Economies of scale

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competition, has been called the 'Cournot dilemma'. As Mario Morroni observes, Cournot's dilemma appears to be unsolvable if we only consider the effects of economies of scale on the dimension of scale. If, on the other hand, the analysis is expanded, including the aspects concerning the development of knowledge and the organization of transactions, it is possible to conclude that economies of scale do not always lead to monopoly. In fact, the competitive advantages deriving from the development of the firm's capabilities and from the management of transactions with suppliers and customers can counterbalance those provided by the scale, thus counteracting the tendency towards a monopoly inherent in economies of scale. In other words, the heterogeneity of the organizational forms and of the size of the companies operating in a sector of activity can be determined by factors regarding the quality of the products, the production flexibility, the contractual methods, the learning opportunities, the heterogeneity of preferences of customers who express a differentiated demand with respect to the quality of the product, and assistance before and after the sale. Very different organizational forms can therefore co-exist in the same sector of activity, even in the presence of economies of scale, such as, for example, flexible production on a large scale, small-scale flexible production, mass production, industrial production based on rigid technologies associated with flexible organizational systems and traditional artisan production. The considerations regarding economies of scale are therefore important, but not sufficient to explain the size of the company and the market structure. It is also necessary to take into account the factors linked to the development of capabilities and the management of transaction costs.

2721:, extensively analyzed economies of scale and concludes that they are one of the factors underlying the ever-increasing concentration of capital. Marx observes that in the capitalist system the technical conditions of the work process are continuously revolutionized in order to increase the surplus by improving the productive force of work. According to Marx, with the cooperation of many workers brings about an economy in the use of the means of production and an increase in productivity due to the increase in the division of labour. Furthermore, the increase in the size of the machinery allows significant savings in construction, installation and operation costs. The tendency to exploit economies of scale entails a continuous increase in the volume of production which, in turn, requires a constant expansion of the size of the market. However, if the market does not expand at the same rate as production increases, overproduction crises can occur. According to Marx the capitalist system is therefore characterized by two tendencies, connected to economies of scale: towards a growing concentration and towards economic crises due to overproduction. 2643:. This relationship is therefore expressed in "physical" terms. But when talking about economies of scale, the relation taken into consideration is that between the average production cost and the dimension of scale. Economies of scale therefore are affected by variations in input prices. If input prices remain the same as their quantities purchased by the firm increase, the notions of increasing returns to scale and economies of scale can be considered equivalent. However, if input prices vary in relation to their quantities purchased by the company, it is necessary to distinguish between returns to scale and economies of scale. The concept of economies of scale is more general than that of returns to scale since it includes the possibility of changes in the price of inputs when the quantity purchased of inputs varies with changes in the scale of production. 2531:). Growth economies emerge if a company gains an added benefit by expanding its size. These economies are due to the presence of some resource or competence that is not fully utilized, or to the existence of specific market positions that create a differential advantage in expanding the size of the firms. That growth economies disappear once the scale size expansion process is completed. For example, a company that owns a supermarket chain benefits from an economy of growth if, opening a new supermarket, it gets an increase in the price of the land it owns around the new supermarket. The sale of these lands to economic operators, who wish to open shops near the supermarket, allows the company in question to make a profit, making a profit on the revaluation of the value of building land. 2590:

Firms with higher productivity will always outperform a firm with lower productivity which will lead to lower sales. Through trade liberalization, organizations are able to drop their trade costs due to export growth. However, trade liberalization does not account for any tariff reduction or shipping logistics improvement. However, total economies of scale is based on the exporters individual frequency and size. So large-scale companies are more likely to have a lower cost per unit as opposed to small-scale companies. Likewise, high trade frequency companies are able to reduce their overall cost attributed per unit when compared to those of low-trade frequency companies.

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However, "those economies which are external from the point of view of the individual firm, but internal as regards the industry in its aggregate, constitute precisely the class which is most seldom to be met with." "In any case - Sraffa notes – in so far as external economies of the kind in question exist, they are not linked to be called forth by small increases in production," as required by the marginalist theory of price. Sraffa points out that, in the equilibrium theory of the individual industries, the presence of external economies cannot play an important role because this theory is based on marginal changes in the quantities produced.

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indivisible. However, the economies of scale due to the increase in size do not depend on indivisibility but exclusively on the three-dimensionality of space. Indeed, indivisibility only entails the existence of economies of scale produced by the balancing of productive capacities, considered above; or of increasing returns in the utilisation of a single plant, due to its more efficient use as the quantity produced increases. However, this latter phenomenon has nothing to do with the economies of scale which, by definition, are linked to the use of a larger plant.

2480:. A larger scale generally determines greater bargaining power over input prices and therefore benefits from pecuniary economies in terms of purchasing raw materials and intermediate goods compared to companies that make orders for smaller amounts. In this case, we speak of pecuniary economies, to highlight the fact that nothing changes from the "physical" point of view of the returns to scale. Furthermore, supply contracts entail fixed costs which lead to decreasing average costs if the scale of production increases. This is of important utility in the study of 941: 2853: 2289:". There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale: internal and external. An industry that exhibits an internal economy of scale is one where the costs of production fall when the number of firms in the industry drops, but the remaining firms increase their production to match previous levels. Conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery. 54: 2650:, and in order to compensate for lower prices and lower margins, suppliers seek higher volumes to maintain or increase the total revenue. Buyers, in turn, benefit from the lower transaction costs and economies of scale that result from larger volumes. In part as a result, numerous studies have indicated that the procurement volume must be sufficiently high to provide sufficient profits to attract enough suppliers, and provide buyers with enough savings to cover their additional costs. 5603: 6125: 5381: 22: 1737: 881: 5370: 2902: 869: 2658:

They noted, however, that their data included a wide range of products, and the degree of competition in each market varied significantly, and offer that further research on this issue should be conducted to determine whether these findings remain the same when purchasing the same product for both small and high volumes. Keeping competitive factors constant, increasing auction volume may further increase competition.

6137: 2615:, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function. Homogeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one. 2628:

up the input's per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.

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It has been noted that in many industrial sectors there are numerous companies with different sizes and organizational structures, despite the presence of significant economies of scale. This contradiction, between the empirical evidence and the logical incompatibility between economies of scale and

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External economies of scale tend to be more prevalent than internal economies of scale. Through the external economies of scale, the entry of new firms benefits all existing competitors as it creates greater competition and also reduces the average cost for all firms as opposed to internal economies

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and others have considered "the internal economies apparently without noticing that their premises lead inevitably to the conclusion that, whatever firm first gets a good start will obtain a monopoly of the whole business of its trade … ". Marshall believes that there are factors that limit this

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As for large landed property, its defenders have always sophistically identified the economic advantages offered by large-scale agriculture with large-scale landed property, as if it were not precisely as a result of the abolition of property that this advantage, for one thing, received its greatest

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If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified. For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives

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If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale if and only if it has increasing returns to

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noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be waste. Marx cited the chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products. In the pulp and

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Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant capacity. This is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the

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Heat loss from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in a relationship somewhat similar to the square–cube law. In some productions, an increase in the size of the plant reduces the average variable cost, thanks to the energy savings resulting from the lower

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Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch grades frequently. They will, therefore, avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from

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are at the base of dynamic economies of scale, associated with the process of growth of the scale dimension and not to the dimension of scale per se. Learning by doing implies improvements in the ability to perform and promotes the introduction of incremental innovations with a progressive lowering

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observes that economies of scale have historically been associated with an increasing concentration of private wealth and have been used to justify such concentration. Marx points out that concentrated private ownership of large-scale economic enterprises is a historically contingent fact, and not

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Economies of increased dimension are often misinterpreted because of the confusion between indivisibility and three-dimensionality of space. This confusion arises from the fact that three-dimensional production elements, such as pipes and ovens, once installed and operating, are always technically

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by public sector buyers, that the higher auction volume, or economies of scale, did not lead to better success of the auction. They found that auction volume did not correlate with competition, nor with the number of bidders, suggesting that auction volume does not promote additional competition.

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Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to scale. Where economies of scale refer to a firm's costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A

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Many administrative and organizational activities are mostly cognitive and, therefore, largely independent of the scale of production. When the size of the company and the division of labour increase, there are a number of advantages due to the possibility of making organizational management more

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Economies of productive capacity balancing derives from the possibility that a larger scale of production involves a more efficient use of the production capacities of the individual phases of the production process. If the inputs are indivisible and complementary, a small scale may be subject to

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observes that Marshall, in order to justify the operation of the law of increasing returns without it coming into conflict with the hypothesis of free competition, tended to highlight the advantages of external economies linked to an increase in the production of an entire sector of activity.

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Firms differ in their labor productivity and the quality of their products, so more efficient firms are more likely to generate more net income abroad and thus become exporters of their goods or services. There is a correlating relationship between a firm's total sales and underlying efficiency.

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Large and more productive firms typically generate enough net revenues abroad to cover the fixed costs associated with exporting. However, in the event of trade liberalization, resources will have to be reallocated toward the more productive firm, which raises the average productivity within the

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A larger scale allows for a more efficient division of labour. The economies of division of labour derive from the increase in production speed, from the possibility of using specialized personnel and adopting more efficient techniques. An increase in the division of labour inevitably leads to

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At the base of economies of scale there are also returns to scale linked to statistical factors. In fact, the greater of the number of resources involved, the smaller, in proportion, is the quantity of reserves necessary to cope with unforeseen contingencies (for instance, machine spare parts,

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Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity. (Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc. and does not include passenger service personnel.) Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or "stretched" to

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Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale. A crude estimate is that if the capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the 0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the point six to the power rule).

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Association, applied to land, shares the economic advantage of large-scale landed property, and first brings to realization the original tendency inherent in land-division, namely, equality. In the same way association re-establishes, now on a rational basis, no longer mediated by serfdom,

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Economies of scale arise in a variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a production, plant or an entire enterprise. When average costs start falling as output increases, then economies of scale occur. Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of

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loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed.

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is maintained, economies of scale should be excluded. He then suggests the possibility of abandoning the assumption of free competition to address the study of firms that have their own particular market. This stimulated a whole series of studies on the cases of

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In practice, capital cost estimates are prepared from specifications, budget grade vendor pricing for equipment, general arrangement drawings and materials take-offs from the drawings. This information is then used in cost formulas to arrive at a final detailed

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idle times or to the underutilization of the productive capacity of some sub-processes. A higher production scale can make the different production capacities compatible. The reduction in machinery idle times is crucial in the case of a high cost of machinery.

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Economies of scale is a concept that may explain patterns in international trade or in the number of firms in a given market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for

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Landes describes the problem of new steel mills in late 19th century Britain being too large for the market and unable to economically produce short production runs of specialty grades. The old mills had another advantage in that they were fully

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to have its own carmaker if they only sold to their local market. A lone carmaker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a

2437:, by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the cube. This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and airplanes. 2757:

overlordship and the silly mysticism of property, the intimate ties of man with the earth, for the earth ceases to be an object of huckstering, and through free labor and free enjoyment becomes once more a true personal property of man.

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Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber,

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New ed. with Appendices by Léon Walras, Joseph Bertrand and Vilfredo Pareto, Introduction and notes by Georges Lutfalla, Paris: Librairie des Sciences Politiques et Sociales Marcel Rivière, 1938. English translation:

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In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity.

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of output enables an increase in scale that is, increased production with lowered cost. At the basis of economies of scale, there may be technical, statistical, organizational or related factors to the degree of

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in the output market the long-run equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale).

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commodity-grade production to specialty products. Economies of scale must be distinguished from economies stemming from an increase in the production of a given plant. When a plant is used below its optimal

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complexity of the operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity.

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The cost of a unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases. Also, the efficiency increases with size.

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Firms might be able to lower their average costs by improving their management structure within the firm. This can range from hiring better skilled or more experienced managers from the industry.

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effective and perfecting accounting and control techniques. Furthermore, the procedures and routines that turned out to be the best can be reproduced by managers at different times and places.

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scale, has diseconomies of scale if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale. In this case, with

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See various estimating guides that publish tables of tasks commonly encountered in building trades with estimates of labor hours and costs per hour for the trade, often with regional pricing.

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The effects of external economies, that is the particular type of economies of scale connected not to the production scale of an individual production unit, but to that of an entire sector.

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Manufacture of specialty grades by small scale producers is a common practice in steel, paper, and many commodity industries today. See various industry trade publications.

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is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship products uneconomic distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a higher defect rate.

2697:(On the economics of machines and manufactories), widely analyses the relationships between increasing returns and scale of production all inside the production unit. 2158: 2280:

policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular country—for example, it would not be efficient for

3259:, pp. 11, 31–32 shows how these economies of scale in the acquisition of specialized knowledge play an essential role in the existence of the company. 2820:). In this book, Sraffa determines relative prices assuming no changes in output, so that no question arises as to the variation or constancy of returns. 4213: 2886:

Technological advancements change production processes and subsequently reduce the overall cost per unit. Tim Hindle argues that the rollout of the

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Baumgartner, Kerstin; Fuetterer, André; Thoneman, Ulrich W (2012). "Supply chain design considering economies of scale and transport frequencies".

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in Cambridge. However, in the succeeding years Sraffa followed a different path of research that brought him to write and publish his main work

5485: 4299:]. Vol. 3. Translated by Fernbach, David B.; introduced by Mandel, Ernest. London: Penguin Books in association with New Left Review. 2870:

Firms are able to lower their average costs by buying their inputs required for the production process in bulk or from special wholesalers.

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if more than double the output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production function is

6267: 6095: 3700: 2726: 2248:(bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower- 1320: 4483: 2975:

See various estimating guides, such as Means. Also see various engineering economics texts related to plant design and construction, etc.

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The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size. Common sources of economies of scale are

2151: 1949: 911: 843: 6237: 1964: 5251: 2946: 5679: 4750: 4537:. Translated by Pasinetti, L.L. (1998 ed.). Bologna: Società Italiana degli Economisti, Oxford University Press, Il Mulino. 2306: 6140: 2603:

returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns are

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the death of the founder of the firm and the difficulty that the successors may have inherited his/her entrepreneurial skills;

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of scale which only allows benefits to the individual firm. Advantages that arise from external economies of scale include;

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capable of generating economies of scale, both in a static and dynamic sense, was that contained in the famous First Book of

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are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation, and are typically measured by the amount of

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Instead of concentrated private ownership of land, Marx recommends that economies of scale should instead be realized by

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Shalev, Moshe Eitan; Asbjornsen, Stee (2010). "Electronic Reverse Auctions and the Public Sector – Factors of Success".

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Levin, Richard C.; Klevorick, Alvin K.; Nelson, Richard R.; Winter, Sidney G. (1987). Baily, M.N.; Winston, C. (eds.).

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of producing two quantities of a product X is lower when a single firm instead of two separate firms produce it. See

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Gelles, Gregory M.; Mitchell, Douglas W. (1996). "Returns to Scale and Economies of Scale: Further Observations".

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The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present

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essential to the nature of such enterprises. In the case of agriculture, for example, Marx calls attention to the

6100: 5890: 2095: 1455: 1240: 991: 904: 6161: 6129: 5804: 5403: 4076: 3334: 6368: 6317: 2519: 2105: 1721: 1375: 242: 3974:(1979). "The division of labor in the economy, the polity, and society". In O’Driscoll, Gerald P. Jr (ed.). 504: 6327: 6247: 5471: 5457: 4942: 4743: 2057: 2037: 1994: 1984: 1909: 1869: 1040: 1006: 4722: 3894:"Computational Experiment Approach to Controlled Evolution of Procurement Pattern in Cluster Supply Chain" 6212: 5825: 5478: 5236: 5188: 4876: 4282:]. Vol. 1. Translated by Fowkes, Ben. London: Penguin Books in association with New Left Review. 4156: 1954: 1684: 1010: 960: 853: 73: 63: 2228:, increases in its degree of utilization bring about decreases in the total average cost of production. 6322: 5759: 5582: 4898: 4886: 4881: 4871: 2784:

the growing difficulty of being able to adapt to changes in demand and to new techniques of production;

2042: 1701: 1199: 897: 847: 377: 367: 4654:"A scale elasticity measure for directional distance function and its dual: Theory and DEA estimation" 2823: 2653:

However, Shalev and Asbjornse found, in their research based on 139 reverse auctions conducted in the

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charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments),

579: 6110: 5835: 5830: 5639: 5443: 5384: 5281: 5276: 5226: 5099: 4977: 4736: 2297: 2213: 1926: 1853: 1760: 1500: 1490: 1460: 1340: 1325: 1290: 1210: 1205: 1105: 529: 337: 327: 287: 277: 184: 107: 4678: 3282: 6332: 6262: 6085: 5978: 5875: 5301: 5261: 5256: 5038: 5009: 4866: 4788: 3326: 3243:, pp. 7, 17–8 On the relationship between built-in technical change and scale growth, see 3057: 2477: 2072: 2062: 2022: 2004: 1899: 1805: 1798: 1485: 1415: 1405: 1385: 1370: 1300: 1270: 1190: 1095: 699: 544: 282: 222: 179: 126: 3844: 3658: 3496: 3472: 3122: 3116: 2196:

manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation and industrial equipment, have a

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of average costs. Learning economies are directly proportional to the cumulative production (

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Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the

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Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities. Prelude to a Critique of Economic Theory

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and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor.

1565: 8: 6337: 6257: 5311: 5138: 4987: 4930: 4773: 4632: 4555:. Vol. 2 (2003 ed.). Cheltenham: An Elgar Reference Collection. pp. 3–43. 3429:"The Impact of Trade on Intra-industry Reallocations and Aggregate Industry Productivity" 2804: 2620: 2434: 2225: 2067: 1999: 1585: 1330: 1230: 1068: 1055: 810: 619: 441: 382: 307: 297: 267: 194: 102: 4260: 3140: 479: 6059: 5794: 5464: 5221: 5167: 5094: 5004: 4962: 4952: 4920: 4915: 4861: 4698: 4598: 4590: 4364: 4244: 4236: 4200: 4168: 4121: 3864: 3818: 3584: 3561: 3351: 2941: 2921: 2672: 2640: 2189: 1894: 1840: 1753: 1395: 1390: 1310: 1265: 1215: 1185: 1165: 1025: 1002: 838: 794: 599: 436: 431: 411: 362: 302: 292: 237: 232: 204: 199: 169: 37: 2739:

nature of the arguments used to justify the system of concentrated ownership of land:

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Adam Smith and Modern Political Economy. Bicentennial Essays on the Wealth of Nations

3930: 3868: 3654: 3606: 3492: 3262: 3126: 3093: 3061: 3050: 2684: 2481: 2118: 1969: 1814: 1613: 1557: 1537: 1495: 1475: 1305: 1295: 1225: 1075: 1020: 729: 704: 614: 494: 451: 387: 352: 342: 174: 136: 92: 4248: 2236:(1972) both argue that these economies should not be treated as economies of scale. 1577: 654: 6272: 6232: 6029: 6019: 5880: 5704: 5689: 5669: 5654: 5624: 5306: 5286: 5193: 5143: 5114: 4972: 4937: 4834: 4812: 4690: 4665: 4602: 4582: 4470: 4420: 4356: 4228: 4192: 4113: 4097: 3905: 3856: 3810: 3557: 3553: 3526: 3484: 3443: 3343: 2907: 2690: 2632: 2441: 2428: 2286: 2261: 2052: 1979: 1665: 1625: 1569: 1425: 1380: 1335: 1280: 1220: 1135: 1100: 1050: 940: 779: 724: 709: 694: 679: 609: 589: 569: 524: 397: 347: 317: 312: 2497:

Economies resulting from the division of labour and the use of superior techniques

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and to recover the spent pulping chemicals for conversion back to a usable form.

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paper industry, it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce

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Scherer, F.M. (2000). "Professor Sutton's 'Technology and market structure'".

3860: 2736: 2693:, in Chapter IX of the First Book of his Principles, referring to the work of 539: 6362: 5908: 5850: 5769: 5764: 5734: 5271: 5171: 5162: 5133: 5119: 5109: 5053: 4817: 4807: 4797: 4679:"Scale efficiency and homotheticity: equivalence of primal and dual measures" 4376: 3971: 3579: 2700: 2654: 2281: 1629: 1617: 1601: 1597: 1523: 1035: 981: 769: 759: 734: 674: 669: 664: 644: 634: 604: 594: 499: 402: 5602: 4474: 3814: 3447: 53: 6054: 6024: 6009: 5973: 5885: 5774: 5699: 5694: 5552: 5241: 5073: 5068: 4802: 4628: 4570: 4530: 4515: 2984:

The relationship is rather complex. See engineering texts on heat transfer.

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possible extension, and, for another, only then would be of social benefit.

2257: 2180: 1825: 1621: 1573: 885: 799: 744: 639: 629: 624: 549: 97: 3799:"External economies of scale in the Lancashire cotton industry, 1900–1950" 6044: 6004: 5983: 5918: 5744: 5512: 5507: 5266: 5178: 5058: 4910: 4824: 2890:"has completely reshaped the assumptions underlying economies of scale". 2824:

Economies of scale and the tendency towards monopoly: "Cournot's dilemma"

2749: 2708: 2661: 1874: 1637: 1609: 1581: 1465: 1420: 1150: 1125: 774: 764: 554: 189: 6153: 3619: 6282: 5943: 5870: 5865: 5799: 5749: 5572: 5562: 5542: 5026: 4778: 4594: 4503: 4368: 4240: 4204: 4172: 4117: 3822: 3798: 3565: 3488: 3355: 3302: 3204:"Economies of Scale - Definition, Types, Effects of Economies of Scale" 3092:. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. 2680: 2293: 2277: 2269: 2201: 1879: 1830: 1170: 1090: 1015: 684: 484: 4034:

Recherches sur les Principes Mathématiques de la Théorie des Richesses

3910: 3893: 6096:

Timeline of clothing and textiles technology

5577: 5547: 5527: 5337: 5104: 5021: 5016: 4829: 4288: 4271: 2731: 2714: 2607:

if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and

2569: 2256:(spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in 2253: 2217: 2184: 1889: 1810: 1589: 1545: 932: 534: 465: 45: 26: 21: 4586: 4573:(December 1926). "The law of returns under competitive conditions". 4360: 4232: 4214:"Appropriating the returns from industrial research and development" 4196: 3723: 3347: 5855: 5845: 5129: 5124: 4999: 4056:

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Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes

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Silvestre, Joaquim (1987). "Economies and Diseconomies of Scale".

1736: 6039: 5928: 5680:

Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater

5567: 5537: 5183: 5082: 4994: 4728: 3677: 1884: 976: 3118:

The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business

2429:

Physical and engineering basis: economies of increased dimension

5517: 5369: 5158: 4533:(1998). "On the relations between cost and quantity produced". 3978:. Uckfield: The Iowa State University Press. pp. 153–164. 2901: 2264:

in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the

868: 4508:

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

4089:

Knowledge and Investment. The Source of Innovation in Industry

3735: 2580: 5913: 5557: 5043: 4925: 4905: 4183:(December 1972). "The irrelevance of equilibrium economics". 3780: 3778: 2666: 2646:

The literature assumed that due to the competitive nature of

6081:

History of the British canal system

3929:(1 ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 174–199. 3665: 3516: 3396: 3137:

Chandler uses the example of high turn over in distribution.

2488:

Economies deriving from the balancing of production capacity

5532: 5502: 5425: 5200: 4325:

Knowledge, Scale and Transactions in the Theory of the Firm

4069:

The Economics of the Business Firm. Seven Critical Comments

4014:(4 ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 2462: 2413:{\displaystyle TC((Q_{1}+Q_{2})X)<TC(Q_{1}X)+TC(Q_{2}X)} 4211: 3887: 3885: 3775: 3377:

See various engineering handbooks and manufacturers' data.

3292: 3184: 3056:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 3021:"Economies of Scale: What Are They and How Are They Used?" 2701:

Economies of scale in Marx and distributional consequences

2593: 29:

decreases from C to C1. LRAC is the long-run average cost.

6091:

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The Neoclassical Theory of Production & Distribution

6015:

History of the cooperative Movement

3882: 3640: 3638: 2781:

the difficulty of reaching new markets for one's goods;

2671:

The first systematic analysis of the advantages of the

3218: 3044: 2845:

Benefits most or all of the firms within the industry.

2662:

Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis

25:

As quantity of production increases from Q to Q2, the

3408: 3121:. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 2423: 2309: 4442:

Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance

3845:"External Economies of Scale and Insufficient Entry" 3763: 3751: 3635: 2897: 4095: 3172: 2635:refer to the variation in the relationship between 2197: 4488:. Vol. 2. London: Macmillan. pp. 80–84. 4439: 4424: 3796: 3583: 2412: 2814:Production of commodities by means of commodities 2761: 6360: 4132: 3644: 3466: 3464: 2514: 2216:. A common limit for a low cost per unit weight 6106:Timeline of materials technology 4383:(3 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4345:"Economies of Scale in Multi-Output Production" 4343:Panzar, John; Willig, Robert D. (August 1977). 3964: 3927:Innovations, Technology, and Economies of Scale 3327:"Economies of Scale: Some Statistical Evidence" 2564: 16:Cost advantages obtained via scale of operation 5891:Stockton and Darlington Railway 4431:Inside the Black Box. Technology and Economics 4140:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 3797:Broadberry, Stephen; Marrison, Andrew (2002). 3543: 3473:"Economies of Scale and the Size of Exporters" 2848:Can lead to rapid growth of local governments. 2832: 2502:changes in the quality of inputs and outputs. 6169: 5411: 4744: 4608: 4550: 3892:Xue, Xiao; Wang, Shufang; Lu, Baoyun (2015). 3470: 3461: 2534: 2152: 1761: 905: 4342: 3999:On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures 3701:Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 3477:Journal of the European Economic Association 2803:Sraffa concludes that, if the hypothesis of 2706: 4485:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics 4086: 3694: 3692: 3244: 2856:Graph Depicting External Economies of Scale 2581:Economies of scale and the size of exporter 2440:In structural engineering, the strength of 6176: 6162: 5418: 5404: 4751: 4737: 3849:Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade 2774:trend toward monopoly, and in particular: 2667:Economies of scale in classical economists 2444:increases with the cube of the thickness. 2270:short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve 2260:), and technological (taking advantage of 2159: 2145: 1768: 1754: 939: 912: 898: 6183: 4637:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4481: 4419: 4327:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4308:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4138:Analytical Economics: Issues and Problems 4071:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3924: 3909: 3891: 3842: 3414: 3402: 3386: 3288: 2468:inventories, circulating capital, etc.). 5725:John Kay (spinning frame) 5720:John Kay (flying shuttle) 5655:Thomas and George Cranege 4719:by The Linux Information Project (LINFO) 4676: 4658:European Journal of Operational Research 4651: 4433:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4415:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4407: 4403:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4297:Capital. A Critique to Political Economy 4280:Capital. A Critique to Political Economy 4255: 4012:Economic Theory and Operational Analysis 3729: 3713: 3689: 3600: 3519:European Journal of Operational Research 3146: 3114: 2851: 2471: 2463:Economies in holding stocks and reserves 20: 4510:. Vol. 2. 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The economic concept dates back to 6136: 4399:Pratten, Clifford Frederick (1991). 4381:The Theory of the Growth of the Firm 4287: 4270: 3683: 3671: 3393:<Specifically mentions ships.> 2791: 2727:Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts 4535:Italian Economic Papers. Volume III 4463:The Journal of Industrial Economics 3951:Guide to Management Ideas and Gurus 13: 5307:Microfoundations of macroeconomics 4758: 4609:Kurz, H.D.; Salvadori, N. (2003). 4551:Kurz, H.D.; Salvadori, N. (2003). 4401:The Competitiveness of Small Firms 4349:The Quarterly Journal of Economics 4100:; Lovell, C. A. Knox (June 1986). 4060:Repr. New York: A.M. Kelley, 1971. 2424:Determinants of economies of scale 14: 6380: 6323:History of electrical engineering 5640:Isambard Kingdom Brunel 4710: 2131:Outline of prehistoric technology 2043:History of electrical engineering 6135: 6124: 6123: 5876:Portsmouth Block Mills 5601: 5380: 5379: 5368: 4683:Journal of Productivity Analysis 4265:(8 ed.). London: Macmillan. 3115:Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). 2900: 2881: 2181:output produced per unit of time 1735: 879: 867: 52: 6101:Timeline of invention 6076:History of technology 5939:Newcomen steam engine 5715:Joseph Marie Jacquard 3943: 3918: 3836: 3790: 3707: 3594: 3572: 3537: 3510: 3420: 3371: 3362: 3325:Moore, Fredrick T. (May 1959). 3318: 3250: 3230: 3196: 3052:Economics: Principles in Action 2987: 2096:Timeline of historic inventions 1321:Peace, war, and social conflict 154:Concepts, theory and techniques 6196:History of technology cultures 5861:Derwent Valley Mills 5730:Francis Cabot Lowell 4036:(in French). Paris: Hachette. 3558:10.1080/00220485.1996.10844915 3335:Quarterly Journal of Economics 3108: 3081: 3048:; Sheffrin, Steven M. 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S. (1969). 2860: 2842:Expansion of the industry. 2535:Capital and operating cost 992:Human environmental impact 6291: 6191: 6119: 6068: 5997: 5899: 5818: 5665:Abraham Darby I 5610: 5599: 5495: 5438: 5363: 5330: 5209: 4766: 4695:10.1007/s11123-013-0361-z 4052:Cournot, Antoine Augustin 4030:Cournot, Antoine Augustin 3861:10.1007/s10842-010-0069-y 2230:Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen 2106:Complete list by category 27:average cost of each unit 6308:History of communication 6303:History of biotechnology 5979:Stephenson's Rocket 4943:Income–consumption curve 4161:American Economic Review 3674:, pp. 432–442, 469. 3601:Ferguson, C. E. (1969). 2953: 2771:Antoine Augustin Cournot 2599:production function has 2478:reduce transaction costs 2101:Technological revolution 2048:History of manufacturing 2033:History of communication 2028:History of biotechnology 1086:Structural functionalism 142:JEL classification codes 5795:Richard Trevithick 5277:Industrial organization 4475:10.1111/1467-6451.00120 4323:Morroni, Mario (2006). 4304:Morroni, Mario (1992). 4262:Principles of Economics 3815:10.1111/1468-0289.00214 3590:. Dordrecht: D. Reidel. 3448:10.1111/1468-0262.00467 3427:Melitz, Marc J (2003). 2272:down and to the right. 2214:pulp and paper industry 1854:Proto-industrialization 1106:Symbolic interactionism 1001:Industrial revolutions 328:Industrial organization 185:Computational economics 6333:History of measurement 6203:Prehistoric technology 6050:Rochdale Pioneers 6035:Industrial unrest 5841:Bridgewater Canal 5785:Robert Stephenson 5780:George Stephenson 5755:William Radcliffe 5710:Benjamin Huntsman 5685:William Fairbairn 5645:Edmund Cartwright 5620:Richard Arkwright 5523:Industry/Manufacturing 4438:Scherer, F.M. (1980). 3957:/Profile Books: London 2857: 2707: 2414: 2266:long run average costs 2063:History of measurement 2023:History of agriculture 1990:Medieval Islamic world 1900:Digital transformation 1096:Social constructionism 180:Experimental economics 30: 6278:Industrial Revolution 6185:History of technology 6020:Cottage industry 5705:Eaton Hodgkinson 5690:James Hargreaves 5625:Thomas Boulsover 5247:Engineering economics 4842:Cost–benefit analysis 4677:Zelenyuk, V. (2014). 4652:Zelenyuk, V. (2013). 4528:English translation: 2855: 2810:imperfect competition 2472:Transaction economies 2415: 2206:Diseconomies of scale 2126:Outline of technology 2017:By type of technology 1944:By historical regions 1932:Emerging technologies 1792:By technological eras 1784:History of technology 1471:Conversation analysis 1046:Social stratification 24: 6369:Production economics 6348:History of transport 6313:History of computing 5959:Sheffield plate 5760:Richard Roberts 5740:Thomas Newcomen 5660:Samuel Crompton 5630:Matthew Boulton 5588:Economies of density 5064:Price discrimination 4958:Intertemporal choice 4575:The Economic Journal 4185:The Economic Journal 4106:Journal of Economics 4091:. cheltenham: Elgar. 4008:Baumol, William Jack 3586:Theory of Production 2917:Economies of density 2506:Managerial economics 2455:dispersion of heat. 2307: 2090:Technology timelines 2078:History of transport 1821:Neolithic Revolution 407:Social choice theory 6338:History of medicine 5969:Spinning jenny 5964:Spinning frame 5934:Flying shuttle 5924:Crucible steel 5805:John Wilkinson 5790:Thomas Telford 5635:James Brindley 5375:Business portal 5312:Operations research 5139:Substitution effect 4725:by Economics Online 4426:"Learning by using" 3949:Hindle, T. (2008), 3787:, pp. 253–256. 3716:, 380, note 1; cf. 3632:, pp. 164–165. 3405:, pp. 127–128. 3311:, pp. 99–101; 3293:Levin et al. (1987) 3275:, pp. 92 ff.; 3193:, pp. 170–171. 3169:, pp. 169–170. 2805:perfect competition 2621:perfect competition 2226:production capacity 2068:History of medicine 1960:Indian subcontinent 1056:Social cycle theory 927:Part of a series on 874:Business portal 195:Operations research 175:National accounting 6060:Industrial warfare 5909:Blast furnace 5770:Samuel Slater 5765:Thomas Savery 5735:Lunar Society 5593:Economies of scale 4953:Indifference curve 4921:Goods and services 4862:Economies of scope 4857:Economies of scale 4723:Economies of Scale 4520:Annali di Economia 4191:(328): 1237–1255. 4118:10.1007/BF01229228 3925:Rajagopal (2014). 3489:10.1111/jeea.12108 3245:Evangelista (1999) 3153:, pp. 82–83; 3149:, pp. 22–23; 3046:O'Sullivan, Arthur 2942:Regulatory capture 2922:Economies of scope 2858: 2673:division of labour 2557:increase payload. 2410: 2208:are the opposite. 2177:economies of scale 2005:Renaissance Europe 1742:Society portal 1365:History of science 1346:Race and ethnicity 1026:Social environment 205:Industrial complex 200:Middle income trap 31: 6356: 6355: 6151: 6150: 6025:Factory Acts 6010:Child labour 5974:Steam engine 5886:Soho Foundry 5775:John Smeaton 5700:Thomas Highs 5695:Hawks family 5393: 5392: 5355:Political economy 5154:Supply and demand 5034:Pareto efficiency 4620:978-1-84064-439-5 4562:978-1-84064-439-5 4495:978-0-333-37235-7 4421:Rosenberg, Nathan 4098:Grosskopf, Shawna 4002:. London: Knight. 3936:978-1-137-36678-8 3911:10.3390/su7021516 3720:, pp. 96 ff. 3612:978-0-521-07453-7 3157:, pp. 16–17. 3099:978-0-521-09418-4 3067:978-0-13-063085-8 2792:Sraffa's critique 2685:political economy 2677:Wealth of Nations 2482:corporate finance 2169: 2168: 1975:Hellenistic world 1970:Maya civilization 1778: 1777: 1496:Social experiment 1376:Social psychology 1021:Social complexity 922: 921: 6376: 6273:Great Divergence 6178: 6171: 6164: 6155: 6154: 6139: 6138: 6127: 6126: 6030:Great Divergence 5984:Water frame 5919:Cotton mill 5745:Robert Owen 5605: 5573:Water power 5553:Steam power 5508:Coal mining 5486:Potential future 5420: 5413: 5406: 5397: 5396: 5383: 5382: 5373: 5372: 5115:Returns to scale 4973:Market structure 4753: 4746: 4739: 4730: 4729: 4706: 4673: 4648: 4624: 4606: 4581:(144): 535–550. 4566: 4548: 4527: 4511: 4499: 4478: 4457: 4445: 4434: 4428: 4416: 4409:Robinson, Austin 4404: 4394: 4372: 4338: 4319: 4300: 4283: 4266: 4257:Marshall, Alfred 4252: 4218: 4208: 4181:Kaldor, Nicholas 4176: 4151: 4129: 4092: 4082: 4059: 4047: 4025: 4003: 3994:Babbage, Charles 3989: 3958: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3904:(1): 1516–1541. 3889: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3749: 3739: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3711: 3705: 3696: 3687: 3681: 3675: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3642: 3633: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3468: 3459: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3442:(6): 1695–1725. 3433: 3424: 3418: 3415:Rosenberg (1982) 3412: 3406: 3403:Rosenberg (1982) 3400: 3394: 3384: 3378: 3375: 3369: 3366: 3360: 3359: 3331: 3322: 3316: 3306: 3300: 3289:Rosenberg (1982) 3286: 3280: 3279:, pp. 31–2. 3266: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3144: 3138: 3136: 3112: 3106: 3103: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3055: 3042: 3036: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3017: 2995: 2991: 2985: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2967: 2964: 2910: 2908:Economics portal 2905: 2904: 2712: 2691:John Stuart Mill 2648:reverse auctions 2633:returns to scale 2529:experience curve 2524:growth economies 2419: 2417: 2416: 2411: 2403: 2402: 2375: 2374: 2344: 2343: 2331: 2330: 2287:natural monopoly 2262:returns to scale 2183:. A decrease in 2161: 2154: 2147: 2053:Maritime history 1985:Byzantine Empire 1780: 1779: 1770: 1763: 1756: 1740: 1739: 1491:Network analysis 1381:Sociocybernetics 1371:Social movements 1101:Social darwinism 1051:Social structure 943: 924: 923: 914: 907: 900: 886:Money portal 884: 883: 882: 872: 871: 368:Natural resource 160:Economic systems 56: 33: 32: 6384: 6383: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6374: 6373: 6359: 6358: 6357: 6352: 6287: 6258:Medieval Europe 6187: 6182: 6152: 6147: 6115: 6064: 5993: 5944:Power loom 5901: 5895: 5871:New Lanark 5814: 5810:John Wyatt 5800:James Watt 5750:Lewis Paul 5650:Henry Cort 5612: 5606: 5597: 5491: 5434: 5424: 5394: 5389: 5367: 5359: 5326: 5205: 4847:Deadweight loss 4784:Consumer choice 4762: 4757: 4713: 4645: 4621: 4587:10.2307/2959866 4563: 4545: 4496: 4454: 4391: 4361:10.2307/1885979 4335: 4316: 4233:10.2307/2534454 4216: 4197:10.2307/2231304 4148: 4079: 4065:Demsetz, Harold 4044: 4022: 3986: 3967: 3962: 3961: 3948: 3944: 3937: 3923: 3919: 3890: 3883: 3873: 3871: 3841: 3837: 3827: 3825: 3795: 3791: 3783: 3776: 3768: 3764: 3756: 3752: 3740: 3736: 3730:Marshall (1890) 3728: 3724: 3714:Marshall (1890) 3712: 3708: 3697: 3690: 3682: 3678: 3670: 3666: 3643: 3636: 3628:, p. 142; 3624: 3620: 3613: 3599: 3595: 3577: 3573: 3542: 3538: 3515: 3511: 3501: 3499: 3469: 3462: 3452: 3450: 3431: 3425: 3421: 3413: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3348:10.2307/1883722 3329: 3323: 3319: 3307: 3303: 3287: 3283: 3267: 3263: 3255: 3251: 3235: 3231: 3223: 3219: 3209: 3207: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3189: 3185: 3177: 3173: 3165: 3161: 3147:Robinson (1958) 3145: 3141: 3133: 3113: 3109: 3100: 3086: 3082: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3043: 3039: 3029: 3027: 3019: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2998: 2992: 2988: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2932:Mass production 2927:Ideal firm size 2906: 2899: 2896: 2884: 2876: 2868: 2863: 2835: 2826: 2794: 2767:Alfred Marshall 2764: 2719:Charles Babbage 2717:, referring to 2703: 2695:Charles Babbage 2669: 2664: 2596: 2583: 2567: 2554: 2537: 2517: 2508: 2499: 2490: 2474: 2465: 2435:square–cube law 2431: 2426: 2398: 2394: 2370: 2366: 2339: 2335: 2326: 2322: 2308: 2305: 2304: 2242: 2234:Nicholas Kaldor 2165: 2136: 2135: 2121: 2119:Article indices 2111: 2110: 2091: 2083: 2082: 2018: 2010: 2009: 2000:Medieval Europe 1945: 1937: 1936: 1927:Post-industrial 1915:Imagination Age 1905:Information Age 1865:Standardization 1793: 1774: 1734: 1727: 1726: 1687: 1677: 1676: 1604: 1530: 1516: 1514:Major theorists 1506: 1505: 1441: 1431: 1430: 1121: 1111: 1110: 1081:Critical theory 1076:Conflict theory 1071: 1061: 1060: 1031:Social equality 972: 918: 880: 878: 866: 859: 858: 829: 819: 818: 817: 816: 580:von Böhm-Bawerk 468: 457: 456: 218: 210: 209: 165:Economic growth 155: 147: 146: 88: 86:classifications 17: 12: 11: 5: 6382: 6372: 6371: 6354: 6353: 6351: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6299: 6298: 6292: 6289: 6288: 6286: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6253:Medieval Islam 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6199: 6198: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6181: 6180: 6173: 6166: 6158: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6145: 6133: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6072: 6070: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6001: 5999: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5905: 5903: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5822: 5820: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5616: 5614: 5608: 5607: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5499: 5497: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5489: 5482: 5475: 5468: 5461: 5454: 5447: 5439: 5436: 5435: 5423: 5422: 5415: 5408: 5400: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5377: 5364: 5361: 5360: 5358: 5357: 5352: 5350:Macroeconomics 5347: 5346: 5345: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5327: 5325: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5213: 5211: 5207: 5206: 5204: 5203: 5198: 5197: 5196: 5191: 5181: 5176: 5175: 5174: 5165: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5080: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5049:Price controls 5041: 5036: 5031: 5030: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5007: 4997: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4985: 4970: 4968:Market failure 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4891: 4890: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4810: 4805: 4795: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4763: 4760:Microeconomics 4756: 4755: 4748: 4741: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4720: 4712: 4711:External links 4709: 4708: 4707: 4674: 4664:(3): 592–600. 4649: 4644:978-0521099691 4643: 4625: 4619: 4567: 4561: 4544:978-0198290346 4543: 4522:(in Italian). 4512: 4500: 4494: 4479: 4469:(2): 215–223. 4458: 4452: 4435: 4417: 4405: 4396: 4389: 4377:Penrose, Edith 4373: 4355:(3): 481–493. 4340: 4333: 4320: 4314: 4301: 4285: 4268: 4253: 4227:(3): 783–820. 4209: 4177: 4167:(3): 492–497. 4152: 4146: 4130: 4112:(2): 175–182. 4093: 4084: 4077: 4061: 4043:978-2012871786 4042: 4026: 4020: 4004: 3990: 3985:978-0813819006 3984: 3972:Arrow, Kenneth 3966: 3963: 3960: 3959: 3942: 3935: 3917: 3898:Sustainability 3881: 3855:(3): 365-371. 3835: 3789: 3785:Morroni (2006) 3774: 3772:, p. 156. 3762: 3750: 3744:, p. 49; 3734: 3722: 3718:Cournot (1838) 3706: 3688: 3676: 3664: 3653:(3): 428–452. 3634: 3630:Morroni (2006) 3626:Morroni (1992) 3618: 3611: 3593: 3571: 3552:(3): 259–261. 3536: 3525:(3): 789–800. 3509: 3483:(1): 482–511. 3460: 3419: 3407: 3395: 3387:Rosenberg 1982 3379: 3370: 3361: 3342:(2): 232–245. 3317: 3315:, p. 172. 3313:Morroni (2006) 3309:Penrose (1959) 3301: 3297:Scherer (2000) 3281: 3277:Demsetz (1995) 3273:Penrose (1959) 3271:, p. 86; 3269:Scherer (1980) 3261: 3257:Demsetz (1995) 3249: 3241:Pratten (1991) 3229: 3227:, p. 166. 3225:Morroni (2006) 3217: 3195: 3191:Morroni (2006) 3183: 3171: 3167:Morroni (2006) 3159: 3155:Pratten (1991) 3151:Scherer (1980) 3139: 3132:978-0674940529 3131: 3107: 3098: 3080: 3066: 3037: 3011: 3010: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2977: 2968: 2958: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2937:Network effect 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2911: 2895: 2892: 2883: 2880: 2875: 2872: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2850: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2834: 2831: 2825: 2822: 2793: 2790: 2789: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2763: 2760: 2759: 2758: 2746: 2745: 2702: 2699: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2595: 2592: 2582: 2579: 2566: 2563: 2553: 2550: 2536: 2533: 2516: 2513: 2507: 2504: 2498: 2495: 2489: 2486: 2473: 2470: 2464: 2461: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2390: 2387: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2241: 2238: 2173:microeconomics 2167: 2166: 2164: 2163: 2156: 2149: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2134: 2133: 2128: 2122: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2108: 2103: 2098: 2092: 2089: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2019: 2016: 2015: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1950:Ancient Africa 1946: 1943: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1923: 1922: 1918: 1917: 1912: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1799:Pre-industrial 1794: 1791: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1776: 1775: 1773: 1772: 1765: 1758: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1744: 1729: 1728: 1725: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1688: 1683: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1532: 1531: 1517: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1442: 1437: 1436: 1433: 1432: 1429: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1141:Astrosociology 1138: 1133: 1128: 1122: 1117: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1072: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 999: 994: 989: 987:Human behavior 984: 979: 973: 970: 969: 966: 965: 964: 963: 958: 953: 945: 944: 936: 935: 929: 928: 920: 919: 917: 916: 909: 902: 894: 891: 890: 889: 888: 876: 861: 860: 857: 856: 851: 841: 836: 830: 825: 824: 821: 820: 815: 814: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 471: 470: 469: 463: 462: 459: 458: 455: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 373:Organizational 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 219: 217:By application 216: 215: 212: 211: 208: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 156: 153: 152: 149: 148: 145: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 110: 105: 100: 95: 89: 83: 82: 79: 78: 77: 76: 71: 66: 58: 57: 49: 48: 42: 41: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6381: 6370: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6297: 6294: 6293: 6290: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6228:Ancient Greek 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6213:Ancient Egypt 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6200: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6186: 6179: 6174: 6172: 6167: 6165: 6160: 6159: 6156: 6144: 6143: 6134: 6132: 6131: 6122: 6121: 6118: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6067: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6000: 5998:Social impact 5996: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5906: 5904: 5898: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5851:Coalbrookdale 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5821: 5817: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5609: 5604: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5481: 5480: 5476: 5474: 5473: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5462: 5460: 5459: 5455: 5453: 5452: 5448: 5446: 5445: 5441: 5440: 5437: 5432: 5431:technological 5428: 5421: 5416: 5414: 5409: 5407: 5402: 5401: 5398: 5386: 5378: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5365: 5362: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5329: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5282:Institutional 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5227:Computational 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5208: 5202: 5199: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5173: 5172:Law of supply 5169: 5166: 5164: 5163:Law of demand 5160: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5149:Social choice 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5134:Excess supply 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5120:Risk aversion 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5054:Price ceiling 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5011: 5010:Complementary 5008: 5006: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4980: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4897: 4896: 4895: 4892: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4819: 4816: 4815: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4800: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4793:non-convexity 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4754: 4749: 4747: 4742: 4740: 4735: 4734: 4731: 4724: 4721: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4636: 4635: 4630: 4629:Sraffa, Piero 4626: 4622: 4616: 4612: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4571:Sraffa, Piero 4568: 4564: 4558: 4554: 4546: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4531:Sraffa, Piero 4525: 4521: 4517: 4516:Sraffa, Piero 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4459: 4455: 4453:9780528671029 4449: 4444: 4443: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4397: 4395:Repr. (1997). 4392: 4390:9780198289777 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4334:9781107321007 4330: 4326: 4321: 4317: 4315:9780511599019 4311: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4264: 4263: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4147:9780674281639 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4053: 4045: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4021:9780132271240 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3968: 3956: 3955:The Economist 3952: 3946: 3938: 3932: 3928: 3921: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3886: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3839: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3793: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3771: 3766: 3760:, p. 58. 3759: 3758:Sraffa (1926) 3754: 3747: 3746:Sraffa (1925) 3743: 3742:Sraffa (1926) 3738: 3731: 3726: 3719: 3715: 3710: 3703: 3702: 3695: 3693: 3685: 3680: 3673: 3668: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3639: 3631: 3627: 3622: 3614: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3588: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3465: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3423: 3416: 3411: 3404: 3399: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3374: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3336: 3328: 3321: 3314: 3310: 3305: 3299:, p. 22. 3298: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3258: 3253: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3226: 3221: 3205: 3199: 3192: 3187: 3180: 3179:Baumol (1961) 3175: 3168: 3163: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3134: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3119: 3111: 3101: 3095: 3091: 3084: 3069: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3053: 3047: 3041: 3026: 3022: 3016: 3012: 2990: 2981: 2972: 2963: 2959: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2914: 2909: 2903: 2898: 2891: 2889: 2882:Technological 2879: 2871: 2854: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2840: 2839: 2830: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2798: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2776: 2775: 2772: 2768: 2755: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2738: 2733: 2729: 2728: 2722: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2710: 2698: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2659: 2656: 2655:public sector 2651: 2649: 2644: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2622: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2591: 2587: 2578: 2576: 2575:process steam 2571: 2562: 2558: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2532: 2530: 2525: 2521: 2512: 2503: 2494: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2469: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2443: 2438: 2436: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2360: 2357: 2354: 2348: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2313: 2310: 2303: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2288: 2283: 2282:Liechtenstein 2279: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2258:media markets 2255: 2251: 2247: 2237: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2219: 2215: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2193: 2191: 2186: 2185:cost per unit 2182: 2178: 2174: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2150: 2148: 2143: 2142: 2140: 2139: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2124: 2123: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2093: 2087: 2086: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2014: 2013: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1965:Ancient China 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1955:Ancient Egypt 1953: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1920: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1855: 1851: 1850: 1846: 1845: 1842: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1771: 1766: 1764: 1759: 1757: 1752: 1751: 1749: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1730: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1707:Organizations 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1686: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1656: · 1655: 1652: · 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1612: · 1611: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1544: · 1543: 1539: 1536: 1529: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1510: 1509: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1461:Computational 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1440: 1435: 1434: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1206:Environmental 1204: 1201: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1156:Consciousness 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1115: 1114: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1070: 1065: 1064: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1036:Social equity 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 998: 995: 993: 990: 988: 985: 983: 982:Globalization 980: 978: 975: 974: 968: 967: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 949: 948: 947: 946: 942: 938: 937: 934: 931: 930: 926: 925: 915: 910: 908: 903: 901: 896: 895: 893: 892: 887: 877: 875: 870: 865: 864: 863: 862: 855: 852: 849: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 831: 828: 823: 822: 813: 812: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 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4835:Transaction 4813:Opportunity 4774:Aggregation 4504:Smith, Adam 4339:Repr. 2009. 4293:Das Kapital 4284:Repr. 1990. 4276:Das Kapital 4267:Repr. 1990. 4083:Repr. 1997. 3698:Karl Marx, 3684:Marx (1894) 3672:Marx (1867) 3073:20 February 2818:Sraffa 1966 2769:notes that 2737:sophistical 2709:Das Kapital 2613:homogeneous 2586:industry. 2232:(1966) and 2218:commodities 1875:Machine Age 1806:Prehistoric 1697:Terminology 1666:Baudrillard 1542:Tocqueville 1456:Comparative 1451:Qualitative 1421:Victimology 1251:Immigration 1236:Generations 1151:Criminology 680:von Neumann 333:Information 273:Engineering 253:Development 248:Demographic 190:Game theory 132:Methodology 5902:technology 5900:Invention/ 5866:Ironbridge 5563:Technology 5543:Metallurgy 5433:revolution 5427:Industrial 5297:Managerial 5217:Behavioral 5090:Production 5027:Oligopsony 4867:Elasticity 4779:Budget set 4526:: 277–328. 4289:Marx, Karl 4272:Marx, Karl 4078:0521588650 3874:29 October 3828:21 October 3580:Frisch, R. 3502:23 October 3453:22 October 3389:, p. 3105:amortized. 3002:References 2874:Managerial 2866:Purchasing 2681:Adam Smith 2679:(1776) by 2609:increasing 2605:decreasing 2294:total cost 2278:free trade 2246:purchasing 2202:Adam Smith 1880:Atomic Age 1831:Bronze Age 1826:Copper Age 1722:By country 1476:Historical 1401:Technology 1341:Punishment 1326:Philosophy 1301:Mathematic 1291:Literature 1256:Industrial 1246:Historical 1171:Demography 1091:Positivism 1016:Popularity 971:Key themes 839:Economists 710:Schumacher 615:Schumpeter 585:von Wieser 505:von Thünen 466:economists 442:Statistics 437:Solidarity 358:Managerial 323:Humanistic 318:Historical 263:Ecological 228:Behavioral 122:Mainstream 6248:Byzantine 6208:Neolithic 6069:Reference 5836:Bethlehem 5831:Allentown 5578:Workforce 5548:Sociology 5538:Machinery 5528:Invention 5338:Economics 5210:Subfields 5105:Rationing 5022:Oligopoly 5017:Monopsony 5005:Bilateral 4938:Household 4789:Convexity 4703:122978026 4607:Repr. in 4549:Repr. in 4506:(1976) . 4411:(1958) . 4126:154480027 3869:153725116 3007:Citations 2994:estimate. 2732:Karl Marx 2715:Karl Marx 2570:Karl Marx 2254:marketing 2192:control. 1890:Space Age 1811:Stone Age 1538:Martineau 1481:Interview 1406:Terrorism 1386:Sociology 1331:Political 1271:Knowledge 1191:Education 933:Sociology 755:Greenspan 720:Samuelson 700:Galbraith 670:Tinbergen 610:von Mises 605:Heckscher 565:Edgeworth 383:Personnel 343:Knowledge 308:Happiness 298:Financial 268:Education 243:Democracy 137:Political 103:Heterodox 46:Economics 6363:Category 6130:Category 5856:Cromford 5846:Broseley 5568:Textiles 5385:Category 5331:See also 5222:Business 5194:Marginal 5189:Expected 5130:Shortage 5125:Scarcity 5000:Monopoly 4906:Exchange 4818:Implicit 4808:Marginal 4631:(1966). 4423:(1982). 4379:(1959). 4291:(1894). 4274:(1867). 4259:(1890). 4249:51821102 4136:(1966). 4067:(1995). 4054:(1927). 4032:(1838). 4010:(1961). 3996:(1832). 3582:(1965). 3030:12 April 2894:See also 2888:internet 2713:(1867), 2601:constant 2520:Learning 2250:interest 2240:Overview 1836:Iron Age 1717:Timeline 1702:Journals 1670:Bourdieu 1662:Habermas 1658:Luhmann 1654:Foucault 1598:Mannheim 1578:Durkheim 1351:Religion 1311:Military 1276:Language 1261:Internet 1216:Feminist 1200:Jealousy 1186:Economic 1181:Disaster 1176:Deviance 1119:Branches 997:Identity 848:journals 834:Glossary 785:Stiglitz 750:Rothbard 730:Buchanan 715:Friedman 705:Koopmans 695:Leontief 675:Robinson 560:Marshall 464:Notable 412:Regional 388:Planning 363:Monetary 293:Feminist 238:Cultural 233:Business 38:a series 36:Part of 6268:Ottoman 6238:Chinese 6142:Commons 6040:Luddite 5949:Railway 5929:Factory 5611:People/ 5343:Applied 5322:Welfare 5184:Utility 5144:Surplus 5083:Pricing 4995:Duopoly 4988:Perfect 4931:Service 4899:General 4803:Average 4603:6458099 4595:2959866 4369:1885979 4241:2534454 4205:2231304 4173:1804855 3823:3091815 3659:1727409 3566:1183297 3497:1448001 3356:1883722 2861:Sources 1885:Jet Age 1841:Ancient 1674:Giddens 1672:· 1668:· 1660:· 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