1092:
supplying the energy necessary to nucleate grain growth. The laser fluence must be carefully controlled in order to induce crystallization without causing widespread melting. Crystallization of the film occurs as a very small portion of the silicon film is melted and allowed to cool. Ideally, the laser should melt the silicon film through its entire thickness, but not damage the substrate. Toward this end, a layer of silicon dioxide is sometimes added to act as a thermal barrier. This allows the use of substrates that cannot be exposed to the high temperatures of standard annealing, polymers for instance. Polymer-backed solar cells are of interest for seamlessly integrated power production schemes that involve placing photovoltaics on everyday surfaces.
567:
1096:
is a simple piece of equipment that is used to anneal the amorphous silicon thermally. Compared to the laser method, this technique is simpler and more cost-effective. Plasma torch annealing is attractive because the process parameters and equipment dimensions can be changed easily to yield varying levels of performance. A high level of crystallization (~90%) can be obtained with this method. Disadvantages include difficulty achieving uniformity in the crystallization of the film. While this method is applied frequently to silicon on a glass substrate, processing temperatures may be too high for polymers.
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deposited by physical vapor deposition onto the surface of the amorphous silicon. This stack of material is then annealed at a relatively low temperature between 140 °C and 200 °C in a vacuum. The aluminum that diffuses into the amorphous silicon is believed to weaken the hydrogen bonds present, allowing crystal nucleation and growth. Experiments have shown that polycrystalline silicon with grains on the order of 0.2 – 0.3 μm can be produced at temperatures as low as 150 °C. The volume fraction of the film that is crystallized is dependent on the length of the annealing process.
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22:
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191:
1035:(poly-Si) which consists solely of crystalline silicon grains, separated by grain boundaries. The difference comes solely from the grain size of the crystalline grains. Most materials with grains in the micrometre range are actually fine-grained polysilicon, so nanocrystalline silicon is a better term. The term Nanocrystalline silicon refers to a range of materials around the transition region from amorphous to microcrystalline phase in the silicon thin film.
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1080:
photovoltaic material may be applied to a flexible substrate, often a polymer. Such substrates cannot survive the high temperatures experienced during traditional annealing. Instead, novel methods of crystallizing the silicon without disturbing the underlying substrate have been studied extensively. Aluminum-induced crystallization (AIC) and local laser crystallization are common in the literature, however not extensively used in industry.
992:
efficiency can be attained than with single-junction solar cells. This tandem assembly of solar cells allows one to obtain a thin-film material with a bandgap of around 1.12 eV (the same as single-crystal silicon) compared to the bandgap of amorphous silicon of 1.7-1.8 eV bandgap. Tandem solar cells are then attractive since they can be fabricated with a bandgap similar to single-crystal silicon but with the ease of amorphous silicon.
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893:, and can be quite expensive depending on the radial size of the desired single crystal wafer (around $ 200 for a 300 mm Si wafer). This monocrystalline material, while useful, is one of the chief expenses associated with producing photovoltaics where approximately 40% of the final price of the product is attributable to the cost of the starting silicon wafer used in cell fabrication.
762:
855:. This is because of the presence of hetero-junction between the intrinsic a-Si layer and c-Si wafer which introduces additional complexities to current flow. In addition, there has been significant efforts to characterize this solar cell using C-V, impedance spectroscopy, surface photo-voltage, suns-Voc to produce complementary information.
970:
is composed of many smaller silicon grains of varied crystallographic orientation, typically >1 mm in size. This material can be synthesized easily by allowing liquid silicon to cool using a seed crystal of the desired crystal structure. Additionally, other methods for forming smaller-grained
837:
is used to deposit n-type a-Si layer. Direct deposition of doped a-Si layers on c-Si wafer is shown to have very poor passivation properties. This is most likely due to dopant induced defect generation in a-Si layers. Sputtered Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) is commonly used as a transparent conductive oxide
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Another method of achieving the same result is the use of a laser to heat the silicon locally without heating the underlying substrate beyond some upper-temperature limit. An excimer laser or, alternatively, green lasers such as a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser is used to heat the amorphous silicon,
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In 2013, conventional crystalline silicon technology dominated worldwide PV production, with multi-Si leading the market ahead of mono-Si, accounting for 54% and 36%, respectively. For the last ten years, worldwide market-share of thin-film technologies stagnated below 18% and currently stand at 9%.
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A third method for crystallizing amorphous silicon is the use of a thermal plasma jet. This strategy is an attempt to alleviate some of the problems associated with laser processing – namely the small region of crystallization and the high cost of the process on a production scale. The plasma torch
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Protocrystalline Si also has a relatively low absorption near the band gap owing to its more ordered crystalline structure. Thus, protocrystalline and amorphous silicon can be combined in a tandem solar cell where the top layer of thin protocrystalline silicon absorbs short-wavelength light whereas
725:(Pb). Moreover, the paste used for screen printing front and back contacts contains traces of Pb and sometimes Cd as well. It is estimated that about 1,000 metric tonnes of Pb have been used for 100 gigawatts of c-Si solar modules. However, there is no fundamental need for lead in the solder alloy.
652:
The average commercial crystalline silicon module increased its efficiency from about 12% to 16% over the last ten years. In the same period CdTe-modules improved their efficiency from 9 to 16%. The modules performing best under lab conditions in 2014 were made of monocrystalline silicon. They were
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Aluminum-induced crystallization produces polycrystalline silicon with suitable crystallographic and electronic properties that make it a candidate for producing polycrystalline thin films for photovoltaics. AIC can be used to generate crystalline silicon nanowires and other nano-scale structures.
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Monocrystalline silicon (mono c-Si) is a form in which the crystal structure is homogeneous throughout the material; the orientation, lattice parameter, and electronic properties are constant throughout the material. Dopant atoms such as phosphorus and boron are often incorporated into the film to
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The energy requirements of this process per unit of silicon metal produced may be relatively inelastic. But major energy cost reductions per (photovoltaic) product have been made as silicon cells have become more efficient at converting sunlight, larger silicon metal ingots are cut with less waste
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In both of these methods, amorphous silicon is grown using traditional techniques such as plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). The crystallization methods diverge during post-deposition processing. In aluminum-induced crystallization, a thin layer of aluminum (50 nm or less) is
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Amorphous silicon (a-Si) has no long-range periodic order. The application of amorphous silicon to photovoltaics as a standalone material is somewhat limited by its inferior electronic properties. When paired with microcrystalline silicon in tandem and triple-junction solar cells, however, higher
841:
It is generally deposited on the back side as well fully metallized cell to avoid diffusion of back metal and also for impedance matching for the reflected light. The silver/aluminum grid of 50-100μm thick is deposited through stencil printing for the front contact and back contact for bi-facial
285:
The allotropic forms of silicon range from a single crystalline structure to a completely unordered amorphous structure with several intermediate varieties. In addition, each of these different forms can possess several names and even more abbreviations, and often cause confusion to non-experts,
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Tanaka, Makoto; Taguchi, Mikio; Matsuyama, Takao; Sawada, Toru; Tsuda, Shinya; Nakano, Shoichi; Hanafusa, Hiroshi; Kuwano, Yukinori (1 November 1992). "Development of New a-Si/c-Si
Heterojunction Solar Cells: ACJ-HIT (Artificially Constructed Junction-Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin-Layer)".
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Amorphous silicon can be transformed to crystalline silicon using well-understood and widely implemented high-temperature annealing processes. The typical method used in industry requires high-temperature compatible materials, such as special high temperature glass that is expensive to produce.
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of PV devices describes the energy-ratio of the outgoing electrical power compared to the incoming radiated light. A single solar cells has generally a better, or higher efficiency than an entire solar module. Additionally, lab efficiency is always far superior to that of goods that are sold
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Flexible solar cells have been a topic of interest for less conspicuous-integrated power generation than solar power farms. These modules may be placed in areas where traditional cells would not be feasible, such as wrapped around a telephone pole or cell phone tower. In this application, a
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NOH the (100) surface of the wafer is textured to form the pyramids of 5-10μm height. Next, the wafer is cleaned using peroxide and HF solutions. This is followed by deposition of intrinsic a-Si passivation layer, typically through PECVD or Hot-wire CVD. The silane (SiH4) gas diluted with
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Passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cells consist of the addition of an extra layer to the rear-side of a solar cell. This dielectric passive layer acts to reflect unabsorbed light back to the solar cell for a second absorption attempt increasing the solar cell efficiency.
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Myong, Seung; Kwon, Seong; Kwak, Joong; Lim, Koeng; Pearce, Joshua; Konagai, Makoto (2006). "Good
Stability of Protocrystalline Silicon Multilayer Solar Cells Against Light Irradiation Originating from Vertically Regular Distribution of Isolated Nano-Sized Silicon Grains".
742:
A PERC is created through an additional film deposition and etching process. Etching can be done either by chemical or laser processing. About 80% of solar panels worldwide use the PERC design. Martin Green, Andrew
Blakers, Jianhua Zhao and Aihua Wang won the
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Masuko, K.; Shigematsu, M.; Hashiguchi, T.; Fujishima, D.; Kai, M.; Yoshimura, N.; Yamaguchi, T.; Ichihashi, Y.; Mishima, T. (1 November 2014). "Achievement of More Than 25 #x0025; Conversion
Efficiency With Crystalline Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cell".
2152:
Lu, Meijun; Das, Ujjwal; Bowden, Stuart; Hegedus, Steven; Birkmire, Robert (1 May 2011). "Optimization of interdigitated back contact silicon heterojunction solar cells: tailoring hetero-interface band structures while maintaining surface passivation".
2326:
Gudovskikh, A. S.; Kleider, J. -P.; Damon-Lacoste, J.; Roca i
Cabarrocas, P.; Veschetti, Y.; Muller, J. -C.; Ribeyron, P. -J.; Rolland, E. (26 July 2006). "Interface properties of a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunction solar cells from admittance spectroscopy".
850:
The literature discusses several studies to interpret carrier transport bottlenecks in these cells. Traditional light and dark I-V are extensively studied and are observed to have several non-trivial features, which cannot be explained using the
2331:. EMSR 2005 - Proceedings of Symposium F on Thin Film and Nanostructured Materials for PhotovoltaicsEMRS 2005- Symposium FEMSR 2005 - Proceedings of Symposium F on Thin Film and Nanostructured Materials for Photovoltaics. 511–512: 385–389.
808:
The details of the fabrication sequence vary from group to group. Typically in good quality, CZ/FZ grown c-Si wafer (with ~1ms lifetimes) are used as the absorber layer of HIT cells. Using alkaline etchants, such as, NaOH or
2243:
Kleider, J. P.; Chouffot, R.; Gudovskikh, A. S.; Roca i
Cabarrocas, P.; Labrune, M.; Ribeyron, P. -J.; Brüggemann, R. (1 October 2009). "Electronic and structural properties of the amorphous/crystalline silicon interface".
395:
First generation solar cells are made of crystalline silicon, also called, conventional, traditional, wafer-based solar cells and include monocrystalline (mono-Si) and polycrystalline (multi-Si) semiconducting
2199:
Chavali, R.V.K.; Khatavkar, S.; Kannan, C.V.; Kumar, V.; Nair, P.R.; Gray, J.L.; Alam, M.A. (1 May 2015). "Multiprobe
Characterization of Inversion Charge for Self-Consistent Parameterization of HIT Cells".
2562:
Asadpour, Reza; Chavali, Raghu V. K.; Khan, M. Ryyan; Alam, Muhammad A. (15 June 2015). "Bifacial Si heterojunction-perovskite organic-inorganic tandem to produce highly efficient (ηT* ~ 33%) solar cell".
858:
Further, a number of design improvements, such as, the use of new emitters, bifacial configuration, interdigitated back contact (IBC) configuration bifacial-tandem configuration are actively being pursued.
653:
7% above the efficiency of commercially produced modules (23% over 16%) which indicated that the conventional silicon technology still had potential to improve and therefore maintain its leading position.
2108:
Chavali, R.V.K.; Moore, J.E.; Wang, Xufeng; Alam, M.A.; Lundstrom, M.S.; Gray, J.L. (1 May 2015). "The Frozen
Potential Approach to Separate the Photocurrent and Diode Injection Current in Solar Cells".
822:
is used as a precursor. The deposition temperature and pressure is maintained at 200 C and 0.1-1 Torr. Precise control over this step is essential to avoid the formation of defective epitaxial Si.
2420:
Das, Ujjwal; Hegedus, Steven; Zhang, Lulu; Appel, Jesse; Rand, Jim; Birkmire, Robert (2010). "Investigation of hetero-interface and junction properties in silicon heterojunction solar cells".
627:
In 2013, record Lab cell efficiency was highest for crystalline silicon. However, multi-silicon is followed closely by cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium selenide solar cells.
2358:
Schmidt, M.; Korte, L.; Laades, A.; Stangl, R.; Schubert, Ch.; Angermann, H.; Conrad, E.; Maydell, K. v. (16 July 2007). "Physical aspects of a-Si:H/c-Si hetero-junction solar cells".
1411:. Institute of Photovoltaics, University of Stuttgart, Germany - The 21st International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference 2011 Fukuoka, Japan. p. 2. Archived from
1230:
1308:
Richter, Armin; Müller, Ralph; Benick, Jan; Feldmann, Frank; Steinhauser, Bernd; Reichel, Christian; Fell, Andreas; Bivour, Martin; Hermle, Martin; Glunz, Stefan W. (April 2021).
1195:
2022:
Matsuura, Hideharu; Okuno, Tetsuhiro; Okushi, Hideyo; Tanaka, Kazunobu (15 February 1984). "Electrical properties of n-amorphous/p-crystalline silicon heterojunctions".
399:
Second generation solar cells or panels are based on thin-film technology and are of commercially significant importance. These include CdTe, CIGS and amorphous silicon.
1249:
2745:
2393:
Bivour, Martin; Reichel, Christian; Hermle, Martin; Glunz, Stefan W. (1 November 2012). "Improving the a-Si:H(p) rear emitter contact of n-type silicon solar cells".
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has a higher efficiency than amorphous silicon (a-Si) and it has also been shown to improve stability, but not eliminate it. A Protocrystalline phase is a distinct
800:
Owing to all these advantages, this new hetero-junction solar cell is a considered to be a promising low cost alternative to traditional c-Si based solar cells.
681:
process occurs at high temperatures of more than 1,000 °C and is very energy intensive, using about 11 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per kilogram of silicon.
130:
solar cells, as they were developed in the 1950s and remained the most common type up to the present time. Because they are produced from 160 to 190
2065:
Taguchi, Mikio; Maruyama, Eiji; Tanaka, Makoto (1 February 2008). "Temperature
Dependence of Amorphous/Crystalline Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells".
1761:
Descoeudres, A.; Barraud, L.; Wolf, Stefaan De; Strahm, B.; Lachenal, D.; Guérin, C.; Holman, Z. C.; Zicarelli, F.; Demaurex, B. (19 September 2011).
286:
especially as some materials and their application as a PV technology are of minor significance, while other materials are of outstanding importance.
2940:
Lee, Hyun Seok; Choi, Sooseok; Kim, Sung Woo; Hong, Sang Hee (2009), "Crystallization of
Amorphous Silicon Thin Film by Using a Thermal Plasma Jet",
794:
3. The a-Si layers are deposited at much lower temperature, compared to the processing temperatures for traditional diffused c-Si technology.
2461:
Battaglia, Corsin; Nicolás, Silvia Martín de; Wolf, Stefaan De; Yin, Xingtian; Zheng, Maxwell; Ballif, Christophe; Javey, Ali (17 March 2014).
3889:
3566:
1142:
D. M. Chapin-C. S. Fuller-G. L. Pearson (1954). "A New Silicon p–n Junction Photocell for Converting Solar Radiation into Electrical Power".
99:. This silicon contains much lower impurity levels than those required for solar cells. Production of semiconductor grade silicon involves a
1031:
phase. Where they differ, however, is that nc-Si has small grains of crystalline silicon within the amorphous phase. This is in contrast to
2872:
Kishore, R.; Hotz, C.; Naseem, H. A. & Brown, W. D. (2001), "Aluminum-Induced Crystallization of Amorphous Silicon (α-Si:H) at 150°C",
1310:"Design rules for high-efficiency both-sides-contacted silicon solar cells with balanced charge carrier transport and recombination losses"
1223:
2819:"Double amorphous silicon-carbide p-layer structures producing highly stabilized pin-type protocrystalline silicon multilayer solar cells"
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251:
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Wolf, Stefaan De; Kondo, Michio (22 January 2007). "Abruptness of a-Si:H/c-Si interface revealed by carrier lifetime measurements".
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make the silicon n-type or p-type respectively. Monocrystalline silicon is fabricated in the form of silicon wafers, usually by the
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with little or no market significance and include a large range of substances, mostly organic, often using organometallic compounds.
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785:). Panasonic and several other groups have reported several advantages of the HIT design over its traditional c-Si counterpart:
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1716:"Hydrogen plasma treatments for passivation of amorphous-crystalline silicon-heterojunctions on surfaces promoting epitaxy"
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1401:
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3711:
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Banerjee, A.; Guha, S. (15 January 1991). "Study of back reflectors for amorphous silicon alloy solar cell application".
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plasma treatment are shown to have provided excellent surface passivation. Diborane or Trimethylboron gas mixed with SiH
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Yuan, Zhijun; Lou, Qihong; Zhou, Jun; Dong, Jingxing; Wei, Yunrong; Wang, Zhijiang; Zhao, Hongming; Wu, Guohua (2009),
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Street, R. A.; Biegelsen, D. K.; Knights, J. C. (15 July 1981). "Defect states in doped and compensated $ a$ -Si: H".
391:
Alternatively, different types of solar cells and/or their semiconducting materials can be classified by generations:
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Li, Jian V.; Crandall, Richard S.; Young, David L.; Page, Matthew R.; Iwaniczko, Eugene; Wang, Qi (1 December 2011).
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Wang, T.H.; Iwaniczko, E.; Page, M.R.; Levi, D.H.; Yan, Y.; Yelundur, V.; Branz, H.M.; Rohatgi, A.; Wang, Q. (2005).
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2281:"Capacitance study of inversion at the amorphous-crystalline interface of n-type silicon heterojunction solar cells"
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2362:. Proceedings of Symposium I on Thin Films for Large Area Electronics EMRS 2007 ConferenceEMRS 2006 - Symposium I.
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1977:"Correlated Nonideal Effects of Dark and Light I #x2013;V Characteristics in a-Si/c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells"
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Conversion Efficiencies of best research solar cells worldwide for various Photovoltaic Technologies since 1976.
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In electronics, crystalline silicon is typically the monocrystalline form of silicon, and is used for producing
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838:(TCO) layer on top of the front and back a-Si layer in bi-facial design, as a-Si has high lateral resistance.
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These allotropic forms of silicon are not classified as crystalline silicon. They belong to the group of
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with intrinsic thin layer". HIT cells are produced by the Japanese multinational electronics corporation
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can be classified to neither of these generations. A typical triple junction semiconductor is made of
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1438:"assivated emitter rear contact solar cells are at 20% efficiency today—but price premiums are steep"
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However, there are many applications for which this is an inherently unattractive production method.
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2903:"Numerical and experimental analysis on green laser crystallization of amorphous silicon thin films"
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polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) exist such as high temperature chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
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1. An intrinsic a-Si layer can act as an effective surface passivation layer for c-Si wafer.
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into thinner wafers, silicon waste from manufacture is recycled, and material costs have reduced.
592:) splits up into 121 GW crystalline silicon (87%) and 18 GW thin-film (13%) technology.
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and are generally more efficient than their rival technologies, which are the second-generation
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A HIT solar cell is composed of a mono thin crystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin
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1763:"Improved amorphous/crystalline silicon interface passivation by hydrogen plasma treatment"
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4. The HIT cell has a lower temperature coefficient compared to c-Si cell technology.
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In photovoltaic industry,materials are commonly grouped into the following two categories:
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380:(CPV, HCPV), an emerging technology best suited for locations that receive much sunlight.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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De Wolf, Stefaan; Descoeudres, Antoine; Holman, Zachary C.; Ballif, Christophe (2012).
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1553:"Why Panasonic HIT - Panasonic Solar HIT - Eco solutions - Business - Panasonic Global"
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Conference Record of the Thirty-first IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2005
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Taguchi, Mikio; Terakawa, Akira; Maruyama, Eiji; Tanaka, Makoto (1 September 2005).
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Mews, Mathias; Schulze, Tim F.; Mingirulli, Nicola; Korte, Lars (25 March 2013).
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2. The p+/n+ doped a-Si functions as an effective emitter/BSF for the cell.
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1284:"Both-sides-contacted solar cell sets new world record of 26 percent efficiency"
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2463:"Silicon heterojunction solar cell with passivated hole selective MoOx contact"
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2248:. Proceedings on the Sixth Symposium on Thin Films for Large Area Electronics.
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material that joins the copper strings of the cells, it contains about 36% of
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Chavali, R.V.K.; Wilcox, J.R.; Ray, B.; Gray, J.L.; Alam, M.A. (1 May 2014).
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design. The detailed description of the fabrication process can be found in.
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Both-sides-contacted silicon solar cells as of 2021: 26% and possibly above.
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is used to deposit p-type a-Si layer, while, Phosphine gas mixed with SiH
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In the thin-film market, CdTe leads with an annual production of 2
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2487:
2462:
2304:
1786:
1739:
1692:
1639:
1163:
1062:
the longer wavelengths are absorbed by the underlying a-Si substrate.
584:
or 5%, followed by a-Si and CIGS, both around 2%. Alltime deployed PV
3737:
3643:
3515:
2166:
2043:
1908:
1012:
871:
778:
580:
426:
2280:
1595:
1578:
906:
3950:
3940:
3915:
2902:
2577:
2517:
1976:
678:
576:
1516:
3955:
1016:
875:
714:
53:
49:
2980:
2778:
2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conference
325:
Other materials, not classified as crystalline silicon, used in
1125:"Bell Labs Demonstrates the First Practical Silicon Solar Cell"
718:
2713:"Material and solar cell research in microcrystalline silicon"
1932:"High-efficiency Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells: A Review"
1929:
2627:
Green, M. A. (2004), "Recent Developments in Photovoltaics",
1576:
1807:
1760:
1620:"Effective interfaces in silicon heterojunction solar cells"
177:
means "without shape" to describe its non-crystalline form.
2817:
Myong, Seung Yeop; Lim, Koeng Su; Pears, Joshua M. (2005).
2198:
1474:"International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic (ITRPV)"
1307:
761:
722:
2664:
The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication
1713:
1074:
846:
Opto-electrical modeling and characterization of HIT cells
570:
Global Photovoltaics market share by technology 1980–2021.
2021:
673:. The electricity generated for this process may produce
432:
118:
Solar cells made of crystalline silicon are often called
107:
process to grow monocrystalline silicon. The cylindrical
2392:
2357:
974:
2561:
2460:
2871:
1851:
717:(Cd). In the case of crystalline silicon modules, the
661:
Crystalline silicon has a high cost in energy because
2064:
1617:
1218:
1216:
16:
Semiconducting material used in solar cell technology
2419:
2155:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
2107:
1974:
1583:
Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1066:
Transformation of amorphous into crystalline silicon
697:, most commercially established PV technologies use
2666:(2nd ed.), New York: Oxford University Press,
2278:
2422:2010 35th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference
2151:
1213:
2685:
1170:
350:Other established non-silicon materials, such as
298:Crystalline silicon (c-Si), used in conventional
103:to produce Hyper-pure Polysilicon, followed by a
4014:
2774:
747:in 2023 for development of the PERC solar cell.
709:buffer layer, and the semiconductor material of
3697:
2900:
2939:
2661:
656:
3890:List of countries by photovoltaics production
3567:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
2996:
2816:
2686:Streetman, B. G. & Banerjee, S. (2000),
1886:
1363:
60:(poly-Si, consisting of small crystals), or
3372:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
2690:(5th ed.), New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
1038:
935:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
803:
3245:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
3003:
2989:
2867:
2865:
2863:
1402:"Toxic Substances In Photovoltaic Modules"
1247:High-efficiency multi-junction solar cells
995:
896:
2969:
2885:
2679:
2622:
2620:
2576:
2486:
1670:
1594:
955:Learn how and when to remove this message
3707:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
865:
825:Cycles of deposition and annealing and H
760:
599:
565:
224:Global PV market by technology in 2021.
20:
3674:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
3669:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
2874:Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters
2860:
1236:from the original on 23 September 2022.
1075:Low temperature induced crystallization
68:). Crystalline silicon is the dominant
4015:
2720:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
2617:
2395:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
1537:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1399:
713:-technology itself contains the toxic
490:
433:Comparison of technical specifications
2984:
2626:
2194:
2192:
1970:
1968:
1579:"Obtaining a higher Voc in HIT cells"
1400:Werner, Jürgen H. (2 November 2011).
1229:. Fraunhofer ISE. 22 September 2022.
975:Not classified as Crystalline silicon
745:Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering
3995:
2710:
1499:"PERC Solar Photovoltaic Technology"
1456:"What is PERC? Why should you care?"
986:
933:adding citations to reliable sources
900:
773:layers. The acronym HIT stands for "
728:
320:(ribbon-Si), has currently no market
184:
3712:List of photovoltaic power stations
2067:Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
1811:Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
1377:. Simcoa Operations. Archived from
853:traditional solar cell diode theory
783:Sanyo § Solar cells and plants
329:and other solar-cell technologies.
13:
3728:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
3131:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
3080:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
2413:
2189:
1965:
1201:from the original on 9 August 2014
733:
80:. These cells are assembled into
14:
4044:
3733:Building-integrated photovoltaics
3230:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
3136:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
3010:
2711:Shah, A. V.; et al. (2003),
1003:(nc-Si), sometimes also known as
750:
415:multi-junction photovoltaic cells
280:
76:technology for the production of
3994:
3983:
3982:
3105:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
1194:. Fraunhofer ISE. 28 July 2014.
905:
189:
169:(a-Si). Amorphous silicon is an
3240:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
3121:List of semiconductor materials
2933:
2927:10.1016/j.optlastec.2008.09.003
2894:
2810:
2768:
2738:
2704:
2655:
2555:
2511:
2454:
2386:
2351:
2319:
2272:
2236:
2145:
2101:
2058:
2015:
1923:
1880:
1845:
1801:
1754:
1707:
1664:
1611:
1570:
1545:
1505:
1491:
1466:
1448:
1430:
1393:
1371:"Production Process of Silicon"
861:
665:by the reduction of high-grade
561:
149:Solar cells made from c-Si are
3352:Incremental conductance method
3146:Copper indium gallium selenide
3095:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
2688:Solid State Electronic Devices
1301:
1276:
1258:
1240:
1135:
1117:
386:
289:
1:
3659:South African Solar Challenge
2907:Optics & Laser Technology
2732:10.1016/S0927-0248(02)00448-8
2649:10.1016/S0038-092X(03)00065-3
2521:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
2202:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
2111:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
1981:IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics
1817:(Part 1, No. 11): 3518–3522.
1111:
595:
3306:Photovoltaic mounting system
2533:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2014.2352151
2407:10.1016/j.solmat.2012.06.036
2214:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2014.2388072
2123:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2015.2405757
1993:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2014.2307171
1266:"Multi-Junction Solar Cells"
1106:List of types of solar cells
634:20.4% -------- multi-Si cell
403:Third generation solar cells
7:
3311:Maximum power point tracker
1099:
765:Schematics of a HIT-cell...
688:
657:Energy costs of manufacture
640:21.5% ----------- CdTe cell
637:21.7% ----------- CIGS cell
180:
157:, the most important being
142:—they are sometimes called
10:
4049:
3562:Solar panels on spacecraft
3409:Solar-powered refrigerator
3367:Concentrated photovoltaics
3347:Perturb and observe method
3126:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
2424:. pp. 001358–001362.
2285:Journal of Applied Physics
2024:Journal of Applied Physics
1889:Journal of Applied Physics
1334:10.1038/s41560-021-00805-w
1144:Journal of Applied Physics
1027:(a-Si), in that it has an
881:
754:
631:25.6% ------- mono-Si cell
607:
378:concentrator photovoltaics
370:solar panels on spacecraft
366:Multi-junction solar cells
3978:
3898:
3882:
3873:
3751:
3720:
3686:
3606:
3590:
3544:
3503:
3401:
3394:
3339:
3268:
3260:Heterojunction solar cell
3235:Dye-sensitized solar cell
3195:
3184:
3159:
3113:
3075:Multi-junction solar cell
3065:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
3025:
3018:
2962:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.138
2786:10.1109/WCPEC.2006.279788
2430:10.1109/PVSC.2010.5614372
2380:10.1016/j.tsf.2006.11.087
2345:10.1016/j.tsf.2005.12.111
2266:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.02.092
1632:10.1109/PVSC.2005.1488290
891:Czochralski Growth method
804:Fabrication of HIT cells
757:Heterojunction solar cell
198:This section needs to be
3743:Strasskirchen Solar Park
3634:American Solar Challenge
3480:Solar-powered flashlight
3467:Solar-powered calculator
3462:Solar cell phone charger
3151:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
1044:Protocrystalline silicon
1039:Protocrystalline silicon
1023:structure—is similar to
1005:microcrystalline silicon
675:greenhouse gas emissions
478:
473:
462:
451:
445:
376:. They are also used in
345:Protocrystalline silicon
173:variant of silicon, and
115:for further processing.
4023:Group IV semiconductors
3649:Frisian Solar Challenge
3619:List of solar car teams
3377:Space-based solar power
3357:Constant voltage method
3286:Solar charge controller
3172:Timeline of solar cells
3167:Growth of photovoltaics
2826:Applied Physics Letters
2662:S. A. Campbell (2001),
2565:Applied Physics Letters
2467:Applied Physics Letters
2291:(11): 114502–114502–5.
1951:10.1515/green-2011-0018
1874:10.1103/PhysRevB.24.969
1767:Applied Physics Letters
1720:Applied Physics Letters
1673:Applied Physics Letters
1033:polycrystalline silicon
1001:Nanocrystalline silicon
996:Nanocrystalline silicon
968:Polycrystalline silicon
897:Polycrystalline silicon
884:Monocrystalline silicon
374:space-based solar power
368:(MJ) commonly used for
339:Nanocrystalline silicon
312:Polycrystalline silicon
306:Monocrystalline silicon
70:semiconducting material
62:monocrystalline silicon
58:polycrystalline silicon
3639:Formula Sun Grand Prix
3471:Solar-powered fountain
3414:Solar air conditioning
3215:Quantum dot solar cell
3205:Nanocrystal solar cell
3100:Sun-free photovoltaics
2780:. pp. 1584–1587.
1224:"Photovoltaics Report"
1189:"Photovoltaics Report"
1007:(μc-Si), is a form of
879:
766:
693:With the exception of
605:
571:
361:Emerging photovoltaics
138:—slices from bulks of
38:
4033:Allotropes of silicon
3629:World Solar Challenge
3452:Photovoltaic keyboard
3382:PV system performance
3255:Perovskite solar cell
3053:Solar cell efficiency
1054:which evolves into a
981:thin-film solar cells
869:
764:
616:conversion efficiency
610:Solar cell efficiency
603:
590:cumulative as of 2013
569:
492:Thin-film solar cells
407:emerging technologies
405:are often labeled as
155:thin-film solar cells
151:single-junction cells
101:chemical purification
24:
3899:Individual producers
3607:Solar vehicle racing
3296:Solar micro-inverter
3225:Plasmonic solar cell
3070:Thin-film solar cell
3038:Photoelectric effect
2746:"Technical articles"
1831:10.1143/jjap.31.3518
1626:. pp. 955–958.
929:improve this section
302:-based solar cells.
25:Crystalline-silicon
4028:Silicon solar cells
3495:Solar traffic light
3475:Solar-powered radio
3442:Solar-powered watch
3250:Printed solar panel
3085:Solar cell research
2954:2009TSF...517.4070L
2919:2009OptLT..41..380Y
2838:2005ApPhL..87s3509M
2641:2004SoEn...76....3G
2587:2015ApPhL.106x3902A
2479:2014ApPhL.104k3902B
2372:2007TSF...515.7475S
2337:2006TSF...511..385G
2297:2011JAP...110k4502L
2258:2009TSF...517.6386K
2087:10.1143/jjap.47.814
2079:2008JaJAP..47..814T
2036:1984JAP....55.1012M
1901:1991JAP....69.1030B
1866:1981PhRvB..24..969S
1823:1992JaJAP..31.3518T
1779:2011ApPhL..99l3506D
1732:2013ApPhL.102l2106M
1685:2007ApPhL..90d2111D
1418:on 21 December 2014
1326:2021NatEn...6..429R
1156:1954JAP....25..676C
663:silicon is produced
140:solar grade silicon
86:photovoltaic system
42:Crystalline silicon
29:are made of either
3531:The Quiet Achiever
3490:Solar street light
3437:Solar-powered pump
3210:Organic solar cell
3090:Thermophotovoltaic
3058:Quantum efficiency
1409:postfreemarket.net
1252:2012-03-21 at the
880:
767:
699:toxic heavy metals
677:. This coke-fired
606:
588:of 139 gigawatts (
572:
111:are then cut into
66:continuous crystal
39:
4010:
4009:
3974:
3973:
3869:
3868:
3682:
3681:
3557:Mauro Solar Riser
3552:Electric aircraft
3485:Solar-powered fan
3390:
3389:
3281:Balance of system
3269:System components
3220:Hybrid solar cell
3180:
3179:
3141:Cadmium telluride
2948:(14): 4070–4073,
2887:10.1149/1.1342182
2846:10.1063/1.2126802
2795:978-1-4244-0016-4
2750:semiconductor.net
2697:978-0-13-025538-9
2673:978-0-19-513605-0
2595:10.1063/1.4922375
2488:10.1063/1.4868880
2439:978-1-4244-5890-5
2366:(19): 7475–7480.
2305:10.1063/1.3663433
2252:(23): 6386–6391.
1854:Physical Review B
1787:10.1063/1.3641899
1740:10.1063/1.4798292
1693:10.1063/1.2432297
1649:978-0-7803-8707-2
1460:Solar Power World
1444:. 14 August 2014.
1375:www.simcoa.com.au
1164:10.1063/1.1721711
1050:occurring during
1025:amorphous silicon
987:Amorphous silicon
965:
964:
957:
771:amorphous silicon
729:Cell technologies
695:amorphous silicon
559:
558:
333:Amorphous silicon
219:
218:
167:amorphous silicon
105:recrystallization
4040:
3998:
3997:
3986:
3985:
3880:
3879:
3721:Building-mounted
3699:PV power station
3695:
3694:
3624:Solar challenges
3614:Solar car racing
3582:Solar Challenger
3572:Gossamer Penguin
3399:
3398:
3193:
3192:
3043:Solar irradiance
3023:
3022:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2974:
2973:
2942:Thin Solid Films
2937:
2931:
2929:
2898:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2869:
2858:
2857:
2823:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2752:. Archived from
2742:
2736:
2734:
2726:(1–4): 469–491,
2717:
2708:
2702:
2700:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2624:
2615:
2614:
2580:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2527:(6): 1433–1435.
2515:
2509:
2508:
2490:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2360:Thin Solid Films
2355:
2349:
2348:
2329:Thin Solid Films
2323:
2317:
2316:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2246:Thin Solid Films
2240:
2234:
2233:
2196:
2187:
2186:
2167:10.1002/pip.1032
2149:
2143:
2142:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2044:10.1063/1.333193
2030:(4): 1012–1019.
2019:
2013:
2012:
1972:
1963:
1962:
1936:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1909:10.1063/1.347418
1895:(2): 1030–1035.
1884:
1878:
1877:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1598:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1536:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1519:on 11 April 2009
1515:. Archived from
1509:
1503:
1502:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1417:
1406:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1262:
1256:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1228:
1220:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1200:
1193:
1185:
1168:
1167:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1121:
1056:microcrystalline
960:
953:
949:
946:
940:
909:
901:
671:electric furnace
437:
436:
269:
259:
249:
239:
229:
214:
211:
205:
193:
192:
185:
128:first generation
4048:
4047:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4038:
4037:
4013:
4012:
4011:
4006:
3970:
3894:
3865:
3747:
3716:
3689:
3678:
3602:
3591:Water transport
3586:
3540:
3526:Solar golf cart
3499:
3457:Solar road stud
3386:
3340:System concepts
3335:
3264:
3187:
3176:
3155:
3109:
3014:
3009:
2979:
2938:
2934:
2899:
2895:
2870:
2861:
2821:
2815:
2811:
2796:
2773:
2769:
2759:
2757:
2756:on 15 July 2011
2744:
2743:
2739:
2715:
2709:
2705:
2698:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2660:
2656:
2625:
2618:
2560:
2556:
2516:
2512:
2459:
2455:
2440:
2418:
2414:
2391:
2387:
2356:
2352:
2324:
2320:
2277:
2273:
2241:
2237:
2197:
2190:
2150:
2146:
2106:
2102:
2063:
2059:
2020:
2016:
1973:
1966:
1934:
1928:
1924:
1885:
1881:
1850:
1846:
1806:
1802:
1759:
1755:
1712:
1708:
1669:
1665:
1650:
1616:
1612:
1596:10.1002/pip.646
1575:
1571:
1561:
1559:
1551:
1550:
1546:
1530:
1529:
1522:
1520:
1513:"Archived copy"
1511:
1510:
1506:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1482:
1480:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1404:
1398:
1394:
1384:
1382:
1381:on 19 June 2014
1369:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1306:
1302:
1292:
1290:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1254:Wayback Machine
1245:
1241:
1233:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1214:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1187:
1186:
1171:
1140:
1136:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1102:
1077:
1068:
1041:
1021:paracrystalline
998:
989:
977:
961:
950:
944:
941:
926:
910:
899:
886:
864:
848:
836:
832:
828:
821:
816:
812:
806:
759:
753:
736:
734:PERC solar cell
731:
691:
659:
612:
598:
583:
564:
494:
468:
457:
435:
389:
292:
283:
278:
277:
276:
275:
267:
265:
257:
255:
247:
245:
237:
235:
227:
215:
209:
206:
203:
194:
190:
183:
92:from sunlight.
33:(left side) or
17:
12:
11:
5:
4046:
4036:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4004:
3992:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3972:
3971:
3969:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3936:Solar Frontier
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3911:Hanwha Q CELLS
3908:
3902:
3900:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3886:
3884:
3877:
3871:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3858:
3856:United Kingdom
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3791:Czech Republic
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3757:
3755:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3703:
3701:
3692:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3600:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3579:
3577:Qinetiq Zephyr
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3507:
3505:
3504:Land transport
3501:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3431:
3429:Solar backpack
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3396:
3392:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3343:
3341:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3331:Synchronverter
3328:
3323:
3321:Solar shingles
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3291:Solar inverter
3288:
3283:
3278:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3199:
3190:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3163:
3161:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3048:Solar constant
3045:
3040:
3035:
3029:
3027:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3008:
3007:
3000:
2993:
2985:
2978:
2977:
2932:
2913:(4): 380–383,
2893:
2880:(2): G14–G16,
2859:
2832:(19): 193509.
2809:
2794:
2767:
2737:
2703:
2696:
2678:
2672:
2654:
2616:
2571:(24): 243902.
2554:
2510:
2473:(11): 113902.
2453:
2438:
2412:
2385:
2350:
2318:
2271:
2235:
2208:(3): 725–735.
2188:
2161:(3): 326–338.
2144:
2117:(3): 865–873.
2100:
2073:(2): 814–818.
2057:
2014:
1987:(3): 763–771.
1964:
1922:
1879:
1860:(2): 969–984.
1844:
1800:
1773:(12): 123506.
1753:
1726:(12): 122106.
1706:
1663:
1648:
1610:
1589:(6): 481–488.
1569:
1544:
1504:
1490:
1465:
1462:. 5 July 2016.
1447:
1442:GreentechMedia
1429:
1392:
1362:
1320:(4): 429–438.
1300:
1288:techxplore.com
1275:
1257:
1239:
1212:
1169:
1150:(5): 676–677.
1134:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1101:
1098:
1076:
1073:
1067:
1064:
1052:crystal growth
1040:
1037:
1009:porous silicon
997:
994:
988:
985:
976:
973:
963:
962:
913:
911:
904:
898:
895:
882:Main article:
863:
860:
847:
844:
834:
830:
826:
819:
814:
810:
805:
802:
775:heterojunction
755:Main article:
752:
751:HIT solar cell
749:
735:
732:
730:
727:
690:
687:
658:
655:
650:
649:
642:
641:
638:
635:
632:
625:
624:
619:commercially.
608:Main article:
597:
594:
579:
563:
560:
557:
556:
553:
550:
547:
544:
538:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
516:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
495:
488:
487:
477:
472:
466:
461:
455:
450:
444:
441:
434:
431:
411:
410:
400:
397:
388:
385:
384:
383:
382:
381:
363:
358:
348:
342:
336:
323:
322:
321:
318:Ribbon silicon
315:
309:
291:
288:
282:
281:Classification
279:
266:
256:
246:
236:
226:
222:
221:
220:
217:
216:
197:
195:
188:
182:
179:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4045:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4020:
4018:
4003:
4002:
3993:
3991:
3990:
3981:
3980:
3977:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3685:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3605:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3545:Air transport
3543:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3521:Solar roadway
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3511:Solar vehicle
3509:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3424:Solar charger
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3316:Solar tracker
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3183:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3033:Photovoltaics
3031:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3012:Photovoltaics
3006:
3001:
2999:
2994:
2992:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2897:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2820:
2813:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2771:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2741:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2707:
2699:
2693:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2621:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2558:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2397:. SiliconPV.
2396:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2354:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2322:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2239:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2195:
2193:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2148:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2104:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1969:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1926:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1679:(4): 042111.
1678:
1674:
1667:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1573:
1558:
1557:panasonic.net
1554:
1548:
1540:
1534:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1500:
1494:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1451:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1396:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1314:Nature Energy
1311:
1304:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1232:
1225:
1219:
1217:
1197:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1116:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1072:
1063:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
993:
984:
982:
972:
969:
959:
956:
948:
938:
934:
930:
924:
923:
919:
914:This section
912:
908:
903:
902:
894:
892:
885:
877:
873:
870:Schematic of
868:
859:
856:
854:
843:
839:
823:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
763:
758:
748:
746:
740:
726:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
705:often uses a
704:
700:
696:
686:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
654:
647:
646:
645:
639:
636:
633:
630:
629:
628:
622:
621:
620:
617:
611:
602:
593:
591:
587:
582:
578:
568:
554:
551:
548:
545:
543:
540:
539:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
521:
518:
517:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
499:
496:
493:
489:
485:
481:
476:
470:
469:
459:
458:
448:
442:
439:
438:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
408:
404:
401:
398:
394:
393:
392:
379:
375:
371:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
353:
349:
346:
343:
340:
337:
334:
331:
330:
328:
324:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
304:
303:
301:
297:
296:
295:
287:
273:
263:
253:
243:
233:
225:
213:
201:
196:
187:
186:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
146:solar cells.
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
91:
87:
84:as part of a
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
37:(right side).
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
4000:
3987:
3966:Yingli Solar
3946:Sungen Solar
3921:Motech Solar
3875:PV companies
3836:South Africa
3654:Solar Splash
3395:Applications
3326:Solar mirror
3186:Photovoltaic
3125:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2877:
2873:
2829:
2825:
2812:
2777:
2770:
2758:. Retrieved
2754:the original
2749:
2740:
2723:
2719:
2706:
2687:
2681:
2663:
2657:
2635:(1–3): 3–8,
2632:
2629:Solar Energy
2628:
2568:
2564:
2557:
2524:
2520:
2513:
2470:
2466:
2456:
2421:
2415:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2363:
2359:
2353:
2328:
2321:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2205:
2201:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2027:
2023:
2017:
1984:
1980:
1942:
1938:
1925:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1770:
1766:
1756:
1723:
1719:
1709:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1623:
1613:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1560:. Retrieved
1556:
1547:
1521:. Retrieved
1517:the original
1507:
1493:
1481:. Retrieved
1477:
1468:
1459:
1450:
1441:
1432:
1422:23 September
1420:. Retrieved
1413:the original
1408:
1395:
1385:17 September
1383:. Retrieved
1379:the original
1374:
1365:
1353:. Retrieved
1317:
1313:
1303:
1291:. Retrieved
1287:
1278:
1270:stanford.edu
1269:
1260:
1242:
1203:. Retrieved
1147:
1143:
1137:
1128:
1119:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1069:
1060:
1042:
1004:
999:
990:
978:
966:
951:
942:
927:Please help
915:
887:
862:Mono-silicon
857:
849:
840:
824:
807:
799:
796:
793:
790:
787:
768:
741:
737:
692:
683:
660:
651:
643:
626:
613:
573:
562:Market share
479:
464:
453:
412:
406:
390:
293:
284:
223:
207:
199:
148:
143:
136:solar wafers
127:
123:
120:conventional
119:
117:
94:
88:to generate
82:solar panels
74:photovoltaic
64:(mono-Si, a
45:
41:
40:
35:Mono Silicon
31:Poly Silicon
18:
3961:Trina Solar
3906:First Solar
3846:Switzerland
3826:Netherlands
3664:Tour de Sol
3362:Fill factor
3301:Solar cable
3276:Solar panel
3197:Solar cells
2971:10371/69100
1945:(1): 7–24.
1011:. It is an
667:quartz sand
443:Technology
440:Categories
387:Generations
290:PV industry
144:wafer-based
124:traditional
90:solar power
78:solar cells
50:crystalline
27:solar cells
4017:Categories
3883:By country
3753:By country
3688:Generation
3598:Solar boat
3447:Solar Tuki
3433:Solar tree
3419:Solar lamp
3402:Appliances
3026:Technology
2578:1506.01039
1640:1853/25930
1112:References
1013:allotropic
872:allotropic
781:(see also
596:Efficiency
413:Arguably,
396:materials.
314:(multi-Si)
171:allotropic
97:microchips
3761:Australia
3738:Solar Ark
3644:Solar Cup
3536:Sunmobile
3516:Solar car
3114:Materials
2611:109438804
2603:0003-6951
2541:2156-3381
2497:0003-6951
2401:: 11–16.
2313:0021-8979
2222:2156-3381
2175:1099-159X
2131:2156-3381
2095:121128373
2052:0021-8979
2001:2156-3381
1959:138517035
1917:0021-8979
1839:123520303
1795:0003-6951
1748:0003-6951
1701:0003-6951
1605:1099-159X
1350:234847037
1342:2058-7546
1205:31 August
1029:amorphous
916:does not
874:forms of
779:Panasonic
623:Lab cells
327:thin-film
308:(mono-Si)
175:amorphous
56:, either
52:forms of
48:) is the
3989:Category
3951:Sunpower
3941:Solyndra
3916:JA Solar
3851:Thailand
3771:Bulgaria
3019:Concepts
2854:67779494
2804:41872657
2760:17 April
2549:31321943
2505:14976726
2448:24318974
2230:25652883
2183:97567531
2139:33613345
2009:13449892
1658:13507811
1562:17 April
1533:cite web
1523:5 August
1478:vdma.org
1250:Archived
1231:Archived
1196:Archived
1100:See also
1015:form of
945:May 2021
689:Toxicity
679:smelting
586:capacity
423:(In)GaAs
272:multi-Si
210:May 2021
181:Overview
72:used in
4001:Commons
3956:Suntech
3831:Romania
3801:Germany
3766:Belgium
3690:systems
3160:History
2950:Bibcode
2915:Bibcode
2834:Bibcode
2637:Bibcode
2583:Bibcode
2475:Bibcode
2368:Bibcode
2333:Bibcode
2293:Bibcode
2254:Bibcode
2075:Bibcode
2032:Bibcode
1897:Bibcode
1862:Bibcode
1819:Bibcode
1775:Bibcode
1728:Bibcode
1681:Bibcode
1483:9 April
1322:Bibcode
1152:Bibcode
1129:aps.org
1017:silicon
937:removed
922:sources
876:silicon
715:cadmium
648:Modules
508:0.0089
347:(pc-Si)
341:(nc-Si)
262:mono-Si
200:updated
54:silicon
3806:Greece
3796:France
3776:Canada
3188:system
2852:
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1355:10 May
1348:
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1293:10 May
1058:form.
719:solder
669:in an
530:0.029
335:(a-Si)
270:
268:
260:
258:
254:(0.8%)
250:
248:
244:(0.1%)
240:
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234:(4.1%)
230:
228:
165:, and
134:thick
113:wafers
109:boules
3931:Sharp
3841:Spain
3821:Japan
3816:Italy
3811:India
3786:China
3781:Chile
2850:S2CID
2822:(PDF)
2800:S2CID
2716:(PDF)
2607:S2CID
2573:arXiv
2545:S2CID
2501:S2CID
2444:S2CID
2226:S2CID
2179:S2CID
2135:S2CID
2091:S2CID
2005:S2CID
1955:S2CID
1939:Green
1935:(PDF)
1835:S2CID
1654:S2CID
1416:(PDF)
1405:(PDF)
1346:S2CID
1234:(PDF)
1227:(PDF)
1199:(PDF)
1192:(PDF)
1048:phase
1019:with
546:20.5
527:0.86
524:16.5
502:11.1
419:InGaP
300:wafer
274:(13%)
264:(82%)
126:, or
2790:ISBN
2762:2018
2692:ISBN
2668:ISBN
2599:ISSN
2537:ISSN
2493:ISSN
2434:ISBN
2309:ISSN
2218:ISSN
2171:ISSN
2127:ISSN
2048:ISSN
1997:ISSN
1913:ISSN
1791:ISSN
1744:ISSN
1697:ISSN
1644:ISBN
1601:ISSN
1564:2018
1539:link
1525:2015
1485:2024
1424:2014
1387:2014
1357:2021
1338:ISSN
1295:2021
1207:2014
920:any
918:cite
723:lead
711:CdTe
703:CIGS
614:The
542:CIGS
520:CdTe
505:6.3
498:a-Si
471:(A)
460:(V)
449:(%)
372:for
356:CIGS
352:CdTe
252:CIGS
242:a-Si
232:CdTe
163:CIGS
159:CdTe
46:c-Si
44:or (
3926:REC
2966:hdl
2958:doi
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2923:doi
2882:doi
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2645:doi
2591:doi
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