than their multicrystalline counterparts. The corners of the cells look clipped, like an octagon, because the wafer material is cut from cylindrical ingots, that are typically grown by the
3260:– 40 g of broken PV cells were placed in a glass bottle of 500ml which contained 20% KOH (potassium oxide). Heat treatment of this aqueous solution was done at 80 °C for 0.5 h. All Al metal and other impurities were dissolved in a 20% KOH solution, and the solid PV silicon was deposited as sediment. The solid PV was dried in a vacuum and 32 g of impurity-free PV recycled silicon was obtained.
1139:
29:
2881:
1956:
680 per kg. Additionally, germanium metal prices have risen substantially to $ 1000–1200 per kg this year. Those materials include gallium (4N, 6N and 7N Ga), arsenic (4N, 6N and 7N) and germanium, pyrolitic boron nitride (pBN) crucibles for growing crystals, and boron oxide, these products are critical to the entire substrate manufacturing industry.
2055:-structured material as the active layer. Most commonly, this is a solution-processed hybrid organic-inorganic tin or lead halide based material. Efficiencies have increased from below 5% at their first usage in 2009 to 25.5% in 2020, making them a very rapidly advancing technology and a hot topic in the solar cell field. Researchers at
890:
power for ground electrical power systems. A 1973 conference, the "Cherry Hill
Conference", set forth the technology goals required to achieve this goal and outlined an ambitious project for achieving them, kicking off an applied research program that would be ongoing for several decades. The program was eventually taken over by the
905:, oil companies used their higher profits to start (or buy) solar firms, and were for decades the largest producers. Exxon, ARCO, Shell, Amoco (later purchased by BP) and Mobil all had major solar divisions during the 1970s and 1980s. Technology companies also participated, including General Electric, Motorola, IBM, Tyco and RCA.
2712:, separating when the exciton diffuses to the donor-acceptor interface, unlike most other solar cell types. The short exciton diffusion lengths of most polymer systems tend to limit the efficiency of such devices. Nanostructured interfaces, sometimes in the form of bulk heterojunctions, can improve performance.
798:. However, this success was possible because in the space application, power system costs could be high, because space users had few other power options, and were willing to pay for the best possible cells. The space power market drove the development of higher efficiencies in solar cells up until the
3307:
The First Solar panel recycling plant opened in
Rousset, France in 2018. It was set to recycle 1300 tonnes of solar panel waste a year, and can increase its capacity to 4000 tonnes. If recycling is driven only by market-based prices, rather than also environmental regulations, the economic incentives
3277:
There are a lot of different PV modules in the market which have different compositions. So, it is difficult to have a common PV cell breakdown process. Also, recyclers have to do quality control which is not possible if different PV modules have to be recycled. There are also various applications of
2365:
ions that have absorbed this radiation can interact with each other through an upconversion process. The excited ion emits light above the Si bandgap that is absorbed by the solar cell and creates an additional electron–hole pair that can generate current. However, the increased efficiency was small.
2138:
Due to the significant interest in the bifacial technology, a recent study has investigated the performance and optimization of bifacial solar modules worldwide. The results indicate that, across the globe, ground-mounted bifacial modules can only offer ~10% gain in annual electricity yields compared
2093:
With a transparent rear side, bifacial solar cells can absorb light from both the front and rear sides. Hence, they can produce more electricity than conventional monofacial solar cells. The first patent of bifacial solar cells was filed by
Japanese researcher Hiroshi Mori, in 1966. Later, it is said
1746:
Thin-film technologies reduce the amount of active material in a cell. Most designs sandwich active material between two panes of glass. Since silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass, thin film panels are approximately twice as heavy as crystalline silicon panels, although they have a smaller
1397:
In 2014, three companies broke the record of 25.6% for a silicon solar cell. Panasonic's was the most efficient. The company moved the front contacts to the rear of the panel, eliminating shaded areas. In addition they applied thin silicon films to the (high quality silicon) wafer's front and back to
816:
In recent years, research has moved towards designing and manufacturing lightweight, flexible, and highly efficient solar cells. Terrestrial solar cell technology generally uses photovoltaic cells that are laminated with a layer of glass for strength and protection. Space applications for solar cells
2813:
to detach dust particles from the panel's surface, eliminating the need for water or brushes. An electrical charge imparted to the dust particles by passing a simple electrode over the panel causes them to be repelled by a charge applied to the panel itself. The system can be automated using a basic
2735:
Adaptive cells change their absorption/reflection characteristics depending on environmental conditions. An adaptive material responds to the intensity and angle of incident light. At the part of the cell where the light is most intense, the cell surface changes from reflective to adaptive, allowing
2696:
They can be processed from liquid solution, offering the possibility of a simple roll-to-roll printing process, potentially leading to inexpensive, large-scale production. In addition, these cells could be beneficial for some applications where mechanical flexibility and disposability are important.
2018:
Si single-junction solar cells have been widely studied for decades and are reaching their practical efficiency of ~26% under 1-sun conditions. Increasing this efficiency may require adding more cells with bandgap energy larger than 1.1 eV to the Si cell, allowing to convert short-wavelength photons
1955:
Tandem solar cells based on monolithic, series connected, gallium indium phosphide (GaInP), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and germanium (Ge) p–n junctions, are increasing sales, despite cost pressures. Between
December 2006 and December 2007, the cost of 4N gallium metal rose from about $ 350 per kg to $
1731:
This form was developed in the 2000s and introduced commercially around 2009. Also called cast-mono, this design uses polycrystalline casting chambers with small "seeds" of mono material. The result is a bulk mono-like material that is polycrystalline around the outsides. When sliced for processing,
3270:
The obtained PV nano-Si/graphite electrode showed excellent cyclic stability with high-capacity retention even after long-term 600 cycles. These results proved that silicon can be easily converted into nano-Si/graphite hybrids and harvested into PV modules and can work with the same efficiency as a
2148:
also derived a set of empirical equations that can optimize bifacial solar modules analytically. In addition, there is evidence that bifacial panels work better than traditional panels in snowy environments as bifacials on dual-axis trackers made 14% more electricity in a year than their monofacial
2066:
Perovskite solar cells are also forecast to be extremely cheap to scale up, making them a very attractive option for commercialisation. So far most types of perovskite solar cells have not reached sufficient operational stability to be commercialised, although many research groups are investigating
1113:
and the onset of
Chinese manufacturing caused prices to resume their decline. In the four years after January 2008 prices for solar modules in Germany dropped from €3 to €1 per peak watt. During that same time production capacity surged with an annual growth of more than 50%. China increased market
6293:
Essig, Stephanie; Steiner, Myles A.; Allebe, Christophe; Geisz, John F.; Paviet-Salomon, Bertrand; Ward, Scott; Descoeudres, Antoine; Lasalvia, Vincenzo; Barraud, Loris; Badel, Nicolas; Faes, Antonin; Levrat, Jacques; Despeisse, Matthieu; Ballif, Christophe; Stradins, Paul; Young, David L. (2016).
5190:
Essig, Stephanie; Allebé, Christophe; Remo, Timothy; Geisz, John F.; Steiner, Myles A.; Horowitz, Kelsey; Barraud, Loris; Ward, J. Scott; Schnabel, Manuel (September 2017). "Raising the one-sun conversion efficiency of III–V/Si solar cells to 32.8% for two junctions and 35.9% for three junctions".
3221:(Cd) or cadmium sulfide (CdS), selenium (Se), and barium (Ba) as dopants aside from the valuables silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), silver (Ag), and copper (Cu). The harmful elements/compounds if not disposed of with the proper technique can have severe harmful effects on human life and wildlife alike.
3045:
Meeting global energy and climate targets necessitates a major expansion in solar PV manufacturing, aiming for over 630 GW by 2030 according to the IEA's "Roadmap to Net Zero
Emissions by 2050". China's dominance, controlling nearly 95% of key solar PV components and 40% of the world's polysilicon
2134:
Due to the reduced manufacturing cost, companies have again started to produce commercial bifacial modules since 2010. By 2017, there were at least eight certified PV manufacturers providing bifacial modules in North
America. The International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaics (ITRPV) predicted
5471:
Chen, Wanghua; Cariou, Romain; Foldyna, Martin; Depauw, Valerie; Trompoukis, Christos; Drouard, Emmanuel; Lalouat, Loic; Harouri, Abdelmounaim; Liu, Jia; Fave, Alain; Orobtchouk, Régis; Mandorlo, Fabien; Seassal, Christian; Massiot, Inès; Dmitriev, Alexandre; Lee, Ki-Dong; Cabarrocas, Pere Roca i
3184:
Solar cells degrade over time and lose their efficiency. Solar cells in extreme climates, such as desert or polar, are more prone to degradation due to exposure to harsh UV light and snow loads respectively. Usually, solar panels are given a lifespan of 25–30 years before they get decommissioned.
2763:
is a cost-effective second generation solar cell with much reduced thickness at the expense of light absorption efficiency. Efforts to maximize light absorption efficiency with reduced thickness have been made. Surface texturing is one of techniques used to reduce optical losses to maximize light
2715:
In 2011, MIT and
Michigan State researchers developed solar cells with a power efficiency close to 2% with a transparency to the human eye greater than 65%, achieved by selectively absorbing the ultraviolet and near-infrared parts of the spectrum with small-molecule compounds. Researchers at UCLA
2234:
researchers had developed ultralight fabric solar cells. These cells offer a weight one-hundredth that of traditional panels while generating 18 times more power per kilogram. Thinner than a human hair, these cells can be laminated onto various surfaces, such as boat sails, tents, tarps, or drone
1997:
and 21Revolution (2009). GaAs based multi-junction devices are the most efficient solar cells to date. On 15 October 2012, triple junction metamorphic cells reached a record high of 44%. In 2022, researchers at
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE in Freiburg, Germany, demonstrated a
1064:
Falling costs are considered one of the biggest factors in the rapid growth of renewable energy, with the cost of solar photovoltaic electricity falling by ~85% between 2010 (when solar and wind made up 1.7% of global electricity generation) and 2021 (where they made up 8.7%). In 2019 solar cells
889:
Research into solar power for terrestrial applications became prominent with the U.S. National Science Foundation's Advanced Solar Energy Research and Development Division within the "Research Applied to National Needs" program, which ran from 1969 to 1977, and funded research on developing solar
386:
However, problems in paralleled cells such as shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing substantial power loss and possible damage because of the reverse bias applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners.
1850:
Amorphous silicon is the most well-developed thin film technology to-date. An amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cell is made of non-crystalline or microcrystalline silicon. Amorphous silicon has a higher bandgap (1.7 eV) than crystalline silicon (c-Si) (1.1 eV), which means it absorbs the
2952:
Different types of manufacturing and recycling partly determine how effective it is in decreasing emissions and having a positive environmental effect. Such differences and effectiveness could be quantified for production of the most optimal types of products for different purposes in different
1223:. If the electron-hole pairs are created near the junction between p-type and n-type materials the local electric field sweeps them apart to opposite electrodes, producing an excess of electrons on one side and an excess of holes on the other. When the solar cell is unconnected (or the external
1034:("poly") cells became increasingly popular. These cells offer less efficiency than their monosilicon ("mono") counterparts, but they are grown in large vats that reduce cost. By the mid-2000s, poly was dominant in the low-cost panel market, but more recently the mono returned to widespread use.
2739:
In 2014, a system was developed that combined an adaptive surface with a glass substrate that redirect the absorbed to a light absorber on the edges of the sheet. The system also includes an array of fixed lenses/mirrors to concentrate light onto the adaptive surface. As the day continues, the
2331:
to generate a (high-energy) absorbable photon. As example, the energy transfer upconversion process (ETU), consists in successive transfer processes between excited ions in the near infrared. The upconverter material could be placed below the solar cell to absorb the infrared light that passes
1862:
Protocrystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of nanocrystalline silicon is optimal for high open-circuit voltage. Nc-Si has about the same bandgap as c-Si and nc-Si and a-Si can advantageously be combined in thin layers, creating a layered cell called a tandem cell. The top cell in a-Si
1129:
Inc., had reported costs of US$ 0.37/Wp in the third quarter of 2016, having dropped $ 0.02 from the previous quarter, and hence was probably still at least breaking even. Many producers expected costs would drop to the vicinity of $ 0.30 by the end of 2017. It was also reported that new solar
3115:
Solar energy production in the U.S. has doubled from 2013 to 2019. This was driven first by the falling price of quality silicon, and later simply by the globally plunging cost of photovoltaic modules. In 2018, the U.S. added 10.8GW of installed solar photovoltaic energy, an increase of 21%.
3068:
As of September 2018, sixty percent of the world's solar photovoltaic modules were made in China. As of May 2018, the largest photovoltaic plant in the world is located in the Tengger desert in China. In 2018, China added more photovoltaic installed capacity (in GW) than the next 9 countries
2010:
with the economies and wealth of experience associated with silicon. The technical complications involved in growing the III-V material on silicon at the required high temperatures, a subject of study for some 30 years, are avoided by epitaxial growth of silicon on GaAs at low temperature by
860:
of about $ 20/watt would create significant demand. The team eliminated the steps of polishing the wafers and coating them with an anti-reflective layer, relying on the rough-sawn wafer surface. The team also replaced the expensive materials and hand wiring used in space applications with a
2785:
or glass. Most encapsulants are uniform in structure and composition, which increases light collection owing to light trapping from total internal reflection of light within the resin. Research has been conducted into structuring the encapsulant to provide further collection of light. Such
1551:
compounds as well as inorganic substances. Despite the fact that their efficiencies had been low and the stability of the absorber material was often too short for commercial applications, there is research into these technologies as they promise to achieve the goal of producing low-cost,
6095:
Helmers, Henning; Höhn, Oliver; Lackner, David; Schygulla, Patrick; Klitzke, Malte; Schön, Jonas; Pellegrino, Carmine; Oliva, Eduard; Schachtner, Michael; Beutel, Paul; Heckelmann, Stefan; Predan, Felix; Ohlmann, Jens; Siefer, Gerald; Dimroth, Frank (8 March 2024). Freundlich, Alexandre;
1049:
panels dominate worldwide markets and are mostly manufactured in China and Taiwan. By late 2011, a drop in European demand dropped prices for crystalline solar modules to about $ 1.09 per watt down sharply from 2010. Prices continued to fall in 2012, reaching $ 0.62/watt by 4Q2012.
3171:
Like many other energy generation technologies, the manufacture of solar cells, especially its rapid expansion, has many environmental and supply-chain implications. Global mining may adapt and potentially expand for sourcing the needed minerals which vary per type of solar cell.
2780:
Solar cells are commonly encapsulated in a transparent polymeric resin to protect the delicate solar cell regions for coming into contact with moisture, dirt, ice, and other conditions expected either during operation or when used outdoors. The encapsulants are commonly made from
5790:
Collins, R. W.; Ferlauto, A. S.; Ferreira, G. M.; Chen, C.; Koh, J.; Koval, R. J.; Lee, Y.; Pearce, J. M.; Wronski, C. R. (2003). "Evolution of microstructure and phase in amorphous, protocrystalline, and microcrystalline silicon studied by real time spectroscopic ellipsometry".
2716:
more recently developed an analogous polymer solar cell, following the same approach, that is 70% transparent and has a 4% power conversion efficiency. These lightweight, flexible cells can be produced in bulk at a low cost and could be used to create power generating windows.
761:
3053:
production reached approximately 70%, an increase from 50% in 2010. Other key producers included Vietnam (5%), Malaysia (4%), Korea (4%), and Thailand (2%), with much of their production capacity developed by Chinese companies aimed at exports, notably to the United States.
836:
Improvements were gradual over the 1960s. This was also the reason that costs remained high, because space users were willing to pay for the best possible cells, leaving no reason to invest in lower-cost, less-efficient solutions. The price was determined largely by the
3076:
In the first half of 2023, China's production of PV modules exceeded 220 GW, marking an increase of over 62% compared to the same period in 2022. In 2022, China maintained its position as the world's largest PV module producer, holding a dominant market share of 77.8%.
2510:
due to the solvents used in assembly. Due to this reason, researchers have developed solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells that use a solid electrolyte to avoid leakage. The first commercial shipment of DSSC solar modules occurred in July 2009 from G24i Innovations.
302:
The first instance of photovoltaic cells within vehicular applications was around midway through the second half of the 1900's. In an effort to increase publicity and awareness in solar powered transportation Hans Tholstrup decided to set up the first edition of the
1114:
share from 8% in 2008 to over 55% in the last quarter of 2010. In December 2012 the price of Chinese solar panels had dropped to $ 0.60/Wp (crystalline modules). (The abbreviation Wp stands for watt peak capacity, or the maximum capacity under optimal conditions.)
8598:
Langenhorst, Malte; Schumann, Martin F.; Paetel, Stefan; Schmager, Raphael; Lemmer, Uli; Richards, Bryce S.; Wegener, Martin; Paetzold, Ulrich W. (1 August 2018). "Freeform surface invisibility cloaking of interconnection lines in thin-film photovoltaic modules".
3037:, with an investment exceeding USD 50 billion and the creation of around 300,000 jobs since 2011. China commands over 80% of all manufacturing stages for solar panels. This control has drastically cut costs but also led to issues like supply-demand imbalances and
3085:
In 2022, Vietnam was the second-largest PV module producer, only behind China, with its production capacity rising to 24.1 GW, marking a significant 47% increase from the 16.4 GW produced in 2021. Vietnam accounts for 6.4% of the world's photovoltaic production.
1449:) reported record one-sun efficiencies of 32.8% for dual-junction GaInP/GaAs solar cell devices. In addition, the dual-junction device was mechanically stacked with a Si solar cell, to achieve a record one-sun efficiency of 35.9% for triple-junction solar cells.
2114:
to produce the developed bifacial cells, thus becoming the first industrialization of this PV cell technology. With an initial production capacity of 300 kW/yr of bifacial solar cells, early landmarks of Isofoton's production were the 20kWp power plant in
2262:, ultraviolet) to produce two lower energy photons. Either of these techniques could be used to produce higher efficiency solar cells by allowing solar photons to be more efficiently used. The difficulty, however, is that the conversion efficiency of existing
2932:. The rear contact is formed by screen-printing a metal paste, typically aluminium. Usually this contact covers the entire rear, though some designs employ a grid pattern. The paste is then fired at several hundred degrees Celsius to form metal electrodes in
2891:
Solar cells share some of the same processing and manufacturing techniques as other semiconductor devices. However, the strict requirements for cleanliness and quality control of semiconductor fabrication are more relaxed for solar cells, lowering costs.
1777:
present in the cells would be toxic if released. However, release is impossible during normal operation of the cells and is unlikely during fires in residential roofs. A square meter of CdTe contains approximately the same amount of Cd as a single C cell
1108:
The price of solar panels fell steadily for 40 years, interrupted in 2004 when high subsidies in Germany drastically increased demand there and greatly increased the price of purified silicon (which is used in computer chips as well as solar panels). The
3238:
cleansing the surface of PV solar cells: unwanted layers (antireflection layer, metal coating and p–n semiconductor) are removed from the silicon solar cells separated from the PV modules; as a result, the silicon substrate, suitable for re-use, can be
7583:
Wu, Jiang; Yu, Peng; Susha, Andrei S.; Sablon, Kimberly A.; Chen, Haiyuan; Zhou, Zhihua; Li, Handong; Ji, Haining; Niu, Xiaobin (1 April 2015). "Broadband efficiency enhancement in quantum dot solar cells coupled with multispiked plasmonic nanostars".
2470:, as compared to approximately 10 m/g of flat single crystal) which allows for a greater number of dyes per solar cell area (which in term in increases the current). The photogenerated electrons from the light absorbing dye are passed on to the n-type
2707:
The active region of an organic device consists of two materials, one electron donor and one electron acceptor. When a photon is converted into an electron hole pair, typically in the donor material, the charges tend to remain bound in the form of an
2921:. Some solar cells have textured front surfaces that, like anti-reflection coatings, increase the amount of light reaching the wafer. Such surfaces were first applied to single-crystal silicon, followed by multicrystalline silicon somewhat later.
994:
Adjusting for inflation, it cost $ 96 per watt for a solar module in the mid-1970s. Process improvements and a very large boost in production have brought that figure down more than 99%, to 30¢ per watt in 2018 and as low as 20¢ per watt in 2020.
7463:
Du, Jun; Du, Zhonglin; Hu, Jin-Song; Pan, Zhenxiao; Shen, Qing; Sun, Jiankun; Long, Donghui; Dong, Hui; Sun, Litao; Zhong, Xinhua; Wan, Li-Jun (2016). "Zn–Cu–In–Se Quantum Dot Solar Cells with a Certified Power Conversion Efficiency of 11.6%".
1638:(CVD), and then detached as self-supporting wafers of some standard thickness (e.g., 250 μm) that can be manipulated by hand, and directly substituted for wafer cells cut from monocrystalline silicon ingots. Solar cells made with this "
1022:
Solar's original panels used cells 2 to 4 inches (50 to 100 mm) in diameter. Panels in the 1990s and early 2000s generally used 125 mm wafers; since 2008, almost all new panels use 156 mm cells. The widespread introduction of
2916:
has gradually replaced titanium dioxide as the preferred material, because of its excellent surface passivation qualities. It prevents carrier recombination at the cell surface. A layer several hundred nanometers thick is applied using
3100:
In 2022, Malaysia was the third-largest PV module producer, with a production capacity of 10.8 GW, accounting for 2.8% of global production. This placed it behind China, which dominated with 77.8%, and Vietnam, which contributed 6.4%.
1883:, by moving to porous silicon fill factor can be increased to 56% with potentially reduced cost. Using less active GaAs material by fabricating nanowires is another potential pathway to cost reduction. GaAs is more commonly used in
4550:
Mann, Sander A.; de Wild-Scholten, Mariska J.; Fthenakis, Vasilis M.; van Sark, Wilfried G.J.H.M.; Sinke, Wim C. (1 November 2014). "The energy payback time of advanced crystalline silicon PV modules in 2020: a prospective study".
4686:
8562:
Schumann, Martin F.; Langenhorst, Malte; Smeets, Michael; Ding, Kaining; Paetzold, Ulrich W.; Wegener, Martin (4 July 2017). "All-Angle Invisibility Cloaking of Contact Fingers on Solar Cells by Refractive Free-Form Surfaces".
1305:
Solar cell efficiency may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall efficiency is the product of these individual metrics.
2808:
researchers announced the development of a waterless cleaning system for solar panels and mirrors to address the issue of dust accumulation, which can reduce solar output by up to 30 percent in one month. This system utilizes
1546:
includes a number of thin-film technologies often described as emerging photovoltaics—most of them have not yet been commercially applied and are still in the research or development phase. Many use organic materials, often
2155:
is available to model the performance of bifacial modules in any arbitrary location across the entire world. It can also optimize bifacial modules as a function of tilt angle, azimuth angle, and elevation above the ground.
2581:, etc.), instead of organic or organometallic dyes as light absorbers. Due to the toxicity associated with Cd and Pb based compounds there are also a series of "green" QD sensitizing materials in development (such as CuInS
7175:
Hernández-Rodríguez, M.A.; Imanieh, M.H.; Martín, L.L.; Martín, I.R. (September 2013). "Experimental enhancement of the photocurrent in a solar cell using upconversion process in fluoroindate glasses exciting at 1480nm".
1060:
It was anticipated that electricity from PV will be competitive with wholesale electricity costs all across Europe and the energy payback time of crystalline silicon modules can be reduced to below 0.5 years by 2020.
2936:
with the silicon. Some companies use an additional electroplating step to increase efficiency. After the metal contacts are made, the solar cells are interconnected by flat wires or metal ribbons, and assembled into
1732:
the inner sections are high-efficiency mono-like cells (but square instead of "clipped"), while the outer edges are sold as conventional poly. This production method results in mono-like cells at poly-like prices.
8096:
Mavrokefalos, Anastassios; Han, Sang Eon.; Yerci, Selcuk; Branham, M.S.; Chen, Gang. (June 2012). "Efficient Light Trapping in Inverted Nanopyramid Thin Crystalline Silicon Membranes for Solar Cell Applications".
1367:. This is a key parameter in evaluating performance. In 2009, typical commercial solar cells had a fill factor > 0.70. Grade B cells were usually between 0.4 and 0.7. Cells with a high fill factor have a low
5412:
Gaucher, Alexandre; Cattoni, Andrea; Dupuis, Christophe; Chen, Wanghua; Cariou, Romain; Foldyna, Martin; Lalouat, Loı̈c; Drouard, Emmanuel; Seassal, Christian; Roca i Cabarrocas, Pere; Collin, Stéphane (2016).
1258:
made from silicon. Other possible solar cell types are organic solar cells, dye sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells, quantum dot solar cells etc. The illuminated side of a solar cell generally has a
6986:
Burnham, Performance of Bifacial Photovoltaic Modules on a Dual-Axis Tracker in a High-Latitude, High-Albedo Environment, 2019 IEEE 46th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), Chicago, IL, USA, 2019, pp.
6101:
2143:
of 25% (typical for concrete and vegetation groundcovers). However, the gain can be increased to ~30% by elevating the module 1 m above the ground and enhancing the ground albedo coefficient to 50%. Sun
1696:, or multicrystalline silicon (multi-Si) cells are made from cast square ingots—large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified. They consist of small crystals giving the material its typical
1235:
with each other giving off heat, but if the load is small enough then it is easier for equilibrium to be restored by the excess electrons going around the external circuit, doing useful work along the way.
2772:, surface texturing technique can effectively trap light rays within a thin film silicon solar cell. Consequently, required thickness for solar cells decreases with the increased absorption of light rays.
3041:
production constraints. Nevertheless, China's strategic policies have reduced solar PV costs by more than 80%, increasing global affordability. In 2021, China's solar PV exports were over USD 30 billion.
8423:
Biria, Saeid; Chen, Fu Hao; Pathreeker, Shreyas; Hosein, Ian D. (22 December 2017). "Polymer Encapsulants Incorporating Light-Guiding Architectures to Increase Optical Energy Conversion in Solar Cells".
4520:
8662:
Heckenthaler, Tabea; Sadhujan, Sumesh; Morgenstern, Yakov; Natarajan, Prakash; Bashouti, Muhammad; Kaufman, Yair (3 December 2019). "Self-Cleaning Mechanism: Why Nanotexture and Hydrophobicity Matter".
6069:
7315:
Semonin, O. E.; Luther, J. M.; Choi, S.; Chen, H.-Y.; Gao, J.; Nozik, A. J.; Beard, M. C. (2011). "Peak External Photocurrent Quantum Efficiency Exceeding 100% via MEG in a Quantum Dot Solar Cell".
1401:
In 2015, a 4-junction GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs solar cell achieved a new laboratory record efficiency of 46.1% (concentration ratio of sunlight = 312) in a French-German collaboration between the
1948:(CPV), an emerging technology that uses lenses and curved mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto small, highly efficient multi-junction solar cells. By concentrating sunlight up to a thousand times,
8327:
Korech, Omer; Gordon, Jeffrey M.; Katz, Eugene A.; Feuermann, Daniel; Eisenberg, Naftali (1 October 2007). "Dielectric microconcentrators for efficiency enhancement in concentrator solar cells".
3697:
2632:. The efficiency of QDSCs has increased to over 5% shown for both liquid-junction and solid state cells, with a reported peak efficiency of 11.91%. In an effort to decrease production costs, the
2740:
concentrated light moves along the surface of the cell. That surface switches from reflective to adaptive when the light is most concentrated and back to reflective after the light moves along.
2648:
and CdSe that can be applied using a one-step method to any conductive surface with efficiencies over 1%. However, the absorption of quantum dots (QDs) in QDSCs is weak at room temperature. The
2768:. In 2012, researchers at MIT reported that c-Si films textured with nanoscale inverted pyramids could achieve light absorption comparable to 30 times thicker planar c-Si. In combination with
2235:
wings, to extend their functionality. Using ink-based materials and scalable techniques, researchers coat the solar cell structure with printable electronic inks, completing the module with
783:
power source. By adding cells to the outside of the body, the mission time could be extended with no major changes to the spacecraft or its power systems. In 1959 the United States launched
2652:
can be utilized to address the weak absorption of QDs (e.g., nanostars). Adding an external infrared pumping source to excite intraband and interband transition of QDs is another solution.
5523:
Kobayashi, Eiji; Watabe, Yoshimi; Hao, Ruiying; Ravi, T. S. (2015). "High efficiency heterojunction solar cells on n-type kerfless mono crystalline silicon wafers by epitaxial growth".
8467:
Biria, Saeid; Chen, Fu-Hao; Hosein, Ian D. (2019). "Enhanced Wide-Angle Energy Conversion Using Structure-Tunable Waveguide Arrays as Encapsulation Materials for Silicon Solar Cells".
1085:
without subsidies, likely requires advances on all three fronts. Proponents of solar hope to achieve grid parity first in areas with abundant sun and high electricity costs such as in
3246:
A research study was conducted by scientists to see how efficiently the solar panels were made from nanosilicon and nanosilicon/graphite hybrids. The experiment techniques consist of
3192:
generated in 2016 was 43,500–250,000 metric tons. This number is estimated to increase substantially by 2030, reaching an estimated waste volume of 60–78 million metric tons in 2050.
2924:
A full area metal contact is made on the back surface, and a grid-like metal contact made up of fine "fingers" and larger "bus bars" are screen-printed onto the front surface using a
5249:
1263:
for allowing light to enter into the active material and to collect the generated charge carriers. Typically, films with high transmittance and high electrical conductance such as
390:
Although modules can be interconnected to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, which can be done with or without using independent MPPTs (
9650:
8853:
5970:
794:
By the 1960s, solar cells were (and still are) the main power source for most Earth orbiting satellites and a number of probes into the solar system, since they offered the best
1552:
high-efficiency solar cells. As of 2016, the most popular and efficient solar cells were those made from thin wafers of silicon which are also the oldest solar cell technology.
1142:
Schematic of charge collection by solar cells. Light transmits through transparent conducting electrode creating electron hole pairs, which are collected by both the electrodes.
307:
in 1987. It was a 3000 km race across the Australian outback where competitors from industry research groups and top universities around the globe were invited to compete.
1715:
silicon and results in a polycrystalline structure. These cells are cheaper to make than multi-Si, due to a great reduction in silicon waste, as this approach does not require
1037:
Manufacturers of wafer-based cells responded to high silicon prices in 2004–2008 with rapid reductions in silicon consumption. In 2008, according to Jef Poortmans, director of
6219:
Smith, David D.; Cousins, Peter; Westerberg, Staffan; Jesus-Tabajonda, Russelle De; Aniero, Gerly; Shen, Yu-Chen (2014). "Toward the Practical Limits of Silicon Solar Cells".
8942:
7511:
Genovese, Matthew P.; Lightcap, Ian V.; Kamat, Prashant V. (2012). "Sun-BelievableSolar Paint. A Transformative One-Step Approach for Designing Nanocrystalline Solar Cells".
7436:
Moon, Soo-Jin; Itzhaik, Yafit; Yum, Jun-Ho; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M.; Hodes, Gary; GräTzel, Michael (2010). "Sb2S3-Based Mesoscopic Solar Cell using an Organic Hole Conductor".
873:
glue between the two, "potting" the cells. Solar cells could be made using cast-off material from the electronics market. By 1973 they announced a product, and SPC convinced
5039:
Dimroth, Frank; Tibbits, Thomas N.D.; Niemeyer, Markus; Predan, Felix; Beutel, Paul; Karcher, Christian; Oliva, Eduard; Siefer, Gerald; Lackner, David; et al. (2016).
1041:'s organic and solar department, current cells use 8–9 grams (0.28–0.32 oz) of silicon per watt of power generation, with wafer thicknesses in the neighborhood of 200
2177:
on the efficiency of a cell. It introduces an intermediate band (IB) energy level in between the valence and conduction bands. Theoretically, introducing an IB allows two
805:
In the early 1990s the technology used for space solar cells diverged from the silicon technology used for terrestrial panels, with the spacecraft application shifting to
8158:
Jaus, J.; Pantsar, H.; Eckert, J.; Duell, M.; Herfurth, H.; Doble, D. (2010). "Light management for reduction of bus bar and gridline shadowing in photovoltaic modules".
2727:, self-assembling organic materials that arrange themselves into distinct layers. The research focused on P3HT-b-PFTBT that separates into bands some 16 nanometers wide.
9504:
Tao, Meng; Fthenakis, Vasilis; Ebin, Burcak; Steenari, Britt-Marie; Butler, Evelyn; Sinha, Parikhit; Corkish, Richard; Wambach, Karsten; Simon, Ethan S. (22 July 2020).
1130:
installations were cheaper than coal-based thermal power plants in some regions of the world, and this was expected to be the case in most of the world within a decade.
9090:
7849:
6154:
Cariou, Romain; Chen, Wanghua; Maurice, Jean-Luc; Yu, Jingwen; Patriarche, Gilles; Mauguin, Olivia; Largeau, Ludovic; Decobert, Jean; Roca i Cabarrocas, Pere (2016).
8248:
Uematsu, T; Yazawa, Y; Miyamura, Y; Muramatsu, S; Ohtsuka, H; Tsutsui, K; Warabisako, T (1 March 2001). "Static concentrator photovoltaic module with prism array".
5567:
4724:
6881:
Sun, Xingshu; Khan, Mohammad Ryyan; Deline, Chris; Alam, Muhammad Ashraful (2018). "Optimization and performance of bifacial solar modules: A global perspective".
5820:"Optimization of open circuit voltage in amorphous silicon solar cells with mixed-phase (amorphous+nanocrystalline) p-type contacts of low nanocrystalline content"
3046:
production in Xinjiang, poses risks of supply shortages and cost surges. Critical mineral demand, like silver, may exceed 30% of 2020's global production by 2030.
2128:
1677:
1700:. Polysilicon cells are the most common type used in photovoltaics and are less expensive, but also less efficient, than those made from monocrystalline silicon.
7734:
1105:
set 2015 as the date for grid parity in the US. The Photovoltaic Association reported in 2012 that Australia had reached grid parity (ignoring feed in tariffs).
8047:
Tucher, Nico; Eisenlohr, Johannes; Gebrewold, Habtamu; Kiefel, Peter; Höhn, Oliver; Hauser, Hubert; Goldschmidt, Jan Christoph; Bläsi, Benedikt (11 July 2016).
7971:
Zhao, Jianhua; Wang, Aihua; Green, Martin A. (May 1998). "19.8% efficient "honeycomb" textured multicrystalline and 24.4% monocrystalline silicon solar cells".
1291:(827 nm to 1240 nm; near-infrared) have the greatest potential to form an efficient single-junction cell. (The efficiency "limit" shown here can be exceeded by
4528:
6377:
4506:
9559:
8774:
4060:
3535:
2801:
and a hydrophobic coating on the surface water droplets could remove 98% of dust particles, which may be especially relevant for applications in the desert.
1570:(c-Si), also known as "solar grade silicon". Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting
7055:
Okada, Yoshitaka; Tomah Sogabe; Yasushi Shoji (2014). "Ch. 13: Intermediate Band Solar Cells". In Arthur J. Nozik; Gavin Conibeer; Matthew C. Beard (eds.).
5086:
4919:
1875:(GaAs) is also used for single-crystalline thin film solar cells. Although GaAs cells are very expensive, they hold the world's record in efficiency for a
849:
at lower relative prices. As their price fell, the price of the resulting cells did as well. These effects lowered 1971 cell costs to some $ 100 per watt.
315:
vehicle that achieved speeds of over 40 mph. Contrary to popular belief however solar powered cars are one of the oldest alternative energy vehicles.
6818:
Cuevas, A.; Luque, A.; Eguren, J.; Alamo, J. del (1982). "50 Per cent more output power from an albedo-collecting flat panel using bifacial solar cells".
4660:
7280:
Sharma, Darshan; Jha, Ranjana; Kumar, Shiv (1 October 2016). "Quantum dot sensitized solar cell: Recent advances and future perspectives in photoanode".
6768:
6749:
3308:
for recycling remain uncertain and as of 2021 the environmental impact of different types of developed recycling techniques still need to be quantified.
3690:
9159:
4790:
4499:
8510:
Huang, Zhiyuan; Li, Xin; Mahboub, Melika; Hanson, Kerry M.; Nichols, Valerie M.; Le, Hoang; Tang, Ming L.; Bardeen, Christopher J. (12 August 2015).
4817:
1427:
1409:
1402:
6056:
5819:
987:
Energy volume of silicon solar cells and oil harnessed by human beings per dollar; Carbon intensity of some key electricity generation technologies.
9361:
Rahman, Md Mokhlesur; Mateti, Srikanth; Sultana, Irin; Hou, Chunping; Falin, Alexey; Cizek, Pavel; Glushenkov, Alexey M.; Chen, Ying (5 May 2021).
5938:
1442:
1003:
that states that solar cell prices fall 20% for every doubling of industry capacity. It was featured in an article in the British weekly newspaper
279:
Application of solar cells as an alternative energy source for vehicular applications is a growing industry. Electric vehicles that operate off of
6561:
Tian, Xueyu; Stranks, Samuel D.; You, Fengqi (24 June 2021). "Life cycle assessment of recycling strategies for perovskite photovoltaic modules".
4463:
2490:
couple in the electrolyte, which can be liquid or solid. This type of cell allows more flexible use of materials and is typically manufactured by
1438:
1420:(APCVD) in-line production chain was done in collaboration with NexWafe GmbH, a company spun off from Fraunhofer ISE to commercialize production.
1342:
ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill factor, but also make up minor portions of quantum efficiency, V
6783:
Luque, A.; Cuevas, A.; Eguren, J. (1978). "Solar-Cell Behavior under Variable Surface Recombination Velocity and Proposal of a Novel Structure".
5619:
4339:
1653:
solar cells grown epitaxially on n-type monocrystalline silicon wafers had reached an efficiency of 22.5% over a total cell area of 243.4 cm
1498:
Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third generation cells. The first generation cells—also called conventional, traditional or
1011:
costs were then higher than those of the panels. Large commercial arrays could be built, as of 2018, at below $ 1.00 a watt, fully commissioned.
6934:
Khan, M. Ryyan; Hanna, Amir; Sun, Xingshu; Alam, Muhammad A. (2017). "Vertical bifacial solar farms: Physics, design, and global optimization".
6526:
Gong, Jian; Darling, Seth B.; You, Fengqi (3 July 2015). "Perovskite photovoltaics: life-cycle assessment of energy and environmental impacts".
824:
conducted its first test of solar power generation in a satellite, the Photovoltaic Radio-frequency Antenna Module (PRAM) experiment aboard the
9459:
Tao, Meng; Fthenakis, Vasilis; Ebin, Burcak; Butler, Evelyn; Sinha, Parikhit; Corkish, Richard; Wambach, Karsten; Simon, Ethan (14 June 2020).
2736:
the light to penetrate the cell. The other parts of the cell remain reflective increasing the retention of the absorbed light within the cell.
891:
7752:
Lunt, R. R.; Osedach, T. P.; Brown, P. R.; Rowehl, J. A.; Bulović, V. (2011). "Practical Roadmap and Limits to Nanostructured Photovoltaics".
7366:
Kamat, Prashant V. (2012). "Boosting the Efficiency of Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells through Modulation of Interfacial Charge Transfer".
7020:
Luque, Antonio; Martí, Antonio (1997). "Increasing the Efficiency of Ideal Solar Cells by Photon Induced Transitions at Intermediate Levels".
10681:
10358:
1855:
portion of the spectrum. The production of a-Si thin film solar cells uses glass as a substrate and deposits a very thin layer of silicon by
8824:
3206:
The most widely used solar cells in the market are crystalline solar cells. A product is truly recyclable if it can harvested again. In the
7716:
5242:
5745:
5110:
Drießen, Marion; Amiri, Diana; Milenkovic, Nena; Steinhauser, Bernd; Lindekugel, Stefan; Benick, Jan; Reber, Stefan; Janz, Stefan (2016).
10327:
10163:
5023:
4438:
8860:
6335:
Richter, Armin; Hermle, Martin; Glunz, Stefan W. (2013). "Reassessment of the Limiting Efficiency for Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells".
5963:
2498:, with the potential for lower processing costs than those used for bulk solar cells. However, the dyes in these cells also suffer from
10036:
2239:. Tested on high-strength fabric, the cells produce 370 watts-per-kilogram, representing an improvement over conventional solar cells.
1765:
Cadmium telluride is the only thin film material so far to rival crystalline silicon in cost/watt. However cadmium is highly toxic and
5777:
3874:
1378:
Single p–n junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the theoretical limiting power efficiency of 33.16%, noted as the
939:
346:
cars because they are fashioned in a way to impart more power towards the electrical components of the vehicle for a longer duration.
7401:
Santra, Pralay K.; Kamat, Prashant V. (2012). "Mn-Doped Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells: A Strategy to Boost Efficiency over 5%".
3023:
2918:
2012:
1856:
1801:
1791:
1527:
375:. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the sun-facing side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor
7920:
6997:
Zhao, Binglin; Sun, Xingshu; Khan, Mohammad Ryyan; Alam, Muhammad Ashraful (19 February 2018). "Purdue Bifacial Module Calculator".
2928:
paste. This is an evolution of the so-called "wet" process for applying electrodes, first described in a US patent filed in 1981 by
10826:
10498:
8939:
8903:
7157:
3749:
3278:
pure Si outside of the Solar industry and the recyclers might be tempted to sell there if they get a higher value for the product.
7203:
Wang, Peng; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M.; Moser, Jacques E.; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K.; Sekiguchi, Takashi; Grätzel, Michael (June 2003).
6661:
Li, Junming; Cao, Hai-Lei; Jiao, Wen-Bin; Wang, Qiong; Wei, Mingdeng; Cantone, Irene; Lü, Jian; Abate, Antonio (21 January 2020).
6402:
6258:; Bremner, Stephen P.; Green, Martin A. (2015). "Supercharging Silicon Solar Cell Performance by Means of Multijunction Concept".
5307:
Ranabhat, Kiran; Patrikeev, Leev; Antal'evna-Revina, Aleksandra; Andrianov, Kirill; Lapshinsky, Valerii; Sofronova, Elena (2016).
4889:
10465:
10460:
9794:
6102:"Advancing solar energy conversion efficiency to 47.6% and exploring the spectral versatility of III-V photonic power converters"
3227:
There are various ways c-Si can be recycled. Mainly thermal and chemical separation methods are used. This happens in two stages
3095:
2700:
Energy conversion efficiencies achieved to date using conductive polymers are very low compared to inorganic materials. However,
2628:
or successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction. The electrical circuit is then completed through the use of a liquid or solid
821:
9010:
8796:
1642:" technique can have efficiencies approaching those of wafer-cut cells, but at appreciably lower cost if the CVD can be done at
10205:
4763:
3456:
2589:
and CuInSeS). QD's size quantization allows for the band gap to be tuned by simply changing particle size. They also have high
1804:). Traditional methods of fabrication involve vacuum processes including co-evaporation and sputtering. Recent developments at
193:
8280:"Increasing light capture in silicon solar cells with encapsulants incorporating air prisms to reduce metallic contact losses"
5082:
1180:
one side of the device p-type and the other n-type, for example in the case of silicon by introducing small concentrations of
9599:
9480:
8387:
8175:
7072:
6117:
5888:
5660:
5580:
4043:
3994:
3815:
2805:
2231:
92:
8200:
1928:
Multi-junction cells consist of multiple thin films, each essentially a solar cell grown on top of another, typically using
7205:"A stable quasi-solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell with an amphiphilic ruthenium sensitizer and polymer gel electrolyte"
6612:
Haque, Sirazul; Mendes, Manuel J.; Sanchez-Sobrado, Olalla; Águas, Hugo; Fortunato, Elvira; Martins, Rodrigo (1 May 2019).
3011:
2906:
dopants is performed on the front side of the wafer. This forms a p–n junction a few hundred nanometers below the surface.
2898:
wafers are made by wire-sawing block-cast silicon ingots into 180 to 350 micrometer wafers. The wafers are usually lightly
1434:
1390:
601:
first described the "Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current" in a 20 February 1873 issue of
7848:
Guo, C.; Lin, Y. H.; Witman, M. D.; Smith, K. A.; Wang, C.; Hexemer, A.; Strzalka, J.; Gomez, E. D.; Verduzco, R. (2013).
7618:
1998:
record solar cell efficiency of 47.6% under 665-fold sunlight concentration with a four-junction concentrator solar cell.
1936:
over a different portion of the spectrum. Multi-junction cells were originally developed for special applications such as
1319:
Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are substituted: thermodynamic efficiency,
10503:
5356:
Zanatta, A.R. (December 2022). "The Shockley-Queisser limit and the conversion efficiency of silicon-based solar cells".
3729:
1430:
announced a GaInP/GaAs/Si triple-junction solar cell with two terminals reaching 30.2% efficiency without concentration.
5111:
5040:
3831:
1382:
in 1961. In the extreme, with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight.
1057:. Global installed PV capacity reached at least 301 gigawatts in 2016, and grew to supply 1.3% of global power by 2016.
1027:
in the late 1990s and early 2000s led to the wide availability of large, high-quality glass sheets to cover the panels.
787:, featuring large wing-shaped solar arrays, which became a common feature in satellites. These arrays consisted of 9600
11097:
10984:
10519:
9871:
9616:
8640:
1543:
1320:
557:
7895:
7738:
4711:
700:
patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell, while working on the series of advances that would lead to the
10647:
10582:
10524:
10021:
9550:
If Solar Panels Are So Clean, Why Do They Produce So Much Toxic Waste?. Forbes (23 May 2018). Retrieved 6 March 2019.
9334:
9232:
8049:"Optical simulation of photovoltaic modules with multiple textured interfaces using the matrix-based formalism OPTOS"
4344:
OWID credits source data to: Nemet (2009); Farmer & Lafond (2016); International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).
4193:
2867:
2419:
1929:
1535:
447:
9213:"Reserch and Development on Recycling and Reuse Treatment Technologies for Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules"
802:"Research Applied to National Needs" program began to push development of solar cells for terrestrial applications.
11337:
11137:
10652:
10415:
9896:
7936:
Campbell, Patrick; Green, Martin A. (February 1987). "Light Trapping Properties of Pyramidally textured surfaces".
6370:
5414:
4846:
Kumar, Ankush (3 January 2017). "Predicting efficiency of solar cells based on transparent conducting electrodes".
4737:
3110:
2795:
2398:(DSSCs) are made of low-cost materials and do not need elaborate manufacturing equipment, so they can be made in a
2212:
1335:
1220:
452:
8882:
6156:"Low temperature plasma enhanced CVD epitaxial growth of silicon on GaAs: a new paradigm for III-V/Si integration"
4945:
Rühle, Sven (8 February 2016). "Tabulated Values of the Shockley-Queisser Limit for Single Junction Solar Cells".
1646:
in a high-throughput inline process. The surface of epitaxial wafers may be textured to enhance light absorption.
326:
which are a collected group of solar cells working in tandem towards a common goal. These solid-state devices use
11147:
10666:
10173:
10031:
9912:
9256:
Micheli, Leonardo; Fernández, Eduardo F.; Muller, Matthew; Smestad, Greg P.; Almonacid, Florencia (August 2020).
4068:
3253:– This is a patented technique where the solar panels are deconstructed and each material is cleaned separately.
3235:(EVA) is removed and materials such as glass, Tedlar®, aluminium frame, steel, copper and plastics are separated;
2962:
2759:
For the past years, researchers have been trying to reduce the price of solar cells while maximizing efficiency.
2165:
1884:
1760:
1523:
1476:
1165:
1077:
vary by country and within countries. Such tariffs encourage the development of solar power projects. Widespread
810:
9849:
9624:
7550:
5912:
4923:
4091:
3554:
2006:
In 2016, a new approach was described for producing hybrid photovoltaic wafers combining the high efficiency of
11075:
10791:
10617:
10143:
9937:
9886:
4664:
3463:
2849:
2099:
1110:
9420:
Klugmann-Radziemska, Ewa; Ostrowski, Piotr; Drabczyk, Kazimierz; Panek, Piotr; Szkodo, Marek (December 2010).
9363:"End-of-Life Photovoltaic Recycled Silicon: A Sustainable Circular Materials Source for Electronic Industries"
8370:
Hosein, Ian D.; Lin, Hao; Ponte, Matthew R.; Basker, Dinesh K.; Saravanamuttu, Kalaichelvi (3 November 2013).
8199:
Mingareev, I.; Berlich, R.; Eichelkraut, T. J.; Herfurth, H.; Heinemann, S.; Richardson, M. C. (6 June 2011).
4635:
1483:. Some cells are designed to handle sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, while others are optimized for
1316:
A solar cell has a voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and allowable shadow angles.
1313:
of a solar cell is a parameter which is defined by the fraction of incident power converted into electricity.
948:–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "
95:) vary when it is exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of
11157:
10450:
9172:
Doi, Takuya; Tsuda, Izumi; Unagida, Hiroaki; Murata, Akinobu; Sakuta, Koichi; Kurokawa, Kosuke (March 2001).
6070:"Fraunhofer ISE Develops the World's Most Efficient Solar Cell with 47.6 Percent Efficiency - Fraunhofer ISE"
5818:
Pearce, J. M.; Podraza, N.; Collins, R. W.; Al-Jassim, M. M.; Jones, K. M.; Deng, J.; Wronski, C. R. (2007).
4355:
3330:
2440:
1797:
9664:
4331:
1463:
11322:
10819:
10737:
10717:
10097:
9856:
7666:"Transparent, near-infrared organic photovoltaic solar cells for window and energy-scavenging applications"
7059:. Energy and Environment Series. Vol. 11. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 425–54.
5160:
3641:
Arulious, Jora A; Earlina, D; Harish, D; Sakthi Priya, P; Inba Rexy, A; Nancy Mary, J S (1 November 2021).
3390:
3380:
2094:
that Russia was the first to deploy bifacial solar cells in their space program in the 1970s. In 1976, the
1800:
material. It has the highest efficiency (~20%) among all commercially significant thin film materials (see
1368:
1310:
1208:
1018:, older equipment became inexpensive. Cell sizes grew as equipment became available on the surplus market;
391:
380:
6773: A. Luque: "Double-sided solar cell with self-refrigerating concentrator" filing date 21 November 1977
4354:
Yu, Peng; Wu, Jiang; Liu, Shenting; Xiong, Jie; Jagadish, Chennupati; Wang, Zhiming M. (1 December 2016).
3488:
2135:
that the global market share of bifacial technology will expand from less than 5% in 2016 to 30% in 2027.
11332:
11327:
11122:
10989:
10627:
10102:
9787:
9673:
3395:
3030:
2845:
2594:
2174:
1379:
1260:
799:
548:
197:
8927:
6461:"Life cycle energy use and environmental implications of high-performance perovskite tandem solar cells"
4605:
4477:
4257:
Herwig, Lloyd O. (1999). "Cherry Hill revisited: Background events and photovoltaic technology status".
11317:
11307:
11162:
11132:
11117:
11085:
10637:
10490:
10479:
10353:
10200:
10158:
10138:
9091:"More clean energy means more mines – we shouldn't sacrifice communities in the name of climate action"
8959:
6430:"Characterising degradation of perovskite solar cells through in-situ and operando electron microscopy"
5415:"Ultrathin Epitaxial Silicon Solar Cells with Inverted Nanopyramid Arrays for Efficient Light Trapping"
3613:
Connors, John (21–23 May 2007). "On the Subject of Solar Vehicles and the Benefits of the Technology".
3201:
2625:
2059:
reported in 2023 that significant further improvements in cell efficiency can be achieved by utilizing
1945:
1892:
1888:
1531:
1484:
343:
9422:"Experimental validation of crystalline silicon solar cells recycling by thermal and chemical methods"
9258:"Selection of optimal wavelengths for optical soiling modelling and detection in photovoltaic modules"
8511:
6764:
3265:
Conversion of Purified PV Recycled Silicon into Nanosilicon and Nanosilicon/Graphite Hybrid Production
2748:
2697:
Current cell efficiencies are, however, very low, and practical devices are essentially non-existent.
2116:
11177:
10924:
10117:
10051:
10026:
9866:
9668:
8984:
6745:
3974:
3503:
3015:
2529:
2403:
2395:
2390:
2236:
2224:
2007:
1933:
1908:
1863:
absorbs the visible light and leaves the infrared part of the spectrum for the bottom cell in nc-Si.
1824:
1635:
1417:
895:
610:
247:, as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A solar array generates
209:
201:
141:
8409:
6663:"Biological impact of lead from halide perovskites reveals the risk of introducing a safe threshold"
6140:
5850:
5602:
4010:
3345:
330:
mechanical transitions in order to convert a given amount of solar power into electrical power. The
11192:
11090:
10552:
10534:
10425:
10271:
10258:
10253:
10153:
3370:
2885:
2621:
1968:
1880:
1539:
1351:
1292:
949:
417:
5616:
3723:"Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends – Historical, Recent, and Near-Term Projections, 2014 Edition"
399:
394:) or, specific to each module, with or without module level power electronic (MLPE) units such as
11197:
11142:
11127:
11080:
11060:
11019:
10994:
10974:
10954:
10812:
10642:
10562:
10440:
10410:
10168:
10148:
10077:
9963:
9958:
9927:
9922:
4219:
3445:
3440:
3355:
3323:
3152:
2909:
2895:
2838:
2810:
2769:
2415:
2056:
1896:
1844:
1693:
1688:
1616:
1599:
1511:
1472:
1453:
1280:
1054:
970:
788:
755:
577:
185:
9655:
7850:"Conjugated Block Copolymer Photovoltaics with near 3% Efficiency through Microphase Separation"
7089:
3979:
ULSI Front-End Technology: Covering from the First Semiconductor Paper to CMOS FINFET Technology
2199:
and Marti first derived a theoretical limit for an IB device with one midgap energy level using
775:
Solar cells were first used in a prominent application when they were proposed and flown on the
11286:
11187:
10780:
10622:
10592:
10557:
10544:
10430:
10006:
9996:
9891:
9780:
9705:
5472:(2016). "Nanophotonics-based low-temperature PECVD epitaxial crystalline silicon solar cells".
5266:
Marques Lameirinhas, Ricardo A.; Torres, João Paulo N.; de Melo Cunha, João P. (January 2022).
4185:
4181:
3232:
2794:
Novel self-cleaning mechanisms for solar panels are being developed. For instance, in 2019 via
2682:
2525:
2520:
2499:
1820:
1779:
1177:
1024:
918:
838:
663:
597:. In 1839, at age 19, he built the world's first photovoltaic cell in his father's laboratory.
432:
8006:
Hauser, H.; Michl, B.; Kubler, V.; Schwarzkopf, S.; Muller, C.; Hermle, M.; Blasi, B. (2011).
7174:
5637:
4521:"Solar energy – Renewable energy – Statistical Review of World Energy – Energy economics – BP"
2685:
and small-molecule compounds like copper phthalocyanine (a blue or green organic pigment) and
2196:
2103:
11152:
11048:
10969:
10597:
10587:
10567:
10420:
10243:
10046:
9844:
9147:
6754: A. Luque: "Procedimiento para obtener células solares bifaciales" filing date 5 May 1977
6127:
3860:
3493:
3385:
2678:
2407:
2089:
Bifacial solar cell plant in Noto (Senegal), 1988 - Floor painted in white to enhance albedo.
2048:
2043:
1982:
1960:
1515:
1364:
1300:
1159:
1151:
1146:
862:
795:
727:
648:
427:
304:
7139:
4210:
4117:
568:
By 2020, the United States cost per watt for a utility scale system had declined to $ 0.94.
11312:
11030:
11014:
10999:
10835:
10632:
10612:
10607:
10602:
10577:
10572:
10087:
10016:
9861:
9829:
9733:
9045:
8714:
8526:
8476:
8336:
8291:
8212:
8106:
8060:
8019:
7980:
7945:
7861:
7822:
7761:
7677:
7324:
7216:
7029:
6953:
6900:
6827:
6792:
6674:
6570:
6472:
6167:
6008:
5834:
5689:
5532:
5481:
5429:
5391:
5200:
5123:
4989:
4954:
4897:
4855:
4262:
3947:
3897:
3654:
3522:
3420:
3063:
2903:
2899:
2760:
2755:
aircraft are Swiss-designed single-seat monoplanes powered entirely from photovoltaic cells
2649:
2080:
2071:
in the most efficient perovskite solar cells is a potential problem for commercialisation.
1876:
1741:
1643:
1360:
1328:
1232:
1053:
Solar PV is growing fastest in Asia, with China and Japan currently accounting for half of
659:
633:
442:
437:
422:
395:
204:), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by
115:
107:
8825:"IEEFA Report: Advances in Solar Energy Accelerate Global Shift in Electricity Generation"
8201:"Diffractive optical elements utilized for efficiency enhancement of photovoltaic modules"
6614:"Photonic-structured TiO2 for high-efficiency, flexible and stable Perovskite solar cells"
6043:
3667:
3642:
1656:
1623:. Solar panels using mono-Si cells display a distinctive pattern of small white diamonds.
624:
to form the junctions; the device was only around 1% efficient. Other milestones include:
8:
11182:
11167:
11102:
11070:
11065:
10881:
10286:
10266:
10233:
10041:
9977:
9917:
9876:
8635:
5493:
3498:
3450:
3425:
3335:
2938:
2704:
Power Plastic reached efficiency of 8.3% and organic tandem cells in 2012 reached 11.1%.
2247:
2123:, and an off grid installation by 1988 also of 20kWp in the village of Noto Gouye Diama (
2028:
1748:
1620:
1609:
1587:
1579:
1567:
1561:
1503:
1499:
1248:
1199:
hit the solar cell and are absorbed by the semiconductor. When the photons are absorbed,
1046:
928:
767:
used solar cells on its spacecraft from the beginning, their second successful satellite
715:
may have been the first to explain the photo-voltaic effect in the peer reviewed journal
590:
376:
365:
355:
100:
83:. It is a form of photoelectric cell, a device whose electrical characteristics (such as
80:
44:
33:
9737:
9049:
9011:"Weltweite Solarenergiemärkte: Wachstum, Trends und Herausforderungen - Arbitrage Solar"
8754:
8530:
8480:
8340:
8295:
8216:
8110:
8064:
8023:
7984:
7949:
7865:
7826:
7765:
7681:
7328:
7220:
7033:
6957:
6904:
6831:
6796:
6678:
6574:
6476:
6171:
6012:
5838:
5693:
5536:
5485:
5433:
5204:
5127:
4993:
4958:
4859:
4266:
3951:
3658:
2986:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
2912:
are then typically applied to increase the amount of light coupled into the solar cell.
1981:. Triple-junction GaAs solar cells were used as the power source of the Dutch four-time
1423:
For triple-junction thin-film solar cells, the world record is 13.6%, set in June 2015.
11172:
11043:
10854:
10322:
10281:
10228:
10001:
9881:
9761:
9533:
9486:
9402:
9340:
9295:
9269:
9238:
9071:
8696:
8633:
8616:
8580:
8492:
8449:
8397:
8181:
8140:
7795:
7601:
7348:
7250:
7120:
6969:
6943:
6916:
6890:
6703:
6662:
6643:
6594:
6503:
6460:
6352:
6275:
6236:
6196:
6155:
6026:
5894:
5718:
5677:
5590:
5505:
5453:
5373:
5338:
5224:
5060:
5005:
4586:
4174:
3771:
Marques Lameirinhas, Ricardo A.; N. Torres, João Paulo; de Melo Cunha, João P. (2022).
3430:
3360:
3350:
3014:
tests and validates solar technologies. Three reliable groups certify solar equipment:
2720:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2661:
2317:
1385:
1372:
1324:
1216:
964:
842:
776:
629:
291:. There are multiple input factors that affect the output power of solar cells such as
10896:
9189:
8512:"Hybrid Molecule–Nanocrystal Photon Upconversion Across the Visible and Near-Infrared"
8261:
7649:
7632:
6429:
5871:(2012). "The opto-electronic physics that broke the efficiency limit in solar cells".
5804:
5638:"Net Energy Analysis for Sustainable Energy Production from Silicon Based Solar Cells"
4727:. Clean Energy SuperCluster Expo Colorado State University. U.S. Department of Energy.
4244:
1334:
ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of quantum efficiency under "
11246:
10934:
10348:
10343:
10276:
10072:
10011:
9942:
9932:
9765:
9595:
9537:
9525:
9490:
9476:
9441:
9406:
9394:
9389:
9344:
9330:
9319:
Conference Record of the Twenty Sixth IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference - 1997
9299:
9287:
9228:
9193:
9075:
9063:
8700:
8688:
8680:
8620:
8584:
8544:
8496:
8441:
8383:
8352:
8309:
8278:
Chen, Fu-hao; Pathreeker, Shreyas; Kaur, Jaspreet; Hosein, Ian D. (31 October 2016).
8230:
8171:
8132:
8078:
7877:
7787:
7528:
7481:
7418:
7383:
7340:
7297:
7242:
7234:
7124:
7112:
7068:
6973:
6920:
6839:
6804:
6708:
6690:
6647:
6635:
6598:
6586:
6543:
6508:
6490:
6317:
6201:
6183:
6113:
6030:
5884:
5723:
5705:
5656:
5576:
5548:
5509:
5497:
5457:
5445:
5377:
5342:
5330:
5289:
5228:
5216:
5141:
5009:
5001:
4980:
Vos, A. D. (1980). "Detailed balance limit of the efficiency of tandem solar cells".
4871:
4578:
4505:. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 30 March 2015.
4313:
4189:
4039:
3990:
3889:
3811:
3672:
3595:
3483:
3375:
2782:
2633:
2507:
2495:
1941:
1917:
1836:
1519:
1228:
1082:
1008:
723:
602:
371:
Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a
137:
104:
40:(the larger silver-colored strips) and fingers (the smaller ones) are printed on the
10964:
9460:
8185:
8144:
8095:
7799:
7605:
7352:
7254:
6240:
5997:"Effects of germanium addition to copper phthalocyanine/fullerene-based solar cells"
5898:
5064:
4590:
3176:
solar panels could be a source for materials that would otherwise need to be mined.
2620:
layer can then be made photoactive by coating with semiconductor quantum dots using
1125:(not cells) had fallen to a record-low of US$ 0.36/Wp. The second largest supplier,
11112:
11107:
10919:
10859:
10405:
10389:
10373:
10363:
9834:
9751:
9741:
9692:
9517:
9472:
9468:
9433:
9384:
9374:
9322:
9279:
9220:
9185:
9173:
9053:
8672:
8608:
8572:
8534:
8484:
8453:
8433:
8375:
8344:
8299:
8257:
8220:
8163:
8122:
8114:
8068:
8027:
7988:
7953:
7869:
7830:
7777:
7769:
7695:
7685:
7644:
7593:
7565:
7520:
7498:
7473:
7445:
7410:
7375:
7332:
7289:
7224:
7185:
7104:
7060:
7037:
7002:
6965:
6961:
6912:
6908:
6835:
6800:
6698:
6682:
6625:
6578:
6535:
6498:
6480:
6441:
6403:"Perovskites, a 'dirt cheap' alternative to silicon, just got a lot more efficient"
6356:
6344:
6307:
6279:
6267:
6255:
6228:
6191:
6175:
6105:
6016:
5876:
5842:
5800:
5760:
5713:
5697:
5648:
5540:
5489:
5437:
5365:
5320:
5279:
5208:
5131:
5052:
4997:
4962:
4863:
4568:
4560:
4370:
4270:
3982:
3955:
3807:
Sustainable energy systems engineering: the complete green building design resource
3784:
3662:
3618:
3585:
3435:
3415:
3365:
3189:
3188:
The International Renewable Energy Agency estimated that the amount of solar panel
2724:
2605:
2590:
2578:
2551:
2451:
2200:
1872:
1840:
1583:
1488:
1264:
1255:
1173:
996:
945:
866:
806:
674:
670:
598:
594:
360:
335:
296:
288:
205:
84:
9633:
9421:
9257:
9242:
4966:
3285:
To whom do the recyclers sell the recovered modules, components, and/or materials?
1879:
solar cell at 28.8%. Typically fabricated on crystalline silicon wafer with a 41%
1711:
is a type of polycrystalline silicon—it is formed by drawing flat thin films from
342:
of the vehicle. Batteries in solar-powered vehicles differ from those in standard
99:, known colloquially as "solar panels". Almost all commercial PV cells consist of
10979:
10906:
10317:
10248:
9645:
9628:
9617:
PV Lighthouse Calculators and Resources for photovoltaic scientists and engineers
9589:
9437:
9283:
8946:
8676:
8612:
8539:
8032:
8007:
7597:
7569:
7293:
7189:
6630:
6613:
6445:
6425:
6348:
6312:
6295:
6271:
6232:
5623:
5441:
5136:
5056:
4374:
4305:
4289:
4287:
4033:
3805:
3400:
3207:
2913:
2765:
2547:
2491:
2448:
2332:
through the silicon. Useful ions are most commonly found in the trivalent state.
2190:
1634:
of crystalline silicon can be grown on a monocrystalline silicon "seed" wafer by
1631:
1413:
1356:
1224:
1015:
902:
874:
846:
678:
655:
383:
creating additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel yields a higher current.
213:
7813:
Lunt, R. R. (2012). "Theoretical limits for visibly transparent photovoltaics".
7064:
7041:
1375:, so less of the current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses.
1267:, conducting polymers or conducting nanowire networks are used for the purpose.
406:
can reduce shadowing power loss in arrays with series/parallel connected cells.
11215:
10869:
10727:
10702:
10368:
10220:
10122:
10112:
10082:
9839:
9746:
9721:
9212:
9120:
9058:
9033:
6686:
6582:
6296:"Realization of GaInP/Si Dual-Junction Solar Cells with 29.8% 1-Sun Efficiency"
5764:
5306:
4413:
4388:
4011:"April 25, 1954: Bell Labs Demonstrates the First Practical Silicon Solar Cell"
3473:
2942:
2411:
2399:
2060:
1851:
visible part of the solar spectrum more strongly than the higher power density
1708:
1650:
1548:
1492:
1240:
1126:
1102:
1074:
1000:
924:
857:
809:-based III-V semiconductor materials, which then evolved into the modern III-V
735:
686:
637:
606:
308:
272:
174:
9314:
9224:
8741:
8372:
Enhancing Solar Energy Light Capture with Multi-Directional Waveguide Lattices
8167:
6727:
6021:
5996:
5994:
5880:
5701:
5369:
3924:
3722:
3622:
2102:, began a research program for the development of bifacial solar cells led by
1506:, the commercially predominant PV technology, that includes materials such as
11301:
10849:
10312:
10302:
10215:
10107:
9824:
9803:
9640:
9529:
9445:
9398:
9326:
9291:
9197:
9067:
8684:
8008:"Nanoimprint Lithography for Honeycomb Texturing of Multicrystalline Silicon"
7499:
Solar Cell Research || The Prashant Kamat lab at the University of Notre Dame
7301:
7238:
7116:
6694:
6639:
6590:
6547:
6494:
6187:
5709:
5552:
5501:
5334:
5293:
5220:
5212:
5145:
5112:"Solar Cells with 20% Efficiency and Lifetime Evaluation of Epitaxial Wafers"
4875:
4582:
4317:
4288:
Deyo, J. N.; Brandhorst, H. W. Jr.; Forestieri, A. F. (15–18 November 1976).
3893:
3839:
3676:
3599:
3478:
3410:
3340:
2933:
2752:
2536:
2429:
2406:
cell designs. DSSC's can be engineered into flexible sheets and although its
1227:
is very high) the electrons and holes will ultimately restore equilibrium by
1212:
1204:
1118:
1004:
953:
644:
614:
163:
133:
20:
9162:. International Renewable Energy Agency (June 2016). Retrieved 6 March 2019.
8379:
7336:
4636:"Solar panels are a pain to recycle. These companies are trying to fix that"
1495:) to take advantage of various absorption and charge separation mechanisms.
1283:
for the theoretical maximum efficiency of a solar cell. Semiconductors with
1275:
132:
or artificial light. In addition to producing energy, they can be used as a
11053:
11009:
10944:
10886:
10864:
10757:
10712:
10445:
9756:
9717:
9379:
9362:
8692:
8634:
American Associates, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (9 December 2019).
8576:
8548:
8488:
8445:
8437:
8356:
8313:
8234:
8136:
8082:
7881:
7791:
7773:
7532:
7485:
7422:
7387:
7344:
7246:
6712:
6512:
6485:
6205:
6097:
5939:"New ultra-high material efficient, low-cost solar cells — using nanowires"
5727:
5449:
4414:"U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System and Energy Storage Cost Benchmark: Q1 2020"
4356:"Design and fabrication of silicon nanowires towards efficient solar cells"
4312:. Vol. 84, no. 1177. Reed Business Information. 18 October 1979.
3959:
3034:
2629:
2543:
2539:
2313:
2186:
1288:
981:
780:
731:
712:
283:
and/or sunlight are commonly referred to as solar cars. These vehicles use
280:
252:
125:
7549:
Yu, Peng; Wu, Jiang; Gao, Lei; Liu, Huiyun; Wang, Zhiming (1 March 2017).
5268:"A Photovoltaic Technology Review: History, Fundamentals and Applications"
4092:"Air Force's X-37B robotic space plane wings past 500 days in Earth orbit"
3773:"A photovoltaic technology review: history, fundamentals and applications"
1081:, the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than
722:
1954 – The first practical photovoltaic cell was publicly demonstrated at
364:
From a solar cell to a PV system. Diagram of the possible components of a
11281:
11266:
11004:
10929:
10752:
10722:
10697:
10455:
10092:
10067:
9419:
9116:
8348:
8304:
8279:
8225:
8073:
8048:
7477:
7054:
5995:
Oku, Takeo; Kumada, Kazuma; Suzuki, Atsushi; Kikuchi, Kenji (June 2012).
5868:
5652:
5325:
5308:
5178:
30.2% Efficiency – New Record for Silicon-based Multi-junction Solar Cell
4095:
3770:
3038:
2483:
1697:
1507:
1487:. Solar cells can be made of a single layer of light-absorbing material (
1446:
1389:
Reported timeline of research solar cell energy conversion efficiencies (
1098:
1078:
1031:
825:
697:
372:
331:
323:
292:
284:
248:
240:
228:
156:
96:
76:
10804:
8661:
8127:
8005:
7782:
7700:
3294:
Would mobile recycling facilities make more sense over centralized ones?
3140:
3003:
2608:
nanoparticles forms the backbone of the cell, much like in a DSSC. This
2266:
exhibiting up- or down-conversion is low, and is typically narrow band.
1959:
A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors:
1338:". Recombination losses make up another portion of quantum efficiency, V
287:
to convert absorbed light into electrical energy that is then stored in
10959:
10939:
10238:
10210:
9174:"Experimental study on PV module recycling with organic solvent method"
6539:
6109:
5284:
5267:
4573:
3789:
3772:
3590:
3573:
3468:
3213:
Additionally, these cells have hazardous elements/compounds, including
2852: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2601:
2444:
2325:
2270:
2220:
2052:
1994:
1604:
1185:
1086:
784:
768:
742:
741:
1958 – Solar cells gained prominence with their incorporation onto the
701:
227:
Photovoltaic cells and solar collectors are the two means of producing
9506:"Major challenges and opportunities in silicon solar module recycling"
9505:
8904:"Solar Energy Capacity in U.S. Cities Has Doubled in the Last 6 Years"
8118:
7873:
7834:
7690:
7665:
7524:
7449:
7414:
7379:
7006:
6321:
6179:
5846:
5544:
5265:
4867:
4725:
Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy: Challenges and Opportunities
3297:
What infrastructure should be established for waste module collection?
3033:'s 2022 Special Report highlights China's dominance over the solar PV
2402:
fashion. In bulk it should be significantly less expensive than older
2085:
1239:
An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of
11271:
11261:
11251:
11220:
10876:
10529:
10435:
10307:
9697:
9680:
9621:
9521:
9461:"Major Challenges and Opportunities in Silicon Solar Panel Recycling"
8985:"How Solar Panel Cost & Efficiency Change Over Time | EnergySage"
7992:
7957:
7108:
6218:
4564:
4549:
3405:
3070:
3050:
2686:
2436:
2426:
2287:
2216:
2120:
1964:
1952:
has the potential to outcompete conventional solar PV in the future.
1937:
1809:
1766:
1639:
1200:
312:
268:
7229:
7204:
5161:"Solar cell sets world record with a stabilized efficiency of 13.6%"
4274:
4259:
National center for photovoltaics (NCPV) 15th program review meeting
3318:
2827:
2111:
51:
10949:
10742:
10732:
10707:
9274:
8198:
7631:
Mayer, A.; Scully, S.; Hardin, B.; Rowell, M.; McGehee, M. (2007).
6948:
6895:
5778:"IBM and Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Turn Up Watts on Solar Energy Production"
4291:
Status of the ERDA/NASA photovoltaic tests and applications project
2929:
2798:
2555:
2533:
2439:
of light-absorbing material, which is adsorbed onto a thin film of
2321:
2263:
2107:
1932:. Each layer has a different band gap energy to allow it to absorb
1921:
1913:
1852:
1832:
1480:
1284:
1244:
1196:
870:
617:
244:
217:
167:
159:
129:
7551:"InGaAs and GaAs quantum dot solar cells grown by droplet epitaxy"
6854:"International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic (ITRPV) – Home"
5177:
4791:"Solar Panels Now So Cheap Manufacturers Probably Selling at Loss"
3986:
2193:. This increases the induced photocurrent and thereby efficiency.
1812:
attempt to lower the cost by using non-vacuum solution processes.
11256:
10747:
8597:
7158:"This thin solar cell can turn any surface into an energy source"
5109:
4439:"Sunny Uplands: Alternative energy will no longer be alternative"
3640:
3218:
2946:
2709:
2701:
2300:
2182:
2178:
2124:
1990:
1774:
1254:
The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area
1169:
1042:
327:
180:
The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
152:
111:
88:
41:
9772:
9217:
2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conference
9211:
Yamashita, Katsuya; Miyazawa, Akira; Sannomiya, Hitoshi (2006).
6253:
2152:
1612:
are equipped with highly efficient monocrystalline silicon cells
410:
Typical PV system prices in 2013 in selected countries (US$ /W)
9659:
8636:"Researchers develop new method to remove dust on solar panels"
7970:
7717:"Transparent Photovoltaic Cells Turn Windows into Solar Panels"
7202:
6611:
2925:
2367:
2274:
2140:
1986:
1828:
1712:
1575:
1192:
1094:
1065:
accounted for ~3 % of the world's electricity generation.
263:
221:
37:
8247:
8046:
5678:"Thin Film Solar Cells: Research in an Industrial Perspective"
4661:"BP Global – Reports and publications – Going for grid parity"
4419:(pdf). National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). p. 28
4394:(pdf). National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). p. 26
4324:
4247:, Chapter IV, NSF 88-16, 15 July 1994 (retrieved 20 June 2015)
1924:
triple-junction gallium arsenide solar array at full extension
1403:
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (Fraunhofer ISE)
311:
ended up winning the event by a significant margin with their
11241:
9722:"Emerging inorganic solar cell efficiency tables (Version 1)"
9255:
8949:. Down To Earth (19 September 2011). Retrieved 20 April 2014.
8940:
Falling silicon prices shakes up solar manufacturing industry
8797:"How China's giant solar farms are transforming world energy"
8561:
5817:
5746:"Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production"
4818:"Solar Could Beat Coal to Become the Cheapest Power on Earth"
2487:
1770:
1720:
1571:
1181:
1090:
853:
760:
403:
339:
72:
28:
9720:; Walsh, Aron; Todorov, Teodor K.; Saucedo, Edgardo (2019).
5038:
3875:"Investigation of a barrier layer by the thermoprobe method"
3572:
Al-Ezzi, Athil S.; Ansari, Mohamed Nainar M. (8 July 2022).
2486:
on the other side of the dye. The circuit is completed by a
2370:
energy and have been proposed as suitable matrix doped with
1835:
gas. Depending on the deposition parameters, this can yield
1566:
By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is
1138:
147:
The operation of a PV cell requires three basic attributes:
16:
Photodiode used to produce power from light on a large scale
7896:"Organic polymers create new class of solar energy devices"
6094:
5789:
4492:
4466:. 24/7 Wall St. (6 October 2011). Retrieved 3 January 2012.
4332:"Solar (photovoltaic) panel prices vs. cumulative capacity"
3214:
3019:
2690:
2068:
1608:
The roof, bonnet and large parts of the outer shell of the
1038:
1019:
878:
764:
621:
189:
119:
9679:
Green, M. A.; Emery, K.; Hishikawa, Y.; Warta, W. (2010).
9560:
Europe's First Solar Panel Recycling Plant Opens in France
9210:
9150:. CleanTechnica (4 February 2019). Retrieved 6 March 2019.
7140:"Researchers use liquid inks to create better solar cells"
6459:
Tian, Xueyu; Stranks, Samuel D.; You, Fengqi (July 2020).
5024:
Record-Breaking Solar Cell Points the Way to Cheaper Power
4687:
BP Global – Reports and publications – Gaining on the grid
3938:
Lehovec, K. (15 August 1948). "The Photo-Voltaic Effect".
2173:
in solar cell research provides methods for exceeding the
1847:(nc-Si or nc-Si:H), also called microcrystalline silicon.
1467:
Global photovoltaics market share by technology 1980-2021.
593:
was experimentally demonstrated first by French physicist
11276:
9465:
2020 47th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC)
8422:
8326:
7435:
4742:
ENF Solar Trade Platform and Directory of Solar Companies
4212:"Power from Sunshine": A Business History of Solar Energy
3300:
On the policy side, the main questions are the following:
2542:, fabricated with crystallite sizes small enough to form
2432:
2328:
2254:, infrared) photons to produce one higher energy photon;
2095:
1805:
1716:
1582:. These cells are entirely based around the concept of a
1412:
announced the achievement of an efficiency above 20% for
908:
658:
proposed a new quantum theory of light and explained the
319:
9678:
9571:
9503:
8930:. CleanTechnica (7 March 2013). Retrieved 20 April 2014.
8277:
7935:
6853:
5411:
4389:"U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System Cost Benchmark: Q1 2018"
2880:
1530:
cells and are commercially significant in utility-scale
9716:
Wong, Lydia H.; Zakutayev, Andriy; Major, Jonathan D.;
9121:"Photovoltaic Degradation Rates – An Analytical Review"
8829:
Institute for Energy Economics & Financial Analysis
7630:
6292:
5866:
5569:
String ribbon silicon solar cells with 17.8% efficiency
5470:
4606:"Explaining the Exponential Growth of Renewable Energy"
4152:
4150:
3615:
2007 International Conference on Clean Electrical Power
3231:
PV solar cell separation: in thermal delamination, the
2503:
2320:
to visible light. Upconversion process occurs when two
1416:
cells. The work on optimizing the atmospheric-pressure
196:, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect
166:
pairs), unbound electron-hole pairs (via excitons), or
36:
solar cell (as of 2005). Electrical contacts made from
9458:
9360:
8157:
7751:
7267:
6817:
6057:
San Jose Solar Company Breaks Efficiency Record for PV
5913:"Thin-Film Trick Makes Gallium Arsenide Devices Cheap"
5522:
3750:"Documenting a Decade of Cost Declines for PV Systems"
551:– Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy report
144:
near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
110:
account for the remainder. The common single-junction
71:) is an electronic device that converts the energy of
9715:
9171:
7921:
Adaptive Material Could Cut the Cost of Solar in Half
7510:
7314:
5041:"Four-Junction Wafer Bonded Concentrator Solar Cells"
4920:"T.Bazouni: What is the Fill Factor of a Solar Panel"
4816:
Shankleman, Jessica; Martin, Chris (3 January 2017).
4738:"Small Chinese Solar Manufacturers Decimated in 2012"
3832:"Julius (Johann Phillipp Ludwig) Elster: 1854 - 1920"
3516:
3288:
What are the costs for different recycling scenarios?
2677:
are built from thin films (typically 100 nm) of
2354:
ions absorb solar radiation around 1.54 μm. Two
2001:
1659:
1479:
must have certain characteristics in order to absorb
884:
349:
334:
produced as a result is then stored in the vehicle's
9685:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
9510:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
9312:
9128:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
8509:
8369:
7097:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
6044:
Triple-Junction Terrestrial Concentrator Solar Cells
5739:
5737:
5189:
4553:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
4226:
4147:
4135:
2636:
research group demonstrated a solar paint made with
2149:
counterparts and 40% during the peak winter months.
9591:
From space to Earth: the story of solar electricity
7501:. Nd.edu (22 February 2007). Retrieved 17 May 2012.
7270:. G24i.com (2 April 2014). Retrieved 20 April 2014.
7090:"Intermediate band solar cells: Present and future"
6153:
5516:
5235:
5105:
5103:
4306:"The multinational connections-who does what where"
2458:) to greatly amplify the surface area (200–300 m/g
1989:in 2003, 2005 and 2007 and by the Dutch solar cars
1895:, as the industry favours efficiency over cost for
1014:As the semiconductor industry moved to ever-larger
9706:"Electric Energy From Sun Produced by Light Cell"
9315:"Disposal and recycling of end-of-life PV modules"
8160:2010 35th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference
6334:
5956:
5873:2012 38th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference
4176:Chasing the Sun: Solar Adventures Around the World
4173:
3861:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921: Albert Einstein"
3683:
2956:
2242:
2129:Spanish international aid and cooperation programs
1671:
9562:. Reuters (25 June 2018). Retrieved 6 March 2019.
9160:End-of-Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels
8775:"Special Report on Solar PV Global Supply Chains"
8739:Fitzky, Hans G. and Ebneth, Harold (24 May 1983)
7847:
6880:
6782:
6074:Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE
5734:
5081:Janz, Stefan; Reber, Stefan (14 September 2015).
3872:
2418:may be high enough to allow them to compete with
1785:
831:
651:, devised the first practical photoelectric cell.
11299:
9712:article on various 1930s research on solar cells
8848:
8846:
8719:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
7735:"UCLA Scientists Develop Transparent Solar Cell"
6933:
5180:. (9 November 2016). Retrieved 15 November 2016.
5100:
4815:
4464:Solar Stocks: Does the Punishment Fit the Crime?
4256:
4245:The National Science Foundation: A Brief History
4167:
4165:
4118:"Space solar power's time may finally be coming"
2941:or "solar panels". Solar panels have a sheet of
2443:. The dye-sensitized solar cell depends on this
2258:is the process of using one high energy photon (
1726:
1626:
1398:eliminate defects at or near the wafer surface.
10489:
9089:Kemp, Deanna; Bainton, Nick (4 November 2021).
8466:
7737:. Enviro-News.com. 24 July 2012. Archived from
7582:
6996:
4298:
3744:
3742:
3691:"Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy"
3636:
3634:
3632:
3537:Special Report on Solar PV Global Supply Chains
3251:Recovery of PV Cells from End-of-Life PV Module
1944:, but are now used increasingly in terrestrial
1231:back across the junction against the field and
845:in the 1960s led to the availability of larger
779:in 1958, as an alternative power source to the
771:(1958) featured the first solar cells in space.
662:in a landmark paper, for which he received the
318:Current solar vehicles harness energy from the
19:For convection cells on the Sun's surface, see
8627:
7898:. Kurzweil Accelerating Institute. 31 May 2013
7279:
6560:
6525:
6458:
6147:
5464:
2655:
1355:is the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable
892:Energy Research and Development Administration
10820:
10682:List of countries by photovoltaics production
10359:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
9788:
8843:
8819:
8817:
8273:
8271:
7619:Konarka Power Plastic reaches 8.3% efficiency
6660:
6423:
4764:"What is a solar panel and how does it work?"
4457:
4208:
4162:
3975:"Introduction to the World of Semiconductors"
3752:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
3571:
3281:Other questions that need to be answered are
2312:or a combination), taking advantage of their
2269:One upconversion technique is to incorporate
1866:
9572:solar panel upcycling solutions in Australia
6876:
6874:
6725:
6100:; Collin, Stéphane; Sellers, Ian R. (eds.).
4841:
4839:
4353:
3739:
3629:
1590:between 160 and 240 micrometers thick.
1117:As of the end of 2016, it was reported that
1068:
584:
10164:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
9681:"Solar cell efficiency tables (version 36)"
9367:Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research
9114:
9088:
7663:
7544:
7542:
7400:
7088:Ramiro, Iñigo; Martí, Antonio (July 2021).
7087:
4021:(4). American Physical Society. April 2009.
3715:
3543:. International Energy Agency. August 2022.
2366:In addition, fluoroindate glasses have low
1796:Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a
1491:) or use multiple physical configurations (
709:Introduction to the World of Semiconductors
295:, material properties, weather conditions,
239:Assemblies of solar cells are used to make
10827:
10813:
10037:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
9795:
9781:
9356:
9354:
9031:
8883:"Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2023"
8814:
8268:
7915:
7913:
7548:
7019:
5309:"An introduction to solar cell technology"
5076:
5074:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4622:
4294:. 12th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conf.
4209:Jones, Geoffrey; Bouamane, Loubna (2012).
4061:"International Space Station Solar Arrays"
3643:"Design of solar powered electric vehicle"
3303:Who should pay for waste module recycling?
3069:combined. In 2021, China's share of solar
2528:(QDSCs) are based on the Gratzel cell, or
2506:light and the cell casing is difficult to
2022:
1782:, in a more stable and less soluble form.
1682:
1593:
1471:Solar cells are typically named after the
10834:
9755:
9745:
9696:
9388:
9378:
9313:Eberspacher, C.; Fthenakis, V.M. (1997).
9273:
9057:
8757:. Greentech Media. Retrieved 3 June 2012.
8715:"How to clean solar panels without water"
8538:
8303:
8224:
8126:
8072:
8031:
7781:
7699:
7689:
7648:
7462:
7438:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
7228:
6947:
6894:
6871:
6702:
6629:
6502:
6484:
6311:
6195:
6020:
5743:
5717:
5635:
5565:
5324:
5283:
5158:
5135:
5080:
4836:
4572:
4475:
3972:
3803:
3788:
3666:
3589:
2919:plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
2868:Learn how and when to remove this message
2789:
2037:
2013:plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
1857:plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
1827:(typically plasma-enhanced, PE-CVD) from
1792:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell
1773:: "telluride") supplies are limited. The
1723:. However, they are also less efficient.
1586:. Solar cells made of c-Si are made from
1213:occupied to unoccupied molecular orbitals
258:
10499:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
9649:) is being considered for deletion. See
7539:
7466:Journal of the American Chemical Society
7403:Journal of the American Chemical Society
6059:. Optics.org. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
5753:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
5313:Istrazivanja I Projektovanja Za Privredu
4171:
3489:Standardization#Environmental protection
3002:
2879:
2747:
2250:is the process of using two low-energy (
2084:
1912:
1603:
1462:
1384:
1274:
1145:
1137:
894:(ERDA), which was later merged into the
877:to use its panels to power navigational
759:
632:built the first cell based on the outer
359:
262:
50:
27:
10466:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
10461:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
9351:
8748:
7910:
6001:Central European Journal of Engineering
5937:Gemini, Redaksjonen (5 November 2021).
5405:
5355:
5255:from the original on 23 September 2022.
5071:
4619:
4342:from the original on 29 September 2023.
3937:
3612:
3096:Photovoltaics manufacturing in Malaysia
2384:
2230:In December 2022, it was reported that
2074:
1950:High concentration photovoltaics (HCPV)
973:– Worldwide total installed PV capacity
379:. Solar cells are usually connected in
200:from heat. A "photoelectrolytic cell" (
11300:
9587:
9426:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
9262:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
9178:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
8877:
8875:
8873:
8769:
8767:
8765:
8763:
8601:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
8250:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
7715:Rudolf, John Collins (20 April 2011).
7714:
7558:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
7282:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
7178:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
5936:
5793:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
5566:Kim, D.S.; et al. (18 May 2003).
5083:"20% Efficient Solar Cell on EpiWafer"
4788:
4603:
4232:
4156:
4141:
4058:
4035:Physics for the IB Diploma Full Colour
4031:
3735:from the original on 26 February 2015.
3728:. NREL. 22 September 2014. p. 4.
3457:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
3202:Perovskite solar cell § Recycling
3073:production reached approximately 70%.
1902:
1555:
909:Declining costs and exponential growth
881:, initially for the U.S. Coast Guard.
10808:
9776:
7365:
7137:
6728:"Radiation energy transducing device"
6383:from the original on 27 November 2020
5675:
5474:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
5248:. Fraunhofer ISE. 22 September 2022.
4982:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
4973:
4944:
4890:"Solar Cell Efficiency | PVEducation"
4845:
4712:Solar industry celebrates grid parity
4431:
4202:
4115:
4089:
3647:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
3131:
1097:and other islands that otherwise use
1093:. In 2007 BP claimed grid parity for
749:
10787:
8854:"2019 Snapshot of Global PV Markets"
8794:
7812:
7621:. pv-tech.org. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
5867:Yablonovitch, Eli; Miller, Owen D.;
4677:. Bp.com. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
4478:"Plunging Cost of Solar PV (Graphs)"
3574:"Photovoltaic Solar Cells: A Review"
3555:"Solar cells – performance and →use"
3135:
3012:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
2966:
2850:adding citations to reliable sources
2821:
2743:
2159:
1815:
1754:
1435:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
1391:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
560:– Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends
243:that generate electrical power from
151:The absorption of light, generating
10504:List of photovoltaic power stations
9634:Solar cell manufacturing techniques
8870:
8760:
5575:. Vol. 2. pp. 1293–1296.
4979:
3703:from the original on 1 October 2014
2723:with some 3% efficiency. They used
2139:to the monofacial counterparts for
1747:ecological impact (determined from
1649:In June 2015, it was reported that
1209:valence band to the conduction band
1172:, that have been fabricated into a
13:
10520:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
9923:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
9872:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
8928:Plunging Cost Of Solar PV (Graphs)
8641:Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
7138:Mason, Shaun (17 September 2014).
7057:Advanced Concepts in Photovoltaics
6528:Energy & Environmental Science
5976:from the original on 9 August 2014
4789:Martin, Chris (30 December 2016).
4604:Jaeger, Joel (20 September 2021).
4509:from the original on 7 April 2015.
4116:David, Leonard (3 November 2021).
3617:. Capri, Italy. pp. 700–705.
2689:and fullerene derivatives such as
2593:and have shown the possibility of
2002:GaInP/Si dual-junction solar cells
1433:In 2017, a team of researchers at
885:Research and industrial production
852:In late 1969 Elliot Berman joined
562:reports lower prices for the U.S.
373:solar photovoltaic panel or module
350:Cells, modules, panels and systems
14:
11349:
10525:Building-integrated photovoltaics
10022:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
9928:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
9802:
9653:to help reach a consensus. ›
9610:
9032:Herrington, Richard (June 2021).
8960:"Silicon price by type U.S. 2018"
7664:Lunt, R. R.; Bulovic, V. (2011).
6371:"Best Research-Cell Efficiencies"
6046:. (PDF) Retrieved 3 January 2012.
4500:"Snapshot of Global PV 1992–2014"
4476:Parkinson, Giles (7 March 2013).
4090:David, Leonard (4 October 2021).
4032:Tsokos, K. A. (28 January 2010).
3291:Location of recycling facilities?
2730:
2482:and the holes are absorbed by an
2420:fossil fuel electrical generation
1930:metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy
1703:
1536:building integrated photovoltaics
613:photovoltaic cell by coating the
114:solar cell can produce a maximum
10895:
10786:
10775:
10774:
9897:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
9565:
9553:
9544:
9497:
9452:
9413:
9306:
9249:
9204:
9165:
9153:
9141:
9108:
9082:
9025:
9003:
8977:
8952:
8933:
8921:
8896:
8788:
8745:, "Large-area photovoltaic cell"
8733:
8707:
8655:
8591:
8555:
8503:
8460:
8416:
8363:
8320:
8241:
8192:
8151:
8089:
8040:
7999:
7964:
7929:
7888:
7841:
7806:
7745:
7727:
7708:
7657:
7624:
7612:
7576:
7504:
7492:
7456:
7429:
7394:
7359:
7308:
7273:
7261:
7196:
7168:
7150:
7131:
7081:
7048:
7013:
6990:
6980:
6927:
6846:
6811:
6776:
6757:
6738:
6719:
6654:
6605:
6554:
5969:. Fraunhofer ISE. 28 July 2014.
3346:Electromotive force (Solar cell)
3317:
3139:
3111:Solar power in the United States
3104:
3049:In 2021, China's share of solar
2971:
2826:
2814:electric motor and guide rails.
2775:
2213:California NanoSystems Institute
2008:III-V multi-junction solar cells
1885:multijunction photovoltaic cells
980:
963:
938:
917:
10032:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
9913:List of semiconductor materials
9580:
6726:Mori Hiroshi (3 October 1961).
6519:
6452:
6417:
6395:
6363:
6328:
6286:
6247:
6212:
6088:
6062:
6049:
6037:
5988:
5930:
5905:
5860:
5811:
5783:
5771:
5669:
5629:
5609:
5559:
5392:"Monocrystalline Solar Modules"
5384:
5349:
5300:
5259:
5183:
5171:
5152:
5032:
5016:
4938:
4912:
4882:
4809:
4782:
4756:
4730:
4717:
4704:
4692:
4680:
4653:
4597:
4543:
4513:
4469:
4406:
4381:
4347:
4281:
4250:
4238:
4109:
4083:
4052:
4025:
4003:
3966:
3931:
3916:
3866:
3854:
3824:
3797:
3764:
3668:10.1088/1742-6596/2070/1/012105
3258:Purification of Broken PV Cells
3007:Solar cell production by region
2963:List of photovoltaics companies
2957:Manufacturers and certification
2902:-doped. A surface diffusion of
2837:needs additional citations for
2719:In 2013, researchers announced
2514:
2243:Upconversion and downconversion
2185:to excite an electron from the
2171:Intermediate band photovoltaics
2166:Intermediate band photovoltaics
2051:are solar cells that include a
1761:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
1544:third generation of solar cells
811:multijunction photovoltaic cell
576:For a chronological guide, see
234:
224:using only solar illumination.
10144:Incremental conductance method
9938:Copper indium gallium selenide
9887:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
9473:10.1109/pvsc45281.2020.9300650
9148:How long do solar panels last?
6966:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.08.042
6913:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.041
6055:Clarke, Chris (19 April 2011)
5744:Fthenakis, Vasilis M. (2004).
5494:10.1088/0022-3727/49/12/125603
4261:. Vol. 462. p. 785.
4038:. Cambridge University Press.
3905:Translated and reprinted from
3606:
3565:
3547:
3528:
3464:Solar module quality assurance
3173:
2817:
2343:ions have been the most used.
2206:
2100:Technical University of Madrid
1786:Copper indium gallium selenide
1514:. Second generation cells are
832:Improved manufacturing methods
585:§ Research in solar cells
103:, with a market share of 95%.
55:Symbol of a Photovoltaic cell.
1:
10451:South African Solar Challenge
9638:
9574:. Retrieved 30 November 2019.
9190:10.1016/s0927-0248(00)00308-1
8262:10.1016/S0927-0248(00)00310-X
7919:Bullis, Kevin (30 July 2014)
7650:10.1016/S1369-7021(07)70276-6
7368:Accounts of Chemical Research
6337:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
6300:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
6260:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
6221:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
5805:10.1016/S0927-0248(02)00436-1
5045:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
5022:Bullis, Kevin (13 June 2014)
4967:10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015
4723:Baldwin, Sam (20 April 2011)
4710:Peacock, Matt (20 June 2012)
4059:Garcia, Mark (31 July 2017).
3913:, No. 4–5, pp. 442–446 (1941)
3510:
3331:Anomalous photovoltaic effect
2532:architecture, but employ low
1727:Mono-like-multi silicon (MLM)
1627:Epitaxial silicon development
1325:integrated quantum efficiency
1270:
1176:. Such junctions are made by
999:is an observation similar to
10098:Photovoltaic mounting system
9467:. IEEE. pp. 0292–0294.
9438:10.1016/j.solmat.2010.07.025
9321:. IEEE. pp. 1067–1072.
9284:10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110539
9219:. IEEE. pp. 2254–2257.
8677:10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b01874
8613:10.1016/j.solmat.2018.03.034
8540:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b02130
8033:10.1016/j.egypro.2011.06.196
7598:10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.02.012
7570:10.1016/j.solmat.2016.12.024
7294:10.1016/j.solmat.2016.05.062
7190:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.04.023
6840:10.1016/0038-092x(82)90078-0
6805:10.1016/0038-1101(78)90014-X
6631:10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.02.023
6446:10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.02.055
6349:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2013.2270351
6313:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2016.2549746
6272:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2015.2395140
6233:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2014.2350695
5676:Edoff, Marika (March 2012).
5636:Pearce, J.; Lau, A. (2002).
5442:10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01240
5137:10.1016/j.egypro.2016.07.069
5057:10.1109/jphotov.2015.2501729
4375:10.1016/j.nantod.2016.10.001
3810:. McGraw Hill Professional.
3391:Maximum power point tracking
3381:List of types of solar cells
3195:
2681:including polymers, such as
2227:efficiency for solar cells.
2032:
1735:
1458:
1369:equivalent series resistance
822:US Naval Research Laboratory
392:maximum power point trackers
140:), detecting light or other
118:of approximately 0.5 to 0.6
7:
10103:Maximum power point tracker
8890:International Energy Agency
8782:International Energy Agency
7633:"Polymer-based solar cells"
7065:10.1039/9781849739955-00425
7042:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.5014
3863:, Nobel Prize official page
3396:Metallurgical grade silicon
3324:Renewable energy portal
3311:
3179:
3089:
2949:encapsulation on the back.
2656:Organic/polymer solar cells
2595:multiple exciton generation
2435:(Ru-centered) is used as a
2141:a ground albedo coefficient
1871:The semiconductor material
1532:photovoltaic power stations
1373:equivalent shunt resistance
1336:external quantum efficiency
1311:power conversion efficiency
1261:transparent conducting film
800:National Science Foundation
198:electrical power generation
10:
11354:
10354:Solar panels on spacecraft
10201:Solar-powered refrigerator
10159:Concentrated photovoltaics
10139:Perturb and observe method
9918:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
9726:Journal of Physics: Energy
9622:Photovoltaics CDROM online
9059:10.1038/s41578-021-00325-9
8565:Advanced Optical Materials
7938:Journal of Applied Physics
7268:Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
6687:10.1038/s41467-019-13910-y
6583:10.1038/s41893-021-00737-z
5827:Journal of Applied Physics
5765:10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.001
5002:10.1088/0022-3727/13/5/018
4848:Journal of Applied Physics
4172:Williams, Neville (2005).
3973:Lau, W.S. (October 2017).
3873:Lashkaryov, V. E. (2008).
3199:
3108:
3093:
3080:
3061:
3022:(both U.S. standards) and
2960:
2659:
2626:electrophoretic deposition
2518:
2396:Dye-sensitized solar cells
2391:Dye-sensitized solar cells
2388:
2181:with energy less than the
2163:
2096:Institute for Solar Energy
2078:
2041:
2026:
1946:concentrator photovoltaics
1906:
1893:solar panels on spacecraft
1889:concentrated photovoltaics
1867:Gallium arsenide thin film
1789:
1758:
1739:
1686:
1597:
1559:
1451:
1298:
1157:
927:history for conventional (
869:plastic on the front, and
753:
582:
575:
571:
353:
210:dye-sensitized solar cells
18:
11234:
11206:
11028:
10985:Metal–air electrochemical
10904:
10893:
10842:
10770:
10690:
10674:
10665:
10543:
10512:
10478:
10398:
10382:
10336:
10295:
10193:
10186:
10131:
10060:
10052:Heterojunction solar cell
10027:Dye-sensitized solar cell
9987:
9976:
9951:
9905:
9867:Multi-junction solar cell
9857:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
9817:
9810:
9669:University of Southampton
9594:. Earthscan. p. 50.
9225:10.1109/wcpec.2006.279621
9034:"Mining our green future"
8168:10.1109/PVSC.2010.5614568
6022:10.2478/s13531-011-0069-7
5881:10.1109/PVSC.2012.6317891
5702:10.1007/s13280-012-0265-6
5370:10.1016/j.rio.2022.100320
5159:Zyg, Lisa (4 June 2015).
4744:. ENF Ltd. 8 January 2013
3922:"Light sensitive device"
3804:Gevorkian, Peter (2007).
3623:10.1109/ICCEP.2007.384287
3578:Applied System Innovation
3504:Variable renewable energy
2980:This section needs to be
2530:dye-sensitized solar cell
2237:screen-printed electrodes
2225:electric power conversion
2153:An online simulation tool
1934:electromagnetic radiation
1909:Multi-junction solar cell
1825:chemical vapor deposition
1636:chemical vapor deposition
1502:-based cells—are made of
1418:chemical vapor deposition
1293:multijunction solar cells
1247:can convert the power to
1133:
1069:Subsidies and grid parity
896:U.S. Department of Energy
628:1888 – Russian physicist
545:
271:vehicle developed by GM (
202:photoelectrochemical cell
142:electromagnetic radiation
10535:Strasskirchen Solar Park
10426:American Solar Challenge
10272:Solar-powered flashlight
10259:Solar-powered calculator
10254:Solar cell phone charger
9943:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
9747:10.1088/2515-7655/ab2338
9674:NASA's Photovoltaic Info
9651:templates for discussion
9327:10.1109/pvsc.1997.654272
9038:Nature Reviews Materials
8945:20 December 2013 at the
5213:10.1038/nenergy.2017.144
3888:(Special Issue): 53–56.
3836:Adventures in Cybersound
3525:. chemistryexplained.com
3371:Hot spot (photovoltaics)
3057:
2910:Anti-reflection coatings
2886:solar-powered calculator
2622:chemical bath deposition
2324:photons are absorbed by
2211:In 2014, researchers at
1823:are mainly deposited by
1540:stand-alone power system
1475:they are made of. These
1426:In 2016, researchers at
1166:semiconducting materials
1164:A solar cell is made of
1101:to produce electricity.
931:) solar cells since 1977
128:cells may operate under
11338:20th-century inventions
10441:Frisian Solar Challenge
10411:List of solar car teams
10169:Space-based solar power
10149:Constant voltage method
10078:Solar charge controller
9964:Timeline of solar cells
9959:Growth of photovoltaics
9665:Solar Energy Laboratory
9656:Renewable Energy: Solar
8469:Physica Status Solidi A
8380:10.1364/OSE.2013.RM2D.2
8252:. PVSEC 11 – PART III.
7973:Applied Physics Letters
7815:Applied Physics Letters
7721:green.blogs.nytimes.com
7670:Applied Physics Letters
7337:10.1126/science.1209845
7022:Physical Review Letters
6785:Solid-State Electronics
5833:(11): 114301–114301–7.
5622:5 November 2013 at the
5617:"The Cast Mono Dilemma"
5525:Applied Physics Letters
4699:The Path to Grid Parity
4220:Harvard Business School
3446:Shockley-Queisser limit
3441:Roll-to-roll processing
3356:Sustainable development
2896:Polycrystalline silicon
2811:electrostatic repulsion
2770:anti-reflective coating
2650:plasmonic nanoparticles
2591:extinction coefficients
2526:Quantum dot solar cells
2416:price/performance ratio
2175:Shockley–Queisser limit
2117:San Agustín de Guadalix
2057:University of Rochester
2023:Research in solar cells
1897:space-based solar power
1845:nanocrystalline silicon
1821:Silicon thin-film cells
1694:Polycrystalline silicon
1689:Polycrystalline silicon
1683:Polycrystalline silicon
1617:Monocrystalline silicon
1600:Monocrystalline silicon
1594:Monocrystalline silicon
1512:monocrystalline silicon
1473:semiconducting material
1454:Timeline of solar cells
1405:, CEA-LETI and SOITEC.
1380:Shockley–Queisser limit
1281:Shockley-Queisser limit
1025:flat screen televisions
971:Growth of photovoltaics
756:Space-based solar power
578:Timeline of solar cells
212:), or to a device that
186:solar thermal collector
11287:Semipermeable membrane
11076:Lithium–iron–phosphate
10431:Formula Sun Grand Prix
10263:Solar-powered fountain
10206:Solar air conditioning
10007:Quantum dot solar cell
9997:Nanocrystal solar cell
9892:Sun-free photovoltaics
9380:10.1002/aesr.202100081
8577:10.1002/adom.201700164
8489:10.1002/pssa.201800716
8438:10.1002/adma.201705382
7774:10.1002/adma.201103404
6486:10.1126/sciadv.abb0055
6424:Kosasih, Felix Utama;
6254:Almansouri, Ibraheem;
6135:Cite journal requires
5964:"Photovoltaics Report"
5943:Norwegian SciTech News
5243:"Photovoltaics Report"
4689:. Bp.com. August 2007.
4182:New Society Publishers
3960:10.1103/PhysRev.74.463
3233:ethylene vinyl acetate
3126:Middle East and Africa
3008:
2888:
2790:Autonomous maintenance
2756:
2683:polyphenylene vinylene
2679:organic semiconductors
2521:Quantum dot solar cell
2410:is less than the best
2090:
2049:Perovskite solar cells
2038:Perovskite solar cells
1925:
1780:nickel-cadmium battery
1673:
1613:
1468:
1394:
1359:to the product of the
1296:
1155:
1143:
839:semiconductor industry
772:
664:Nobel Prize in Physics
368:
276:
259:Vehicular applications
56:
48:
11158:Rechargeable alkaline
10836:Electrochemical cells
10421:World Solar Challenge
10244:Photovoltaic keyboard
10174:PV system performance
10047:Perovskite solar cell
9845:Solar cell efficiency
9627:15 April 2014 at the
9588:Perlin, John (1999).
9390:10536/DRO/DU:30152718
8755:Pv News November 2012
8742:U.S. patent 4,385,102
7925:MIT Technology Review
6667:Nature Communications
6563:Nature Sustainability
5028:MIT Technology Review
4640:MIT Technology Review
3928:Issue date: June 1946
3925:U.S. patent 2,402,662
3903:on 28 September 2015.
3494:Theory of solar cells
3386:List of solar engines
3006:
2961:Further information:
2953:regions across time.
2883:
2796:wet-chemically etched
2751:
2408:conversion efficiency
2088:
2044:Perovskite solar cell
1983:World Solar Challenge
1916:
1674:
1607:
1516:thin film solar cells
1466:
1452:Further information:
1388:
1365:short-circuit current
1301:Solar cell efficiency
1278:
1243:(DC) electricity. An
1160:Theory of solar cells
1149:
1141:
863:printed circuit board
796:power-to-weight ratio
763:
728:Calvin Souther Fuller
726:. The inventors were
649:Hans Friedrich Geitel
620:with a thin layer of
363:
305:World Solar Challenge
266:
108:thin-film solar cells
54:
31:
11138:Nickel–metal hydride
10691:Individual producers
10399:Solar vehicle racing
10088:Solar micro-inverter
10017:Plasmonic solar cell
9862:Thin-film solar cell
9830:Photoelectric effect
8349:10.1364/OL.32.002789
8305:10.1364/oe.24.0a1419
8226:10.1364/OE.19.011397
8074:10.1364/OE.24.0A1083
7478:10.1021/jacs.6b00615
7162:World Economic Forum
5653:10.1115/SED2002-1051
5326:10.5937/jaes14-10879
3907:Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR
3421:Plasmonic solar cell
3208:2016 Paris Agreement
3064:Solar power in China
2945:on the front, and a
2846:improve this article
2761:Thin-film solar cell
2385:Light-absorbing dyes
2119:, built in 1986 for
2081:Bifacial solar cells
2075:Bifacial solar cells
1891:(CPV, HCPV) and for
1742:Thin-film solar cell
1672:{\displaystyle ^{2}}
1657:
1644:atmospheric pressure
1361:open-circuit voltage
1121:for assembled solar
1055:worldwide deployment
813:used on spacecraft.
660:photoelectric effect
634:photoelectric effect
338:in order to run the
116:open-circuit voltage
97:photovoltaic modules
11323:American inventions
11148:Polysulfide–bromide
10990:Nickel oxyhydroxide
10882:Thermogalvanic cell
10287:Solar traffic light
10267:Solar-powered radio
10234:Solar-powered watch
10042:Printed solar panel
9877:Solar cell research
9738:2019JPEn....1c2001W
9050:2021NatRM...6..456H
8671:(48): 15526–15534.
8531:2015NanoL..15.5552H
8481:2019PSSAR.21600716B
8374:. pp. RM2D.2.
8341:2007OptL...32.2789K
8296:2016OExpr..24A1419C
8290:(22): A1419–A1430.
8217:2011OExpr..1911397M
8111:2012NanoL..12.2792M
8065:2016OExpr..24A1083T
8059:(14): A1083–A1093.
8024:2011EnPro...8..648H
7985:1998ApPhL..73.1991Z
7950:1987JAP....62..243C
7866:2013NanoL..13.2957G
7827:2012ApPhL.101d3902L
7766:2011AdM....23.5712L
7682:2011ApPhL..98k3305L
7329:2011Sci...334.1530S
7221:2003NatMa...2..402W
7164:. 16 December 2022.
7034:1997PhRvL..78.5014L
6958:2017ApEn..206..240K
6905:2018ApEn..212.1601S
6832:1982SoEn...29..419C
6797:1978SSEle..21..793L
6746:(A1) ES 453575 (A1)
6679:2020NatCo..11..310L
6575:2021NatSu...4..821T
6477:2020SciA....6...55T
6172:2016NatSR...625674C
6013:2012CEJE....2..248O
5839:2007JAP...101k4301P
5694:2012Ambio..41S.112E
5537:2015ApPhL.106v3504K
5486:2016JPhD...49l5603C
5434:2016NanoL..16.5358G
5205:2017NatEn...217144E
5128:2016EnPro..92..785D
4994:1980JPhD...13..839D
4959:2016SoEn..130..139R
4894:www.pveducation.org
4860:2017JAP...121a4502K
4267:1999AIPC..462..785H
3952:1948PhRv...74..463L
3659:2021JPhCS2070a2105A
3499:Thermophotovoltaics
3451:Solar cell research
3426:Printed electronics
3336:Autonomous building
2675:polymer solar cells
2671:Organic solar cells
2248:Photon upconversion
2104:Prof. Antonio Luque
2029:Solar cell research
1903:Multijunction cells
1749:life cycle analysis
1621:Czochralski process
1568:crystalline silicon
1562:Crystalline silicon
1556:Crystalline silicon
1504:crystalline silicon
1408:In September 2015,
1249:alternating current
1221:electron-hole pairs
1047:Crystalline silicon
954:solar photovoltaics
843:integrated circuits
789:Hoffman solar cells
591:photovoltaic effect
411:
366:photovoltaic system
356:Photovoltaic system
101:crystalline silicon
81:photovoltaic effect
34:crystalline silicon
11333:Physical chemistry
11328:Russian inventions
10911:(non-rechargeable)
10855:Concentration cell
10323:The Quiet Achiever
10282:Solar street light
10229:Solar-powered pump
10002:Organic solar cell
9882:Thermophotovoltaic
9850:Quantum efficiency
8426:Advanced Materials
8162:. p. 000979.
7754:Advanced Materials
6765:(A) US 4169738 (A)
6540:10.1039/C5EE00615E
6405:. 16 February 2023
6160:Scientific Reports
6110:10.1117/12.3000352
5285:10.3390/en15051823
4900:on 31 January 2018
4445:. 21 November 2012
4336:OurWorldInData.org
3790:10.3390/en15051823
3591:10.3390/asi5040067
3431:Quantum efficiency
3361:Flexible substrate
3351:Energy development
3151:. You can help by
3132:Materials sourcing
3009:
2889:
2757:
2666:Polymer solar cell
2662:Organic solar cell
2496:ultrasonic nozzles
2318:infrared radiation
2273:-doped materials (
2091:
1926:
1839:(a-Si or a-Si:H),
1698:metal flake effect
1669:
1614:
1469:
1395:
1321:quantum efficiency
1297:
1217:organic solar cell
1215:in the case of an
1156:
1144:
1030:During the 1990s,
777:Vanguard satellite
773:
750:Space applications
630:Aleksandr Stoletov
409:
369:
277:
194:absorbing sunlight
177:of opposite types.
173:The separation of
138:infrared detectors
57:
49:
11318:Energy harvesting
11308:Energy conversion
11295:
11294:
10802:
10801:
10766:
10765:
10661:
10660:
10474:
10473:
10349:Mauro Solar Riser
10344:Electric aircraft
10277:Solar-powered fan
10182:
10181:
10073:Balance of system
10061:System components
10012:Hybrid solar cell
9972:
9971:
9933:Cadmium telluride
9708:Popular Mechanics
9601:978-0-937948-14-9
9516:(10): 1077–1088.
9482:978-1-7281-6115-0
9432:(12): 2275–2282.
9115:Jordan, Dirk C.;
9013:. 2 November 2023
8866:on 21 April 2019.
8795:Baraniuk, Chris.
8389:978-1-55752-986-2
8211:(12): 11397–404.
8177:978-1-4244-5890-5
8119:10.1021/nl2045777
7979:(14): 1991–1993.
7874:10.1021/nl401420s
7835:10.1063/1.4738896
7691:10.1063/1.3567516
7525:10.1021/nn204381g
7472:(12): 4201–4209.
7450:10.1021/jz100308q
7415:10.1021/ja211224s
7380:10.1021/ar200315d
7074:978-1-84973-995-5
7028:(26): 5014–5017.
7007:10.4231/d3542jb3c
6256:Ho-Baillie, Anita
6180:10.1038/srep25674
6119:978-1-5106-7022-8
5890:978-1-4673-0066-7
5847:10.1063/1.2714507
5662:978-0-7918-1689-9
5582:978-4-9901816-0-4
5545:10.1063/1.4922196
4868:10.1063/1.4973117
4559:(11): 1180–1194.
4222:. pp. 22–23.
4045:978-0-521-13821-5
3996:978-981-322-215-1
3817:978-0-07-147359-0
3484:Spectrophotometry
3376:Inkjet solar cell
3169:
3168:
3001:
3000:
2878:
2877:
2870:
2783:polyvinyl acetate
2744:Surface texturing
2687:carbon fullerenes
2215:discovered using
2160:Intermediate band
1995:Twente One (2007)
1942:space exploration
1837:amorphous silicon
1816:Silicon thin film
1755:Cadmium telluride
1520:amorphous silicon
1287:between 1 and 1.5
1111:recession of 2008
1009:Balance of system
724:Bell Laboratories
566:
565:
105:Cadmium telluride
65:photovoltaic cell
11345:
11091:Lithium–titanate
11036:
10912:
10899:
10860:Electric battery
10829:
10822:
10815:
10806:
10805:
10790:
10789:
10778:
10777:
10672:
10671:
10513:Building-mounted
10491:PV power station
10487:
10486:
10416:Solar challenges
10406:Solar car racing
10374:Solar Challenger
10364:Gossamer Penguin
10191:
10190:
9985:
9984:
9835:Solar irradiance
9815:
9814:
9797:
9790:
9783:
9774:
9773:
9769:
9759:
9749:
9702:
9700:
9698:10.1002/pip.1021
9605:
9575:
9569:
9563:
9557:
9551:
9548:
9542:
9541:
9522:10.1002/pip.3316
9501:
9495:
9494:
9456:
9450:
9449:
9417:
9411:
9410:
9392:
9382:
9358:
9349:
9348:
9310:
9304:
9303:
9277:
9253:
9247:
9246:
9208:
9202:
9201:
9184:(1–4): 397–403.
9169:
9163:
9157:
9151:
9145:
9139:
9138:
9136:
9134:
9125:
9112:
9106:
9105:
9103:
9101:
9095:The Conversation
9086:
9080:
9079:
9061:
9029:
9023:
9022:
9020:
9018:
9007:
9001:
9000:
8998:
8996:
8981:
8975:
8974:
8972:
8970:
8956:
8950:
8937:
8931:
8925:
8919:
8918:
8916:
8914:
8900:
8894:
8893:
8887:
8879:
8868:
8867:
8865:
8859:. Archived from
8858:
8850:
8841:
8840:
8838:
8836:
8821:
8812:
8811:
8809:
8807:
8792:
8786:
8785:
8779:
8771:
8758:
8752:
8746:
8744:
8737:
8731:
8730:
8728:
8726:
8711:
8705:
8704:
8659:
8653:
8652:
8650:
8648:
8631:
8625:
8624:
8595:
8589:
8588:
8559:
8553:
8552:
8542:
8525:(8): 5552–5557.
8516:
8507:
8501:
8500:
8464:
8458:
8457:
8420:
8414:
8413:
8407:
8403:
8401:
8393:
8367:
8361:
8360:
8324:
8318:
8317:
8307:
8275:
8266:
8265:
8256:(1–4): 415–423.
8245:
8239:
8238:
8228:
8196:
8190:
8189:
8155:
8149:
8148:
8130:
8105:(6): 2792–2796.
8093:
8087:
8086:
8076:
8044:
8038:
8037:
8035:
8003:
7997:
7996:
7993:10.1063/1.122345
7968:
7962:
7961:
7958:10.1063/1.339189
7933:
7927:
7917:
7908:
7907:
7905:
7903:
7892:
7886:
7885:
7845:
7839:
7838:
7810:
7804:
7803:
7785:
7749:
7743:
7742:
7741:on 27 July 2012.
7731:
7725:
7724:
7712:
7706:
7705:
7703:
7693:
7661:
7655:
7654:
7652:
7628:
7622:
7616:
7610:
7609:
7580:
7574:
7573:
7555:
7546:
7537:
7536:
7508:
7502:
7496:
7490:
7489:
7460:
7454:
7453:
7433:
7427:
7426:
7398:
7392:
7391:
7363:
7357:
7356:
7323:(6062): 1530–3.
7312:
7306:
7305:
7277:
7271:
7265:
7259:
7258:
7232:
7209:Nature Materials
7200:
7194:
7193:
7172:
7166:
7165:
7154:
7148:
7147:
7135:
7129:
7128:
7109:10.1002/pip.3351
7094:
7085:
7079:
7078:
7052:
7046:
7045:
7017:
7011:
7010:
6994:
6988:
6984:
6978:
6977:
6951:
6931:
6925:
6924:
6898:
6878:
6869:
6868:
6866:
6864:
6850:
6844:
6843:
6815:
6809:
6808:
6780:
6774:
6772:
6771:
6767:
6761:
6755:
6753:
6752:
6748:
6742:
6736:
6735:
6723:
6717:
6716:
6706:
6658:
6652:
6651:
6633:
6609:
6603:
6602:
6558:
6552:
6551:
6534:(7): 1953–1968.
6523:
6517:
6516:
6506:
6488:
6471:(31): eabb0055.
6465:Science Advances
6456:
6450:
6449:
6426:Ducati, Caterina
6421:
6415:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6399:
6393:
6392:
6390:
6388:
6382:
6375:
6367:
6361:
6360:
6343:(4): 1184–1191.
6332:
6326:
6325:
6315:
6306:(4): 1012–1019.
6290:
6284:
6283:
6251:
6245:
6244:
6227:(6): 1465–1469.
6216:
6210:
6209:
6199:
6151:
6145:
6144:
6138:
6133:
6131:
6123:
6092:
6086:
6085:
6083:
6081:
6066:
6060:
6053:
6047:
6041:
6035:
6034:
6024:
5992:
5986:
5985:
5983:
5981:
5975:
5968:
5960:
5954:
5953:
5951:
5949:
5934:
5928:
5927:
5925:
5923:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5864:
5858:
5857:
5856:on 13 June 2009.
5855:
5849:. Archived from
5824:
5815:
5809:
5808:
5787:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5768:
5750:
5741:
5732:
5731:
5721:
5673:
5667:
5666:
5642:
5633:
5627:
5615:Wayne McMillan,
5613:
5607:
5606:
5600:
5596:
5594:
5586:
5574:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5520:
5514:
5513:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5419:
5409:
5403:
5402:
5400:
5398:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5353:
5347:
5346:
5328:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5287:
5263:
5257:
5256:
5254:
5247:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5187:
5181:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5156:
5150:
5149:
5139:
5107:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5078:
5069:
5068:
5036:
5030:
5020:
5014:
5013:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4942:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4926:on 15 April 2009
4922:. Archived from
4916:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4905:
4896:. Archived from
4886:
4880:
4879:
4843:
4834:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4813:
4807:
4806:
4804:
4802:
4786:
4780:
4779:
4777:
4775:
4760:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4734:
4728:
4721:
4715:
4708:
4702:
4696:
4690:
4684:
4678:
4676:
4674:
4672:
4663:. Archived from
4657:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4632:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4612:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4576:
4565:10.1002/pip.2363
4547:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4536:
4531:on 23 March 2018
4527:. Archived from
4517:
4511:
4510:
4504:
4496:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4485:
4480:. Clean Technica
4473:
4467:
4461:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4418:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4393:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4360:
4351:
4345:
4343:
4328:
4322:
4321:
4302:
4296:
4295:
4285:
4279:
4278:
4254:
4248:
4242:
4236:
4230:
4224:
4223:
4217:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4179:
4169:
4160:
4154:
4145:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4128:
4113:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4067:. Archived from
4056:
4050:
4049:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3935:
3929:
3927:
3920:
3914:
3904:
3902:
3896:. Archived from
3879:
3870:
3864:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3838:. Archived from
3828:
3822:
3821:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3746:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3727:
3719:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3702:
3695:
3687:
3681:
3680:
3670:
3638:
3627:
3626:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3593:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3559:solarbotic s.net
3551:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3436:Renewable energy
3366:Green technology
3322:
3321:
3190:electronic waste
3164:
3161:
3143:
3136:
2996:
2993:
2987:
2975:
2974:
2967:
2873:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2853:
2830:
2822:
2725:block copolymers
2647:
2646:
2645:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2606:titanium dioxide
2575:
2574:
2573:
2565:
2564:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2452:titanium dioxide
2441:titanium dioxide
2380:
2379:
2378:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2201:detailed balance
2127:) funded by the
1979:
1978:
1977:
1873:gallium arsenide
1841:protocrystalline
1678:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1632:Epitaxial wafers
1265:indium tin oxide
984:
967:
942:
921:
841:; their move to
807:gallium arsenide
671:Vadim Lashkaryov
647:, together with
609:built the first
599:Willoughby Smith
595:Edmond Becquerel
412:
408:
400:DC-DC optimizers
297:solar irradiance
206:Edmond Becquerel
79:by means of the
11353:
11352:
11348:
11347:
11346:
11344:
11343:
11342:
11298:
11297:
11296:
11291:
11230:
11209:
11202:
11123:Nickel–hydrogen
11081:Lithium–polymer
11037:
11034:
11033:
11024:
10913:
10910:
10909:
10900:
10891:
10838:
10833:
10803:
10798:
10762:
10686:
10657:
10539:
10508:
10481:
10470:
10394:
10383:Water transport
10378:
10332:
10318:Solar golf cart
10291:
10249:Solar road stud
10178:
10132:System concepts
10127:
10056:
9979:
9968:
9947:
9901:
9806:
9801:
9654:
9629:Wayback Machine
9613:
9608:
9602:
9583:
9578:
9570:
9566:
9558:
9554:
9549:
9545:
9502:
9498:
9483:
9457:
9453:
9418:
9414:
9359:
9352:
9337:
9311:
9307:
9254:
9250:
9235:
9209:
9205:
9170:
9166:
9158:
9154:
9146:
9142:
9132:
9130:
9123:
9117:Kurtz, Sarah R.
9113:
9109:
9099:
9097:
9087:
9083:
9030:
9026:
9016:
9014:
9009:
9008:
9004:
8994:
8992:
8983:
8982:
8978:
8968:
8966:
8958:
8957:
8953:
8947:Wayback Machine
8938:
8934:
8926:
8922:
8912:
8910:
8902:
8901:
8897:
8885:
8881:
8880:
8871:
8863:
8856:
8852:
8851:
8844:
8834:
8832:
8823:
8822:
8815:
8805:
8803:
8793:
8789:
8777:
8773:
8772:
8761:
8753:
8749:
8740:
8738:
8734:
8724:
8722:
8721:. 11 March 2022
8713:
8712:
8708:
8660:
8656:
8646:
8644:
8632:
8628:
8596:
8592:
8571:(17): 1700164.
8560:
8556:
8514:
8508:
8504:
8465:
8461:
8421:
8417:
8405:
8404:
8395:
8394:
8390:
8368:
8364:
8335:(19): 2789–91.
8325:
8321:
8276:
8269:
8246:
8242:
8197:
8193:
8178:
8156:
8152:
8094:
8090:
8045:
8041:
8012:Energy Procedia
8004:
8000:
7969:
7965:
7934:
7930:
7918:
7911:
7901:
7899:
7894:
7893:
7889:
7846:
7842:
7811:
7807:
7760:(48): 5712–27.
7750:
7746:
7733:
7732:
7728:
7713:
7709:
7662:
7658:
7637:Materials Today
7629:
7625:
7617:
7613:
7581:
7577:
7553:
7547:
7540:
7509:
7505:
7497:
7493:
7461:
7457:
7434:
7430:
7399:
7395:
7374:(11): 1906–15.
7364:
7360:
7313:
7309:
7278:
7274:
7266:
7262:
7230:10.1038/nmat904
7201:
7197:
7173:
7169:
7156:
7155:
7151:
7136:
7132:
7092:
7086:
7082:
7075:
7053:
7049:
7018:
7014:
6995:
6991:
6985:
6981:
6932:
6928:
6879:
6872:
6862:
6860:
6852:
6851:
6847:
6816:
6812:
6781:
6777:
6769:
6763:
6762:
6758:
6750:
6744:
6743:
6739:
6724:
6720:
6659:
6655:
6610:
6606:
6559:
6555:
6524:
6520:
6457:
6453:
6422:
6418:
6408:
6406:
6401:
6400:
6396:
6386:
6384:
6380:
6373:
6369:
6368:
6364:
6333:
6329:
6291:
6287:
6252:
6248:
6217:
6213:
6152:
6148:
6136:
6134:
6125:
6124:
6120:
6093:
6089:
6079:
6077:
6068:
6067:
6063:
6054:
6050:
6042:
6038:
5993:
5989:
5979:
5977:
5973:
5966:
5962:
5961:
5957:
5947:
5945:
5935:
5931:
5921:
5919:
5911:
5910:
5906:
5891:
5865:
5861:
5853:
5822:
5816:
5812:
5788:
5784:
5776:
5772:
5748:
5742:
5735:
5674:
5670:
5663:
5647:. p. 181.
5640:
5634:
5630:
5624:Wayback Machine
5614:
5610:
5598:
5597:
5588:
5587:
5583:
5572:
5564:
5560:
5521:
5517:
5469:
5465:
5417:
5410:
5406:
5396:
5394:
5390:
5389:
5385:
5354:
5350:
5305:
5301:
5264:
5260:
5252:
5245:
5241:
5240:
5236:
5188:
5184:
5176:
5172:
5157:
5153:
5116:Energy Procedia
5108:
5101:
5091:
5089:
5079:
5072:
5037:
5033:
5021:
5017:
4978:
4974:
4943:
4939:
4929:
4927:
4918:
4917:
4913:
4903:
4901:
4888:
4887:
4883:
4844:
4837:
4827:
4825:
4814:
4810:
4800:
4798:
4787:
4783:
4773:
4771:
4762:
4761:
4757:
4747:
4745:
4736:
4735:
4731:
4722:
4718:
4709:
4705:
4697:
4693:
4685:
4681:
4670:
4668:
4659:
4658:
4654:
4644:
4642:
4634:
4633:
4620:
4610:
4608:
4602:
4598:
4548:
4544:
4534:
4532:
4519:
4518:
4514:
4502:
4498:
4497:
4493:
4483:
4481:
4474:
4470:
4462:
4458:
4448:
4446:
4437:
4436:
4432:
4422:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4407:
4397:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4358:
4352:
4348:
4330:
4329:
4325:
4304:
4303:
4299:
4286:
4282:
4275:10.1063/1.58015
4255:
4251:
4243:
4239:
4231:
4227:
4215:
4207:
4203:
4196:
4170:
4163:
4155:
4148:
4140:
4136:
4126:
4124:
4114:
4110:
4100:
4098:
4088:
4084:
4074:
4072:
4071:on 17 June 2019
4057:
4053:
4046:
4030:
4026:
4009:
4008:
4004:
3997:
3971:
3967:
3940:Physical Review
3936:
3932:
3923:
3921:
3917:
3900:
3877:
3871:
3867:
3859:
3855:
3845:
3843:
3842:on 8 March 2011
3830:
3829:
3825:
3818:
3802:
3798:
3769:
3765:
3755:
3753:
3748:
3747:
3740:
3732:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3716:
3706:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3689:
3688:
3684:
3639:
3630:
3611:
3607:
3570:
3566:
3553:
3552:
3548:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3508:
3401:Microgeneration
3316:
3314:
3204:
3198:
3182:
3165:
3159:
3156:
3149:needs expansion
3134:
3113:
3107:
3098:
3092:
3083:
3066:
3060:
2997:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2959:
2914:Silicon nitride
2874:
2863:
2857:
2854:
2843:
2831:
2820:
2804:In March 2022,
2792:
2778:
2766:OPTOS formalism
2746:
2733:
2668:
2660:Main articles:
2658:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2588:
2584:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2523:
2517:
2502:under heat and
2492:screen printing
2478:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2449:nanoparticulate
2412:thin film cells
2393:
2387:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2339:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2245:
2209:
2191:conduction band
2168:
2162:
2110:was founded in
2083:
2077:
2046:
2040:
2035:
2025:
2004:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1911:
1905:
1877:single-junction
1869:
1818:
1802:CIGS solar cell
1798:direct band gap
1794:
1788:
1763:
1757:
1744:
1738:
1729:
1706:
1691:
1685:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1629:
1602:
1596:
1564:
1558:
1518:, that include
1493:multi-junctions
1489:single-junction
1461:
1456:
1414:epitaxial wafer
1345:
1341:
1332:
1303:
1273:
1225:electrical load
1162:
1154:of a solar cell
1136:
1075:feed-in tariffs
1073:Solar-specific
1071:
992:
991:
990:
989:
988:
985:
976:
975:
974:
968:
959:
958:
957:
943:
934:
933:
932:
922:
911:
903:1973 oil crisis
887:
875:Tideland Signal
834:
781:primary battery
758:
752:
717:Physical Review
690:
682:
656:Albert Einstein
587:
581:
574:
554:
358:
352:
261:
237:
184:In contrast, a
175:charge carriers
32:A conventional
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
11351:
11341:
11340:
11335:
11330:
11325:
11320:
11315:
11310:
11293:
11292:
11290:
11289:
11284:
11279:
11274:
11269:
11264:
11259:
11254:
11249:
11244:
11238:
11236:
11232:
11231:
11229:
11228:
11223:
11218:
11216:Atomic battery
11212:
11210:
11207:
11204:
11203:
11201:
11200:
11195:
11190:
11188:Vanadium redox
11185:
11180:
11175:
11170:
11165:
11163:Silver–cadmium
11160:
11155:
11150:
11145:
11140:
11135:
11133:Nickel–lithium
11130:
11125:
11120:
11118:Nickel–cadmium
11115:
11110:
11105:
11100:
11095:
11094:
11093:
11088:
11086:Lithium–sulfur
11083:
11078:
11073:
11063:
11058:
11057:
11056:
11046:
11040:
11038:
11035:(rechargeable)
11031:Secondary cell
11029:
11026:
11025:
11023:
11022:
11017:
11012:
11007:
11002:
10997:
10992:
10987:
10982:
10977:
10972:
10967:
10962:
10957:
10955:Edison–Lalande
10952:
10947:
10942:
10937:
10932:
10927:
10922:
10916:
10914:
10905:
10902:
10901:
10894:
10892:
10890:
10889:
10884:
10879:
10874:
10873:
10872:
10870:Trough battery
10867:
10857:
10852:
10846:
10844:
10840:
10839:
10832:
10831:
10824:
10817:
10809:
10800:
10799:
10797:
10796:
10784:
10771:
10768:
10767:
10764:
10763:
10761:
10760:
10755:
10750:
10745:
10740:
10735:
10730:
10728:Solar Frontier
10725:
10720:
10715:
10710:
10705:
10703:Hanwha Q CELLS
10700:
10694:
10692:
10688:
10687:
10685:
10684:
10678:
10676:
10669:
10663:
10662:
10659:
10658:
10656:
10655:
10650:
10648:United Kingdom
10645:
10640:
10635:
10630:
10625:
10620:
10615:
10610:
10605:
10600:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10583:Czech Republic
10580:
10575:
10570:
10565:
10560:
10555:
10549:
10547:
10541:
10540:
10538:
10537:
10532:
10527:
10522:
10516:
10514:
10510:
10509:
10507:
10506:
10501:
10495:
10493:
10484:
10476:
10475:
10472:
10471:
10469:
10468:
10463:
10458:
10453:
10448:
10443:
10438:
10433:
10428:
10423:
10418:
10413:
10408:
10402:
10400:
10396:
10395:
10393:
10392:
10386:
10384:
10380:
10379:
10377:
10376:
10371:
10369:Qinetiq Zephyr
10366:
10361:
10356:
10351:
10346:
10340:
10338:
10334:
10333:
10331:
10330:
10325:
10320:
10315:
10310:
10305:
10299:
10297:
10296:Land transport
10293:
10292:
10290:
10289:
10284:
10279:
10274:
10269:
10264:
10261:
10256:
10251:
10246:
10241:
10236:
10231:
10226:
10223:
10221:Solar backpack
10218:
10213:
10208:
10203:
10197:
10195:
10188:
10184:
10183:
10180:
10179:
10177:
10176:
10171:
10166:
10161:
10156:
10151:
10146:
10141:
10135:
10133:
10129:
10128:
10126:
10125:
10123:Synchronverter
10120:
10115:
10113:Solar shingles
10110:
10105:
10100:
10095:
10090:
10085:
10083:Solar inverter
10080:
10075:
10070:
10064:
10062:
10058:
10057:
10055:
10054:
10049:
10044:
10039:
10034:
10029:
10024:
10019:
10014:
10009:
10004:
9999:
9993:
9991:
9982:
9974:
9973:
9970:
9969:
9967:
9966:
9961:
9955:
9953:
9949:
9948:
9946:
9945:
9940:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9920:
9915:
9909:
9907:
9903:
9902:
9900:
9899:
9894:
9889:
9884:
9879:
9874:
9869:
9864:
9859:
9854:
9853:
9852:
9842:
9840:Solar constant
9837:
9832:
9827:
9821:
9819:
9812:
9808:
9807:
9800:
9799:
9792:
9785:
9777:
9771:
9770:
9713:
9703:
9676:
9671:
9662:
9636:
9631:
9619:
9612:
9611:External links
9609:
9607:
9606:
9600:
9584:
9582:
9579:
9577:
9576:
9564:
9552:
9543:
9496:
9481:
9451:
9412:
9350:
9335:
9305:
9248:
9233:
9203:
9164:
9152:
9140:
9107:
9081:
9044:(6): 456–458.
9024:
9002:
8976:
8951:
8932:
8920:
8895:
8869:
8842:
8813:
8787:
8759:
8747:
8732:
8706:
8654:
8626:
8590:
8554:
8502:
8475:(2): 1800716.
8459:
8432:(8): 1705382.
8415:
8406:|journal=
8388:
8362:
8329:Optics Letters
8319:
8284:Optics Express
8267:
8240:
8205:Optics Express
8191:
8176:
8150:
8088:
8053:Optics Express
8039:
7998:
7963:
7944:(1): 243–249.
7928:
7909:
7887:
7860:(6): 2957–63.
7840:
7805:
7744:
7726:
7707:
7676:(11): 113305.
7656:
7623:
7611:
7575:
7538:
7503:
7491:
7455:
7428:
7409:(5): 2508–11.
7393:
7358:
7307:
7272:
7260:
7215:(6): 402–407.
7195:
7167:
7149:
7130:
7103:(7): 705–713.
7080:
7073:
7047:
7012:
6989:
6979:
6936:Applied Energy
6926:
6883:Applied Energy
6870:
6845:
6826:(5): 419–420.
6810:
6791:(5): 793–794.
6775:
6756:
6737:
6732:Google Patents
6718:
6653:
6604:
6569:(9): 821–829.
6553:
6518:
6451:
6416:
6394:
6362:
6327:
6285:
6266:(3): 968–976.
6246:
6211:
6146:
6137:|journal=
6118:
6087:
6061:
6048:
6036:
6007:(2): 248–252.
5987:
5955:
5929:
5904:
5889:
5859:
5810:
5782:
5770:
5759:(4): 303–334.
5733:
5688:(2): 112–118.
5668:
5661:
5628:
5608:
5599:|journal=
5581:
5558:
5531:(22): 223504.
5515:
5480:(12): 125603.
5463:
5428:(9): 5358–64.
5404:
5383:
5364:: 100320–7pp.
5348:
5319:(4): 481–491.
5299:
5258:
5234:
5182:
5170:
5151:
5099:
5087:Fraunhofer ISE
5070:
5051:(1): 343–349.
5031:
5015:
4972:
4937:
4911:
4881:
4835:
4824:. Bloomberg LP
4822:Bloomberg View
4808:
4797:. Bloomberg LP
4795:Bloomberg View
4781:
4755:
4729:
4716:
4703:
4691:
4679:
4667:on 8 June 2011
4652:
4618:
4596:
4542:
4512:
4491:
4468:
4456:
4430:
4405:
4380:
4369:(6): 704–737.
4346:
4323:
4297:
4280:
4249:
4237:
4225:
4201:
4194:
4161:
4146:
4134:
4108:
4082:
4051:
4044:
4024:
4002:
3995:
3965:
3946:(4): 463–471.
3930:
3915:
3865:
3853:
3823:
3816:
3796:
3763:
3738:
3714:
3682:
3628:
3605:
3564:
3546:
3527:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3474:Solar shingles
3471:
3466:
3461:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3327:
3313:
3310:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3197:
3194:
3181:
3178:
3167:
3166:
3146:
3144:
3133:
3130:
3109:Main article:
3106:
3103:
3094:Main article:
3091:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3062:Main article:
3059:
3056:
2999:
2998:
2979:
2977:
2970:
2958:
2955:
2943:tempered glass
2876:
2875:
2834:
2832:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2791:
2788:
2777:
2774:
2745:
2742:
2732:
2731:Adaptive cells
2729:
2657:
2654:
2642:
2634:Prashant Kamat
2614:
2586:
2582:
2570:
2561:
2519:Main article:
2516:
2513:
2476:
2464:
2455:
2389:Main article:
2386:
2383:
2376:
2360:
2349:
2338:
2306:
2293:
2280:
2256:downconversion
2244:
2241:
2208:
2205:
2164:Main article:
2161:
2158:
2079:Main article:
2076:
2073:
2061:Purcell effect
2042:Main article:
2039:
2036:
2033:§ History
2024:
2021:
2003:
2000:
1991:Solutra (2005)
1974:
1907:Main article:
1904:
1901:
1868:
1865:
1817:
1814:
1790:Main article:
1787:
1784:
1759:Main article:
1756:
1753:
1740:Main article:
1737:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1709:Ribbon silicon
1705:
1704:Ribbon silicon
1702:
1687:Main article:
1684:
1681:
1666:
1662:
1651:heterojunction
1628:
1625:
1598:Main article:
1595:
1592:
1560:Main article:
1557:
1554:
1549:organometallic
1460:
1457:
1428:Fraunhofer ISE
1410:Fraunhofer ISE
1343:
1339:
1330:
1299:Main article:
1272:
1269:
1241:direct current
1191:In operation,
1188:respectively.
1158:Main article:
1135:
1132:
1127:Canadian Solar
1103:George W. Bush
1070:
1067:
1007:in late 2012.
986:
979:
978:
977:
969:
962:
961:
960:
944:
937:
936:
935:
925:Price per watt
923:
916:
915:
914:
913:
912:
910:
907:
901:Following the
886:
883:
858:price per watt
833:
830:
751:
748:
747:
746:
739:
736:Gerald Pearson
720:
705:
694:
688:
680:
667:
652:
641:
638:Heinrich Hertz
636:discovered by
607:Charles Fritts
573:
570:
564:
563:
553:, 2014 edition
543:
542:
539:
536:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:
517:Utility-scale
514:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
489:
485:
484:
481:
478:
475:
472:
469:
466:
463:
460:
456:
455:
450:
448:United Kingdom
445:
440:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
396:microinverters
354:Main article:
351:
348:
309:General Motors
273:General Motors
260:
257:
236:
233:
216:directly into
182:
181:
178:
171:
75:directly into
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11350:
11339:
11336:
11334:
11331:
11329:
11326:
11324:
11321:
11319:
11316:
11314:
11311:
11309:
11306:
11305:
11303:
11288:
11285:
11283:
11280:
11278:
11275:
11273:
11270:
11268:
11265:
11263:
11260:
11258:
11255:
11253:
11250:
11248:
11245:
11243:
11240:
11239:
11237:
11233:
11227:
11224:
11222:
11219:
11217:
11214:
11213:
11211:
11205:
11199:
11196:
11194:
11191:
11189:
11186:
11184:
11181:
11179:
11178:Sodium–sulfur
11176:
11174:
11171:
11169:
11166:
11164:
11161:
11159:
11156:
11154:
11153:Potassium ion
11151:
11149:
11146:
11144:
11141:
11139:
11136:
11134:
11131:
11129:
11126:
11124:
11121:
11119:
11116:
11114:
11111:
11109:
11106:
11104:
11101:
11099:
11096:
11092:
11089:
11087:
11084:
11082:
11079:
11077:
11074:
11072:
11069:
11068:
11067:
11064:
11062:
11059:
11055:
11052:
11051:
11050:
11047:
11045:
11042:
11041:
11039:
11032:
11027:
11021:
11018:
11016:
11013:
11011:
11008:
11006:
11003:
11001:
10998:
10996:
10993:
10991:
10988:
10986:
10983:
10981:
10978:
10976:
10973:
10971:
10970:Lithium metal
10968:
10966:
10963:
10961:
10958:
10956:
10953:
10951:
10948:
10946:
10943:
10941:
10938:
10936:
10933:
10931:
10928:
10926:
10925:Aluminium–air
10923:
10921:
10918:
10917:
10915:
10908:
10903:
10898:
10888:
10885:
10883:
10880:
10878:
10875:
10871:
10868:
10866:
10863:
10862:
10861:
10858:
10856:
10853:
10851:
10850:Galvanic cell
10848:
10847:
10845:
10841:
10837:
10830:
10825:
10823:
10818:
10816:
10811:
10810:
10807:
10795:
10794:
10785:
10783:
10782:
10773:
10772:
10769:
10759:
10756:
10754:
10751:
10749:
10746:
10744:
10741:
10739:
10736:
10734:
10731:
10729:
10726:
10724:
10721:
10719:
10716:
10714:
10711:
10709:
10706:
10704:
10701:
10699:
10696:
10695:
10693:
10689:
10683:
10680:
10679:
10677:
10673:
10670:
10668:
10664:
10654:
10651:
10649:
10646:
10644:
10641:
10639:
10636:
10634:
10631:
10629:
10626:
10624:
10621:
10619:
10616:
10614:
10611:
10609:
10606:
10604:
10601:
10599:
10596:
10594:
10591:
10589:
10586:
10584:
10581:
10579:
10576:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10550:
10548:
10546:
10542:
10536:
10533:
10531:
10528:
10526:
10523:
10521:
10518:
10517:
10515:
10511:
10505:
10502:
10500:
10497:
10496:
10494:
10492:
10488:
10485:
10483:
10477:
10467:
10464:
10462:
10459:
10457:
10454:
10452:
10449:
10447:
10444:
10442:
10439:
10437:
10434:
10432:
10429:
10427:
10424:
10422:
10419:
10417:
10414:
10412:
10409:
10407:
10404:
10403:
10401:
10397:
10391:
10388:
10387:
10385:
10381:
10375:
10372:
10370:
10367:
10365:
10362:
10360:
10357:
10355:
10352:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10341:
10339:
10337:Air transport
10335:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10321:
10319:
10316:
10314:
10313:Solar roadway
10311:
10309:
10306:
10304:
10303:Solar vehicle
10301:
10300:
10298:
10294:
10288:
10285:
10283:
10280:
10278:
10275:
10273:
10270:
10268:
10265:
10262:
10260:
10257:
10255:
10252:
10250:
10247:
10245:
10242:
10240:
10237:
10235:
10232:
10230:
10227:
10224:
10222:
10219:
10217:
10216:Solar charger
10214:
10212:
10209:
10207:
10204:
10202:
10199:
10198:
10196:
10192:
10189:
10185:
10175:
10172:
10170:
10167:
10165:
10162:
10160:
10157:
10155:
10152:
10150:
10147:
10145:
10142:
10140:
10137:
10136:
10134:
10130:
10124:
10121:
10119:
10116:
10114:
10111:
10109:
10108:Solar tracker
10106:
10104:
10101:
10099:
10096:
10094:
10091:
10089:
10086:
10084:
10081:
10079:
10076:
10074:
10071:
10069:
10066:
10065:
10063:
10059:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10038:
10035:
10033:
10030:
10028:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10013:
10010:
10008:
10005:
10003:
10000:
9998:
9995:
9994:
9992:
9990:
9986:
9983:
9981:
9975:
9965:
9962:
9960:
9957:
9956:
9954:
9950:
9944:
9941:
9939:
9936:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9919:
9916:
9914:
9911:
9910:
9908:
9904:
9898:
9895:
9893:
9890:
9888:
9885:
9883:
9880:
9878:
9875:
9873:
9870:
9868:
9865:
9863:
9860:
9858:
9855:
9851:
9848:
9847:
9846:
9843:
9841:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9831:
9828:
9826:
9825:Photovoltaics
9823:
9822:
9820:
9816:
9813:
9809:
9805:
9804:Photovoltaics
9798:
9793:
9791:
9786:
9784:
9779:
9778:
9775:
9767:
9763:
9758:
9757:10044/1/70500
9753:
9748:
9743:
9739:
9735:
9732:(3): 032001.
9731:
9727:
9723:
9719:
9718:Hao, Xiaojing
9714:
9711:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9694:
9690:
9686:
9682:
9677:
9675:
9672:
9670:
9666:
9663:
9661:
9657:
9652:
9648:
9647:
9642:
9637:
9635:
9632:
9630:
9626:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9614:
9603:
9597:
9593:
9592:
9586:
9585:
9573:
9568:
9561:
9556:
9547:
9539:
9535:
9531:
9527:
9523:
9519:
9515:
9511:
9507:
9500:
9492:
9488:
9484:
9478:
9474:
9470:
9466:
9462:
9455:
9447:
9443:
9439:
9435:
9431:
9427:
9423:
9416:
9408:
9404:
9400:
9396:
9391:
9386:
9381:
9376:
9372:
9368:
9364:
9357:
9355:
9346:
9342:
9338:
9336:0-7803-3767-0
9332:
9328:
9324:
9320:
9316:
9309:
9301:
9297:
9293:
9289:
9285:
9281:
9276:
9271:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9252:
9244:
9240:
9236:
9234:1-4244-0016-3
9230:
9226:
9222:
9218:
9214:
9207:
9199:
9195:
9191:
9187:
9183:
9179:
9175:
9168:
9161:
9156:
9149:
9144:
9129:
9122:
9119:(June 2012).
9118:
9111:
9096:
9092:
9085:
9077:
9073:
9069:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9051:
9047:
9043:
9039:
9035:
9028:
9012:
9006:
8991:. 4 July 2019
8990:
8986:
8980:
8965:
8961:
8955:
8948:
8944:
8941:
8936:
8929:
8924:
8909:
8905:
8899:
8891:
8884:
8878:
8876:
8874:
8862:
8855:
8849:
8847:
8831:. 21 May 2018
8830:
8826:
8820:
8818:
8802:
8798:
8791:
8783:
8776:
8770:
8768:
8766:
8764:
8756:
8751:
8743:
8736:
8720:
8716:
8710:
8702:
8698:
8694:
8690:
8686:
8682:
8678:
8674:
8670:
8666:
8658:
8643:
8642:
8637:
8630:
8622:
8618:
8614:
8610:
8606:
8602:
8594:
8586:
8582:
8578:
8574:
8570:
8566:
8558:
8550:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8532:
8528:
8524:
8520:
8513:
8506:
8498:
8494:
8490:
8486:
8482:
8478:
8474:
8470:
8463:
8455:
8451:
8447:
8443:
8439:
8435:
8431:
8427:
8419:
8411:
8399:
8391:
8385:
8381:
8377:
8373:
8366:
8358:
8354:
8350:
8346:
8342:
8338:
8334:
8330:
8323:
8315:
8311:
8306:
8301:
8297:
8293:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8274:
8272:
8263:
8259:
8255:
8251:
8244:
8236:
8232:
8227:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8195:
8187:
8183:
8179:
8173:
8169:
8165:
8161:
8154:
8146:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8129:
8124:
8120:
8116:
8112:
8108:
8104:
8100:
8092:
8084:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8066:
8062:
8058:
8054:
8050:
8043:
8034:
8029:
8025:
8021:
8017:
8013:
8009:
8002:
7994:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7974:
7967:
7959:
7955:
7951:
7947:
7943:
7939:
7932:
7926:
7922:
7916:
7914:
7897:
7891:
7883:
7879:
7875:
7871:
7867:
7863:
7859:
7855:
7851:
7844:
7836:
7832:
7828:
7824:
7821:(4): 043902.
7820:
7816:
7809:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7789:
7784:
7779:
7775:
7771:
7767:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7748:
7740:
7736:
7730:
7722:
7718:
7711:
7702:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7683:
7679:
7675:
7671:
7667:
7660:
7651:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7627:
7620:
7615:
7607:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7579:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7559:
7552:
7545:
7543:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7522:
7519:(1): 865–72.
7518:
7514:
7507:
7500:
7495:
7487:
7483:
7479:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7459:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7432:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7408:
7404:
7397:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7369:
7362:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7330:
7326:
7322:
7318:
7311:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7276:
7269:
7264:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7236:
7231:
7226:
7222:
7218:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7199:
7191:
7187:
7183:
7179:
7171:
7163:
7159:
7153:
7145:
7141:
7134:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7106:
7102:
7098:
7091:
7084:
7076:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7051:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7016:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6993:
6983:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6963:
6959:
6955:
6950:
6945:
6941:
6937:
6930:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6897:
6892:
6889:: 1601–1610.
6888:
6884:
6877:
6875:
6859:
6858:www.itrpv.net
6855:
6849:
6841:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6825:
6821:
6814:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6786:
6779:
6766:
6760:
6747:
6741:
6733:
6729:
6722:
6714:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6688:
6684:
6680:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6657:
6649:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6623:
6619:
6615:
6608:
6600:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6584:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6557:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6522:
6514:
6510:
6505:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6455:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6420:
6404:
6398:
6379:
6372:
6366:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6331:
6323:
6319:
6314:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6289:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6250:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6215:
6207:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6150:
6142:
6129:
6121:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6098:Hinzer, Karin
6091:
6076:. 30 May 2022
6075:
6071:
6065:
6058:
6052:
6045:
6040:
6032:
6028:
6023:
6018:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5991:
5972:
5965:
5959:
5944:
5940:
5933:
5918:
5917:IEEE Spectrum
5914:
5908:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5886:
5882:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5863:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5821:
5814:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5786:
5779:
5774:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5747:
5740:
5738:
5729:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5672:
5664:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5639:
5632:
5625:
5621:
5618:
5612:
5604:
5592:
5584:
5578:
5571:
5570:
5562:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5519:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5467:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5416:
5408:
5393:
5387:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5352:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5303:
5295:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5262:
5251:
5244:
5238:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5193:Nature Energy
5186:
5179:
5174:
5166:
5162:
5155:
5147:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5106:
5104:
5088:
5084:
5077:
5075:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5035:
5029:
5025:
5019:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4976:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4941:
4925:
4921:
4915:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4885:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4854:(1): 014502.
4853:
4849:
4842:
4840:
4823:
4819:
4812:
4796:
4792:
4785:
4769:
4765:
4759:
4743:
4739:
4733:
4726:
4720:
4713:
4707:
4700:
4695:
4688:
4683:
4666:
4662:
4656:
4641:
4637:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4607:
4600:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4546:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4516:
4508:
4501:
4495:
4479:
4472:
4465:
4460:
4444:
4443:The Economist
4440:
4434:
4415:
4409:
4390:
4384:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4357:
4350:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4327:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4310:New Scientist
4307:
4301:
4293:
4292:
4284:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4253:
4246:
4241:
4235:, p. 54.
4234:
4229:
4221:
4214:
4213:
4205:
4197:
4195:9781550923124
4191:
4187:
4183:
4178:
4177:
4168:
4166:
4159:, p. 53.
4158:
4153:
4151:
4144:, p. 50.
4143:
4138:
4123:
4119:
4112:
4097:
4093:
4086:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4055:
4047:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4028:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4006:
3998:
3992:
3988:
3987:10.1142/10495
3984:
3981:. p. 7.
3980:
3976:
3969:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3934:
3926:
3919:
3912:
3908:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3876:
3869:
3862:
3857:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3827:
3819:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3800:
3791:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3767:
3751:
3745:
3743:
3731:
3724:
3718:
3699:
3696:. IEA. 2014.
3692:
3686:
3678:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3653:(1): 012105.
3652:
3648:
3644:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3609:
3601:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3560:
3556:
3550:
3539:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3519:
3515:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3479:Solar tracker
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3411:Photovoltaics
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3341:Black silicon
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3320:
3309:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3279:
3275:
3272:
3271:c-Si module.
3268:
3266:
3261:
3259:
3254:
3252:
3247:
3244:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3211:
3209:
3203:
3193:
3191:
3186:
3177:
3175:
3163:
3160:November 2021
3154:
3150:
3147:This section
3145:
3142:
3138:
3137:
3129:
3127:
3123:
3121:
3120:Latin America
3117:
3112:
3105:United States
3102:
3097:
3087:
3078:
3074:
3072:
3065:
3055:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3027:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3005:
2995:
2992:November 2021
2983:
2978:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2954:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2935:
2934:ohmic contact
2931:
2927:
2922:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2882:
2872:
2869:
2861:
2851:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2835:This section
2833:
2829:
2824:
2823:
2815:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2787:
2784:
2776:Encapsulation
2773:
2771:
2767:
2762:
2754:
2753:Solar Impulse
2750:
2741:
2737:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2721:polymer cells
2717:
2713:
2711:
2705:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2653:
2651:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2607:
2603:
2600:In a QDSC, a
2598:
2596:
2592:
2580:
2576:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2540:nanoparticles
2538:
2537:semiconductor
2535:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2423:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2382:
2369:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2298:
2285:
2272:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2240:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2082:
2072:
2070:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2034:
2030:
2020:
2016:
2014:
2009:
1999:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1864:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1783:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1752:
1750:
1743:
1733:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1680:
1664:
1661:
1652:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1624:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1563:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1465:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1429:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1404:
1399:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1353:
1347:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1219:), producing
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1153:
1148:
1140:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1005:The Economist
1002:
998:
997:Swanson's law
983:
972:
966:
955:
951:
950:learning rate
947:
946:Swanson's law
941:
930:
926:
920:
906:
904:
899:
897:
893:
882:
880:
876:
872:
868:
865:on the back,
864:
859:
855:
850:
848:
844:
840:
829:
827:
823:
820:In 2020, the
818:
814:
812:
808:
803:
801:
797:
792:
790:
786:
782:
778:
770:
766:
762:
757:
744:
740:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
718:
714:
710:
706:
703:
699:
695:
692:
684:
676:
675:p–n junctions
672:
668:
665:
661:
657:
653:
650:
646:
645:Julius Elster
642:
639:
635:
631:
627:
626:
625:
623:
619:
616:
615:semiconductor
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
586:
579:
569:
561:
559:
552:
550:
544:
540:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
519:
516:
515:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
496:
493:
490:
487:
486:
482:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
461:
458:
457:
454:
453:United States
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
413:
407:
405:
401:
397:
393:
388:
384:
382:
378:
374:
367:
362:
357:
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
316:
314:
310:
306:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
274:
270:
265:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
241:solar modules
232:
230:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
179:
176:
172:
169:
165:
161:
158:
154:
150:
149:
148:
145:
143:
139:
136:(for example
135:
134:photodetector
131:
127:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
53:
46:
43:
39:
35:
30:
26:
22:
21:Solar granule
11225:
11193:Zinc–bromine
11000:Silver oxide
10935:Chromic acid
10907:Primary cell
10887:Voltaic pile
10865:Flow battery
10792:
10779:
10758:Yingli Solar
10738:Sungen Solar
10713:Motech Solar
10667:PV companies
10628:South Africa
10446:Solar Splash
10187:Applications
10118:Solar mirror
9988:
9978:Photovoltaic
9729:
9725:
9707:
9688:
9684:
9644:
9590:
9581:Bibliography
9567:
9555:
9546:
9513:
9509:
9499:
9464:
9454:
9429:
9425:
9415:
9370:
9366:
9318:
9308:
9265:
9261:
9251:
9216:
9206:
9181:
9177:
9167:
9155:
9143:
9131:. Retrieved
9127:
9110:
9098:. Retrieved
9094:
9084:
9041:
9037:
9027:
9015:. Retrieved
9005:
8993:. Retrieved
8988:
8979:
8967:. Retrieved
8963:
8954:
8935:
8923:
8911:. Retrieved
8907:
8898:
8889:
8861:the original
8833:. Retrieved
8828:
8804:. Retrieved
8800:
8790:
8781:
8750:
8735:
8723:. Retrieved
8718:
8709:
8668:
8664:
8657:
8645:. Retrieved
8639:
8629:
8604:
8600:
8593:
8568:
8564:
8557:
8522:
8519:Nano Letters
8518:
8505:
8472:
8468:
8462:
8429:
8425:
8418:
8371:
8365:
8332:
8328:
8322:
8287:
8283:
8253:
8249:
8243:
8208:
8204:
8194:
8159:
8153:
8128:1721.1/86899
8102:
8099:Nano Letters
8098:
8091:
8056:
8052:
8042:
8015:
8011:
8001:
7976:
7972:
7966:
7941:
7937:
7931:
7924:
7900:. Retrieved
7890:
7857:
7854:Nano Letters
7853:
7843:
7818:
7814:
7808:
7783:1721.1/80286
7757:
7753:
7747:
7739:the original
7729:
7720:
7710:
7701:1721.1/71948
7673:
7669:
7659:
7640:
7636:
7626:
7614:
7589:
7585:
7578:
7561:
7557:
7516:
7512:
7506:
7494:
7469:
7465:
7458:
7444:(10): 1524.
7441:
7437:
7431:
7406:
7402:
7396:
7371:
7367:
7361:
7320:
7316:
7310:
7285:
7281:
7275:
7263:
7212:
7208:
7198:
7181:
7177:
7170:
7161:
7152:
7143:
7133:
7100:
7096:
7083:
7056:
7050:
7025:
7021:
7015:
6998:
6992:
6982:
6939:
6935:
6929:
6886:
6882:
6861:. Retrieved
6857:
6848:
6823:
6820:Solar Energy
6819:
6813:
6788:
6784:
6778:
6759:
6740:
6731:
6721:
6670:
6666:
6656:
6621:
6617:
6607:
6566:
6562:
6556:
6531:
6527:
6521:
6468:
6464:
6454:
6437:
6433:
6428:(May 2018).
6419:
6407:. Retrieved
6397:
6387:28 September
6385:. Retrieved
6365:
6340:
6336:
6330:
6303:
6299:
6288:
6263:
6259:
6249:
6224:
6220:
6214:
6163:
6159:
6149:
6128:cite journal
6104:. SPIE: 36.
6090:
6078:. Retrieved
6073:
6064:
6051:
6039:
6004:
6000:
5990:
5978:. Retrieved
5958:
5946:. Retrieved
5942:
5932:
5920:. Retrieved
5916:
5907:
5872:
5869:Kurtz, S. R.
5862:
5851:the original
5830:
5826:
5813:
5799:(1–4): 143.
5796:
5792:
5785:
5773:
5756:
5752:
5685:
5681:
5671:
5645:Solar Energy
5644:
5631:
5626:, BT Imaging
5611:
5568:
5561:
5528:
5524:
5518:
5477:
5473:
5466:
5425:
5422:Nano Letters
5421:
5407:
5395:. Retrieved
5386:
5361:
5357:
5351:
5316:
5312:
5302:
5275:
5271:
5261:
5237:
5199:(9): 17144.
5196:
5192:
5185:
5173:
5164:
5154:
5119:
5115:
5090:. Retrieved
5048:
5044:
5034:
5027:
5018:
4985:
4981:
4975:
4950:
4947:Solar Energy
4946:
4940:
4928:. Retrieved
4924:the original
4914:
4902:. Retrieved
4898:the original
4893:
4884:
4851:
4847:
4826:. Retrieved
4821:
4811:
4799:. Retrieved
4794:
4784:
4772:. Retrieved
4768:Energuide.be
4767:
4758:
4746:. Retrieved
4741:
4732:
4719:
4706:
4694:
4682:
4669:. Retrieved
4665:the original
4655:
4643:. Retrieved
4639:
4609:. Retrieved
4599:
4556:
4552:
4545:
4533:. Retrieved
4529:the original
4524:
4515:
4494:
4482:. Retrieved
4471:
4459:
4447:. Retrieved
4442:
4433:
4421:. Retrieved
4408:
4396:. Retrieved
4383:
4366:
4362:
4349:
4335:
4326:
4309:
4300:
4290:
4283:
4258:
4252:
4240:
4228:
4211:
4204:
4175:
4137:
4125:. Retrieved
4121:
4111:
4099:. Retrieved
4085:
4073:. Retrieved
4069:the original
4064:
4054:
4034:
4027:
4018:
4014:
4005:
3978:
3968:
3943:
3939:
3933:
3918:
3910:
3909:, Ser. Fiz.
3906:
3898:the original
3885:
3882:Ukr. J. Phys
3881:
3868:
3856:
3844:. Retrieved
3840:the original
3835:
3826:
3806:
3799:
3780:
3776:
3766:
3754:. Retrieved
3717:
3705:. Retrieved
3685:
3650:
3646:
3614:
3608:
3581:
3577:
3567:
3558:
3549:
3536:
3530:
3518:
3455:
3416:P–n junction
3315:
3306:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3262:
3257:
3255:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3226:
3223:
3212:
3205:
3187:
3183:
3170:
3157:
3153:adding to it
3148:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3099:
3084:
3075:
3067:
3048:
3044:
3035:supply chain
3028:
3010:
2989:
2981:
2951:
2923:
2908:
2894:
2890:
2864:
2855:
2844:Please help
2839:verification
2836:
2803:
2793:
2779:
2758:
2738:
2734:
2718:
2714:
2706:
2699:
2695:
2669:
2630:redox couple
2599:
2544:quantum dots
2524:
2515:Quantum dots
2430:metalorganic
2425:Typically a
2424:
2394:
2314:luminescence
2268:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2229:
2210:
2195:
2187:valence band
2170:
2169:
2151:
2145:
2137:
2133:
2092:
2065:
2047:
2017:
2005:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1927:
1870:
1861:
1849:
1819:
1795:
1764:
1745:
1730:
1707:
1692:
1648:
1630:
1615:
1584:p–n junction
1565:
1538:or in small
1497:
1485:use in space
1470:
1432:
1425:
1422:
1407:
1400:
1396:
1377:
1350:
1348:
1318:
1315:
1308:
1304:
1256:p–n junction
1253:
1238:
1190:
1174:p–n junction
1163:
1122:
1116:
1107:
1072:
1063:
1059:
1052:
1036:
1029:
1013:
993:
900:
888:
851:
835:
819:
815:
804:
793:
774:
732:Daryl Chapin
716:
713:Kurt Lehovec
708:
588:
567:
556:
547:
459:Residential
389:
385:
370:
324:Solar panels
317:
301:
285:solar panels
281:solar energy
278:
253:solar energy
238:
235:Applications
226:
214:splits water
183:
146:
126:Photovoltaic
124:
68:
64:
60:
58:
25:
11313:Solar cells
11282:Salt bridge
11267:Electrolyte
11198:Zinc–cerium
11183:Solid state
11168:Silver–zinc
11143:Nickel–zinc
11128:Nickel–iron
11103:Molten salt
11071:Dual carbon
11066:Lithium ion
11061:Lithium–air
11020:Zinc–carbon
10995:Silicon–air
10975:Lithium–air
10753:Trina Solar
10698:First Solar
10638:Switzerland
10618:Netherlands
10456:Tour de Sol
10154:Fill factor
10093:Solar cable
10068:Solar panel
9989:Solar cells
9710:, July 1931
9639:‹ The
8801:www.bbc.com
8725:18 February
8607:: 294–301.
8018:: 648–653.
7592:: 827–835.
7586:Nano Energy
7564:: 377–381.
7288:: 294–322.
7184:: 171–175.
6942:: 240–248.
6863:20 February
6618:Nano Energy
6440:: 243–256.
6434:Nano Energy
5358:Results Opt
5278:(5): 1823.
5122:: 785–790.
4953:: 139–147.
4930:17 February
4714:, ABC News.
4574:1874/306424
4535:2 September
4449:28 December
4233:Perlin 1999
4157:Perlin 1999
4142:Perlin 1999
4096:LiveScience
3783:(5): 1823.
3523:Solar Cells
3274:CHALLENGES
3243:CONVERSION
3039:polysilicon
2818:Manufacture
2500:degradation
2484:electrolyte
2404:solid-state
2316:to convert
2207:Liquid inks
1920:'s 10
1881:fill factor
1843:silicon or
1508:polysilicon
1447:Switzerland
1371:and a high
1352:fill factor
1119:spot prices
1099:diesel fuel
1079:grid parity
1032:polysilicon
1001:Moore's Law
826:Boeing X-37
698:Russell Ohl
693:protocells.
673:discovered
611:solid state
488:Commercial
332:electricity
293:temperature
249:solar power
229:solar power
208:and modern
77:electricity
11302:Categories
11235:Cell parts
11226:Solar cell
11208:Other cell
11173:Sodium ion
11044:Automotive
10675:By country
10545:By country
10480:Generation
10390:Solar boat
10239:Solar Tuki
10225:Solar tree
10211:Solar lamp
10194:Appliances
9818:Technology
9691:(5): 346.
9275:2005.13020
9268:: 110539.
9100:9 November
9017:2 November
8995:24 October
8989:Solar News
8969:24 October
8913:24 October
8835:24 October
8806:24 October
7643:(11): 28.
6987:1320-1327.
6949:1704.08630
6896:1709.10026
6673:(1): 310.
6624:: 91–101.
5875:. 001556.
5092:15 October
4988:(5): 839.
4904:31 January
4645:8 November
4611:8 November
4363:Nano Today
4184:. p.
4127:6 November
4101:6 November
3846:15 October
3511:References
3469:Solar roof
3239:recovered.
3224:RECYCLING
3200:See also:
2602:mesoporous
2445:mesoporous
2326:rare-earth
2271:lanthanide
2221:perovskite
2053:perovskite
2027:See also:
1938:satellites
1271:Efficiency
1186:phosphorus
1168:, such as
1087:California
1083:grid power
785:Explorer 6
769:Vanguard 1
754:See also:
745:satellite.
743:Vanguard I
702:transistor
605:. In 1883
583:See also:
299:and more.
93:resistance
61:solar cell
11272:Half-cell
11262:Electrode
11221:Fuel cell
11098:Metal–air
11049:Lead–acid
10965:Leclanché
10877:Fuel cell
10553:Australia
10530:Solar Ark
10436:Solar Cup
10328:Sunmobile
10308:Solar car
9906:Materials
9766:250871748
9538:225438845
9530:1062-7995
9491:230994749
9446:0927-0248
9407:235568140
9399:2699-9412
9345:118374147
9300:218900846
9292:0927-0248
9198:0927-0248
9076:235128115
9068:2058-8437
8908:Yale E360
8701:201673096
8685:0743-7463
8647:3 January
8621:102944355
8585:102931532
8497:125253775
8408:ignored (
8398:cite book
7302:0927-0248
7239:1476-4660
7125:226335202
7117:1062-7995
6974:115039440
6921:117375370
6695:2041-1723
6648:139461077
6640:2211-2855
6599:235630649
6591:2398-9629
6548:1754-5706
6495:2375-2548
6188:2045-2322
6166:: 25674.
6031:136518369
5980:31 August
5710:0044-7447
5601:ignored (
5591:cite book
5553:0003-6951
5510:125317340
5502:0022-3727
5458:206734456
5397:27 August
5378:253359097
5343:114726770
5335:1451-4117
5294:1996-1073
5229:115327057
5221:2058-7546
5146:1876-6102
5010:250782402
4876:0021-8979
4828:3 January
4801:3 January
4774:3 January
4770:. Sibelga
4583:1099-159X
4318:0262-4079
4122:Space.com
3894:2071-0194
3707:7 October
3677:1742-6588
3600:2571-5577
3584:(4): 67.
3460:(journal)
3406:Nanoflake
3196:Recycling
3174:Recycling
3071:PV module
3051:PV module
2858:June 2014
2799:nanowires
2604:layer of
2546:(such as
2447:layer of
2437:monolayer
2427:ruthenium
2264:phosphors
2223:improved
2217:kesterite
2121:Iberdrola
2015:(PECVD).
1859:(PECVD).
1810:Nanosolar
1767:tellurium
1736:Thin film
1477:materials
1459:Materials
1233:recombine
1229:diffusing
1211:(or from
1207:from the
1201:electrons
1152:mechanism
418:Australia
313:Sunraycer
289:batteries
269:Sunraycer
188:supplies
11252:Catalyst
11113:Nanowire
11108:Nanopore
11054:gel–VRLA
11015:Zinc–air
10920:Alkaline
10781:Category
10743:Sunpower
10733:Solyndra
10708:JA Solar
10643:Thailand
10563:Bulgaria
9811:Concepts
9641:template
9625:Archived
8964:Statista
8943:Archived
8693:31469282
8665:Langmuir
8549:26161875
8446:29271510
8357:17909574
8314:27828526
8235:21716370
8186:30512545
8145:18134294
8137:22612694
8083:27410896
7882:23687903
7800:13511794
7792:22057647
7606:98282021
7533:22147684
7513:ACS Nano
7486:26962680
7423:22280479
7388:22493938
7353:36022754
7345:22174246
7255:27383758
7247:12754500
7144:Phys.org
6713:31964862
6513:32789177
6378:Archived
6241:33022605
6206:27166163
5971:Archived
5899:30141399
5728:22434436
5620:Archived
5450:27525513
5272:Energies
5250:Archived
5165:Phys.org
5065:47576267
4701:. bp.com
4671:4 August
4591:97151576
4507:Archived
4340:Archived
4338:. 2023.
4015:APS News
3777:Energies
3730:Archived
3698:Archived
3312:See also
3180:Disposal
3090:Malaysia
2930:Bayer AG
2534:band gap
2322:infrared
2108:Isofoton
1985:winners
1853:infrared
1833:hydrogen
1831:gas and
1640:kerfless
1481:sunlight
1437:(NREL),
1285:band gap
1245:inverter
1197:sunlight
1150:Working
871:silicone
666:in 1921.
640:in 1887.
618:selenium
546:Source:
402:. Shunt
245:sunlight
218:hydrogen
168:plasmons
160:electron
153:excitons
130:sunlight
11257:Cathode
11010:Zamboni
10980:Mercury
10945:Daniell
10793:Commons
10748:Suntech
10623:Romania
10593:Germany
10558:Belgium
10482:systems
9952:History
9734:Bibcode
9643:below (
9133:6 March
9046:Bibcode
8892:. 2023.
8784:. 2022.
8527:Bibcode
8477:Bibcode
8454:3368811
8337:Bibcode
8292:Bibcode
8213:Bibcode
8107:Bibcode
8061:Bibcode
8020:Bibcode
7981:Bibcode
7946:Bibcode
7862:Bibcode
7823:Bibcode
7762:Bibcode
7678:Bibcode
7325:Bibcode
7317:Science
7217:Bibcode
7030:Bibcode
6999:nanoHUB
6954:Bibcode
6901:Bibcode
6828:Bibcode
6793:Bibcode
6704:6974608
6675:Bibcode
6571:Bibcode
6504:7399695
6473:Bibcode
6357:6013813
6322:1329999
6280:8477762
6197:4863370
6168:Bibcode
6080:23 July
6009:Bibcode
5948:26 June
5922:26 June
5835:Bibcode
5719:3357764
5690:Bibcode
5533:Bibcode
5482:Bibcode
5430:Bibcode
5201:Bibcode
5124:Bibcode
4990:Bibcode
4955:Bibcode
4856:Bibcode
4263:Bibcode
3948:Bibcode
3655:Bibcode
3219:cadmium
3081:Vietnam
2982:updated
2947:polymer
2939:modules
2710:exciton
2702:Konarka
2189:to the
2183:bandgap
2179:photons
2125:Senegal
2098:of the
1775:cadmium
1346:ratio.
1205:excited
1193:photons
1170:silicon
1043:microns
867:acrylic
711:states
707:1948 -
696:1946 –
669:1941 –
654:1905 –
643:1904 –
572:History
433:Germany
336:battery
328:quantum
112:silicon
89:voltage
85:current
69:PV cell
42:silicon
38:busbars
11247:Binder
11005:Weston
10930:Bunsen
10598:Greece
10588:France
10568:Canada
9980:system
9764:
9660:Curlie
9646:Curlie
9598:
9536:
9528:
9489:
9479:
9444:
9405:
9397:
9373:(11).
9343:
9333:
9298:
9290:
9243:933430
9241:
9231:
9196:
9074:
9066:
8699:
8691:
8683:
8619:
8583:
8547:
8495:
8452:
8444:
8386:
8355:
8312:
8233:
8184:
8174:
8143:
8135:
8081:
7902:1 June
7880:
7798:
7790:
7604:
7531:
7484:
7421:
7386:
7351:
7343:
7300:
7253:
7245:
7237:
7123:
7115:
7071:
6972:
6919:
6770:
6751:
6711:
6701:
6693:
6646:
6638:
6597:
6589:
6546:
6511:
6501:
6493:
6409:3 June
6355:
6320:
6278:
6239:
6204:
6194:
6186:
6116:
6029:
5897:
5887:
5726:
5716:
5708:
5659:
5579:
5551:
5508:
5500:
5456:
5448:
5376:
5341:
5333:
5292:
5227:
5219:
5144:
5063:
5008:
4874:
4748:1 June
4589:
4581:
4525:bp.com
4484:18 May
4423:3 June
4398:3 June
4316:
4192:
4075:10 May
4042:
3993:
3892:
3814:
3756:3 June
3675:
3598:
3217:(Pb),
2926:silver
2904:n-type
2900:p-type
2884:Early
2585:CuInSe
2414:, its
2381:ions.
2368:phonon
2146:et al.
2112:Málaga
1967:, and
1829:silane
1721:ingots
1717:sawing
1713:molten
1588:wafers
1576:ribbon
1542:. The
1251:(AC).
1178:doping
1134:Theory
1123:panels
1095:Hawaii
1016:boules
847:boules
603:Nature
555:Note:
428:France
404:diodes
381:series
377:wafers
251:using
222:oxygen
11242:Anode
10960:Grove
10940:Clark
10843:Types
10723:Sharp
10633:Spain
10613:Japan
10608:Italy
10603:India
10578:China
10573:Chile
9762:S2CID
9534:S2CID
9487:S2CID
9403:S2CID
9341:S2CID
9296:S2CID
9270:arXiv
9239:S2CID
9124:(PDF)
9072:S2CID
8886:(PDF)
8864:(PDF)
8857:(PDF)
8778:(PDF)
8697:S2CID
8617:S2CID
8581:S2CID
8515:(PDF)
8493:S2CID
8450:S2CID
8182:S2CID
8141:S2CID
7796:S2CID
7602:S2CID
7554:(PDF)
7349:S2CID
7251:S2CID
7121:S2CID
7093:(PDF)
6970:S2CID
6944:arXiv
6917:S2CID
6891:arXiv
6644:S2CID
6595:S2CID
6381:(PDF)
6374:(PDF)
6353:S2CID
6276:S2CID
6237:S2CID
6027:S2CID
5974:(PDF)
5967:(PDF)
5895:S2CID
5854:(PDF)
5823:(PDF)
5780:, IBM
5749:(PDF)
5682:Ambio
5641:(PDF)
5573:(PDF)
5506:S2CID
5454:S2CID
5418:(PDF)
5374:S2CID
5339:S2CID
5253:(PDF)
5246:(PDF)
5225:S2CID
5061:S2CID
5006:S2CID
4587:S2CID
4503:(PDF)
4417:(PDF)
4392:(PDF)
4359:(PDF)
4216:(PDF)
3901:(PDF)
3878:(PDF)
3733:(PDF)
3726:(PDF)
3701:(PDF)
3694:(PDF)
3541:(PDF)
3058:China
2488:redox
2197:Luque
1970:GaInP
1771:anion
1719:from
1580:wafer
1572:ingot
1500:wafer
1357:power
1182:boron
1091:Japan
952:" of
879:buoys
854:Exxon
443:Japan
438:Italy
423:China
340:motor
157:bound
120:volts
91:, or
73:light
45:wafer
11277:Ions
9596:ISBN
9526:ISSN
9477:ISBN
9442:ISSN
9395:ISSN
9331:ISBN
9288:ISSN
9229:ISBN
9194:ISSN
9135:2019
9102:2021
9064:ISSN
9019:2023
8997:2019
8971:2019
8915:2019
8837:2019
8808:2019
8727:2024
8689:PMID
8681:ISSN
8649:2020
8545:PMID
8442:PMID
8410:help
8384:ISBN
8353:PMID
8310:PMID
8231:PMID
8172:ISBN
8133:PMID
8079:PMID
7904:2013
7878:PMID
7788:PMID
7529:PMID
7482:PMID
7419:PMID
7384:PMID
7341:PMID
7298:ISSN
7243:PMID
7235:ISSN
7113:ISSN
7069:ISBN
6865:2018
6709:PMID
6691:ISSN
6636:ISSN
6587:ISSN
6544:ISSN
6509:PMID
6491:ISSN
6411:2023
6389:2020
6318:OSTI
6202:PMID
6184:ISSN
6141:help
6114:ISBN
6082:2024
5982:2014
5950:2023
5924:2023
5885:ISBN
5724:PMID
5706:ISSN
5657:ISBN
5603:help
5577:ISBN
5549:ISSN
5498:ISSN
5446:PMID
5399:2020
5331:ISSN
5290:ISSN
5217:ISSN
5142:ISSN
5094:2015
4932:2009
4906:2018
4872:ISSN
4830:2017
4803:2017
4776:2017
4750:2013
4673:2012
4647:2021
4613:2021
4579:ISSN
4537:2017
4486:2013
4451:2012
4425:2021
4400:2021
4314:ISSN
4190:ISBN
4129:2021
4103:2021
4077:2019
4065:NASA
4040:ISBN
3991:ISBN
3890:ISSN
3848:2016
3812:ISBN
3758:2021
3709:2014
3673:ISSN
3651:2070
3596:ISSN
3215:lead
3029:The
3020:IEEE
3018:and
2691:PCBM
2673:and
2664:and
2552:CdSe
2508:seal
2454:(TiO
2329:ions
2260:e.g.
2252:e.g.
2219:and
2069:lead
2031:and
1987:Nuna
1961:GaAs
1940:and
1918:Dawn
1887:for
1808:and
1751:).
1610:Sion
1528:CIGS
1526:and
1524:CdTe
1510:and
1443:CSEM
1441:and
1439:EPFL
1363:and
1349:The
1309:The
1279:The
1203:are
1089:and
1039:IMEC
1020:ARCO
929:c-Si
765:NASA
734:and
685:and
622:gold
589:The
541:3.3
538:1.9
535:2.9
532:1.5
529:1.4
526:2.2
523:1.4
520:2.0
512:4.5
509:2.4
506:3.6
503:1.9
500:1.8
497:2.7
494:1.4
491:1.7
483:4.9
480:2.8
477:4.2
474:2.8
471:2.4
468:4.1
465:1.5
462:1.8
322:via
267:The
220:and
190:heat
164:hole
10950:Dry
10718:REC
9752:hdl
9742:doi
9693:doi
9667:at
9658:at
9518:doi
9469:doi
9434:doi
9385:hdl
9375:doi
9323:doi
9280:doi
9266:212
9221:doi
9186:doi
9054:doi
8673:doi
8609:doi
8605:182
8573:doi
8535:doi
8485:doi
8473:216
8434:doi
8376:doi
8345:doi
8300:doi
8258:doi
8221:doi
8164:doi
8123:hdl
8115:doi
8069:doi
8028:doi
7989:doi
7954:doi
7870:doi
7831:doi
7819:101
7778:hdl
7770:doi
7696:hdl
7686:doi
7645:doi
7594:doi
7566:doi
7562:161
7521:doi
7474:doi
7470:138
7446:doi
7411:doi
7407:134
7376:doi
7333:doi
7321:334
7290:doi
7286:155
7225:doi
7186:doi
7182:116
7105:doi
7061:doi
7038:doi
7003:doi
6962:doi
6940:206
6909:doi
6887:212
6836:doi
6801:doi
6699:PMC
6683:doi
6626:doi
6579:doi
6536:doi
6499:PMC
6481:doi
6442:doi
6345:doi
6308:doi
6268:doi
6229:doi
6192:PMC
6176:doi
6106:doi
6017:doi
5877:doi
5843:doi
5831:101
5801:doi
5761:doi
5714:PMC
5698:doi
5649:doi
5541:doi
5529:106
5490:doi
5438:doi
5366:doi
5321:doi
5280:doi
5209:doi
5132:doi
5053:doi
4998:doi
4963:doi
4951:130
4864:doi
4852:121
4569:hdl
4561:doi
4371:doi
4271:doi
3983:doi
3956:doi
3785:doi
3663:doi
3619:doi
3586:doi
3263:3.
3256:2.
3249:1.
3155:.
3031:IEA
3024:IEC
2848:by
2806:MIT
2638:TiO
2610:TiO
2579:PbS
2548:CdS
2494:or
2472:TiO
2460:TiO
2433:dye
2400:DIY
2232:MIT
1806:IBM
1578:or
1195:in
1184:or
677:in
558:DOE
549:IEA
398:or
344:ICE
320:Sun
192:by
63:or
11304::
10653:US
9760:.
9750:.
9740:.
9728:.
9724:.
9689:18
9687:.
9683:.
9532:.
9524:.
9514:28
9512:.
9508:.
9485:.
9475:.
9463:.
9440:.
9430:94
9428:.
9424:.
9401:.
9393:.
9383:.
9369:.
9365:.
9353:^
9339:.
9329:.
9317:.
9294:.
9286:.
9278:.
9264:.
9260:.
9237:.
9227:.
9215:.
9192:.
9182:67
9180:.
9176:.
9126:.
9093:.
9070:.
9062:.
9052:.
9040:.
9036:.
8987:.
8962:.
8906:.
8888:.
8872:^
8845:^
8827:.
8816:^
8799:.
8780:.
8762:^
8717:.
8695:.
8687:.
8679:.
8669:35
8667:.
8638:.
8615:.
8603:.
8579:.
8567:.
8543:.
8533:.
8523:15
8521:.
8517:.
8491:.
8483:.
8471:.
8448:.
8440:.
8430:30
8428:.
8402::
8400:}}
8396:{{
8382:.
8351:.
8343:.
8333:32
8331:.
8308:.
8298:.
8288:24
8286:.
8282:.
8270:^
8254:67
8229:.
8219:.
8209:19
8207:.
8203:.
8180:.
8170:.
8139:.
8131:.
8121:.
8113:.
8103:12
8101:.
8077:.
8067:.
8057:24
8055:.
8051:.
8026:.
8014:.
8010:.
7987:.
7977:73
7975:.
7952:.
7942:62
7940:.
7923:.
7912:^
7876:.
7868:.
7858:13
7856:.
7852:.
7829:.
7817:.
7794:.
7786:.
7776:.
7768:.
7758:23
7756:.
7719:.
7694:.
7684:.
7674:98
7672:.
7668:.
7641:10
7639:.
7635:.
7600:.
7590:13
7588:.
7560:.
7556:.
7541:^
7527:.
7515:.
7480:.
7468:.
7440:.
7417:.
7405:.
7382:.
7372:45
7370:.
7347:.
7339:.
7331:.
7319:.
7296:.
7284:.
7249:.
7241:.
7233:.
7223:.
7211:.
7207:.
7180:.
7160:.
7142:.
7119:.
7111:.
7101:29
7099:.
7095:.
7067:.
7036:.
7026:78
7024:.
7001:.
6968:.
6960:.
6952:.
6938:.
6915:.
6907:.
6899:.
6885:.
6873:^
6856:.
6834:.
6824:29
6822:.
6799:.
6789:21
6787:.
6730:.
6707:.
6697:.
6689:.
6681:.
6671:11
6669:.
6665:.
6642:.
6634:.
6622:59
6620:.
6616:.
6593:.
6585:.
6577:.
6565:.
6542:.
6530:.
6507:.
6497:.
6489:.
6479:.
6467:.
6463:.
6438:47
6436:.
6432:.
6376:.
6351:.
6339:.
6316:.
6302:.
6298:.
6274:.
6262:.
6235:.
6223:.
6200:.
6190:.
6182:.
6174:.
6162:.
6158:.
6132::
6130:}}
6126:{{
6112:.
6072:.
6025:.
6015:.
6003:.
5999:.
5941:.
5915:.
5893:.
5883:.
5841:.
5829:.
5825:.
5797:78
5795:.
5755:.
5751:.
5736:^
5722:.
5712:.
5704:.
5696:.
5686:41
5684:.
5680:.
5655:.
5643:.
5595::
5593:}}
5589:{{
5547:.
5539:.
5527:.
5504:.
5496:.
5488:.
5478:49
5476:.
5452:.
5444:.
5436:.
5426:16
5424:.
5420:.
5372:.
5360:.
5337:.
5329:.
5317:14
5315:.
5311:.
5288:.
5276:15
5274:.
5270:.
5223:.
5215:.
5207:.
5195:.
5163:.
5140:.
5130:.
5120:92
5118:.
5114:.
5102:^
5085:.
5073:^
5059:.
5047:.
5043:.
5026:.
5004:.
4996:.
4986:13
4984:.
4961:.
4949:.
4892:.
4870:.
4862:.
4850:.
4838:^
4820:.
4793:.
4766:.
4740:.
4638:.
4621:^
4585:.
4577:.
4567:.
4557:22
4555:.
4523:.
4441:.
4367:11
4365:.
4361:.
4334:.
4308:.
4269:.
4218:.
4188:.
4186:84
4180:.
4164:^
4149:^
4120:.
4094:.
4063:.
4019:18
4017:.
4013:.
3989:.
3977:.
3954:.
3944:74
3942:.
3886:53
3884:.
3880:.
3834:.
3781:15
3779:.
3775:.
3741:^
3671:.
3661:.
3649:.
3645:.
3631:^
3594:.
3580:.
3576:.
3557:.
3026:.
3016:UL
2693:.
2624:,
2597:.
2583:2,
2577:,
2557:Sb
2554:,
2550:,
2504:UV
2422:.
2372:Ho
2356:Er
2345:Er
2334:Er
2302:Ho
2299:,
2289:Yb
2286:,
2276:Er
2131:.
2063:.
1993:,
1965:Ge
1963:,
1922:kW
1679:.
1574:,
1534:,
1522:,
1344:OC
1340:OC
1331:OC
1327:,
1323:,
1295:.)
1289:eV
1045:.
898:.
828:.
791:.
730:,
687:Ag
679:Cu
255:.
231:.
122:.
87:,
59:A
10828:e
10821:t
10814:v
9796:e
9789:t
9782:v
9768:.
9754::
9744::
9736::
9730:1
9701:.
9695::
9604:.
9540:.
9520::
9493:.
9471::
9448:.
9436::
9409:.
9387::
9377::
9371:2
9347:.
9325::
9302:.
9282::
9272::
9245:.
9223::
9200:.
9188::
9137:.
9104:.
9078:.
9056::
9048::
9042:6
9021:.
8999:.
8973:.
8917:.
8839:.
8810:.
8729:.
8703:.
8675::
8651:.
8623:.
8611::
8587:.
8575::
8569:5
8551:.
8537::
8529::
8499:.
8487::
8479::
8456:.
8436::
8412:)
8392:.
8378::
8359:.
8347::
8339::
8316:.
8302::
8294::
8264:.
8260::
8237:.
8223::
8215::
8188:.
8166::
8147:.
8125::
8117::
8109::
8085:.
8071::
8063::
8036:.
8030::
8022::
8016:8
7995:.
7991::
7983::
7960:.
7956::
7948::
7906:.
7884:.
7872::
7864::
7837:.
7833::
7825::
7802:.
7780::
7772::
7764::
7723:.
7704:.
7698::
7688::
7680::
7653:.
7647::
7608:.
7596::
7572:.
7568::
7535:.
7523::
7517:6
7488:.
7476::
7452:.
7448::
7442:1
7425:.
7413::
7390:.
7378::
7355:.
7335::
7327::
7304:.
7292::
7257:.
7227::
7219::
7213:2
7192:.
7188::
7146:.
7127:.
7107::
7077:.
7063::
7044:.
7040::
7032::
7009:.
7005::
6976:.
6964::
6956::
6946::
6923:.
6911::
6903::
6893::
6867:.
6842:.
6838::
6830::
6807:.
6803::
6795::
6734:.
6715:.
6685::
6677::
6650:.
6628::
6601:.
6581::
6573::
6567:4
6550:.
6538::
6532:8
6515:.
6483::
6475::
6469:6
6448:.
6444::
6413:.
6391:.
6359:.
6347::
6341:3
6324:.
6310::
6304:6
6282:.
6270::
6264:5
6243:.
6231::
6225:4
6208:.
6178::
6170::
6164:6
6143:)
6139:(
6122:.
6108::
6084:.
6033:.
6019::
6011::
6005:2
5984:.
5952:.
5926:.
5901:.
5879::
5845::
5837::
5807:.
5803::
5767:.
5763::
5757:8
5730:.
5700::
5692::
5665:.
5651::
5605:)
5585:.
5555:.
5543::
5535::
5512:.
5492::
5484::
5460:.
5440::
5432::
5401:.
5380:.
5368::
5362:9
5345:.
5323::
5296:.
5282::
5231:.
5211::
5203::
5197:2
5167:.
5148:.
5134::
5126::
5096:.
5067:.
5055::
5049:6
5012:.
5000::
4992::
4969:.
4965::
4957::
4934:.
4908:.
4878:.
4866::
4858::
4832:.
4805:.
4778:.
4752:.
4675:.
4649:.
4615:.
4593:.
4571::
4563::
4539:.
4488:.
4453:.
4427:.
4402:.
4377:.
4373::
4320:.
4277:.
4273::
4265::
4198:.
4131:.
4105:.
4079:.
4048:.
3999:.
3985::
3962:.
3958::
3950::
3911:5
3850:.
3820:.
3793:.
3787::
3760:.
3711:.
3679:.
3665::
3657::
3625:.
3621::
3602:.
3588::
3582:5
3561:.
3162:)
3158:(
2994:)
2990:(
2984:.
2871:)
2865:(
2860:)
2856:(
2842:.
2643:2
2615:2
2587:2
2571:3
2566:S
2562:2
2477:2
2465:2
2456:2
1975:2
1769:(
1665:2
1445:(
1393:)
1329:V
956:.
738:.
719:.
704:.
691:S
689:2
683:O
681:2
580:.
275:)
170:.
162:-
155:(
67:(
47:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.