Phagocyte - Knowledge

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of the amoebae engulf bacteria and absorb toxins while circulating within the slug, and these amoebae eventually die. They are genetically identical to the other amoebae in the slug; their self-sacrifice to protect the other amoebae from bacteria is similar to the self-sacrifice of phagocytes seen in the immune system of higher vertebrates. This ancient immune function in social amoebae suggests an evolutionarily conserved cellular foraging mechanism that might have been adapted to defense functions well before the diversification of amoebae into higher forms. Phagocytes occur throughout the animal kingdom, from marine sponges to insects and lower and higher vertebrates. The ability of amoebae to distinguish between self and non-self is a pivotal one, and is the root of the immune system of many species of amoeba.

1487: 939: 306: 1866: 888: 830: 33: 484: 759: 346: 394: 338:. The bacterium is then subjected to an overwhelming array of killing mechanisms and is dead a few minutes later. Dendritic cells and macrophages are not so fast, and phagocytosis can take many hours in these cells. Macrophages are slow and untidy eaters; they engulf huge quantities of material and frequently release some undigested back into the tissues. This debris serves as a signal to recruit more phagocytes from the blood. Phagocytes have voracious appetites; scientists have even fed macrophages with 1146: 1059: 696: 322:, and cellular and foreign debris by a cell. It involves a chain of molecular processes. Phagocytosis occurs after the foreign body, a bacterial cell, for example, has bound to molecules called "receptors" that are on the surface of the phagocyte. The phagocyte then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it. Phagocytosis of bacteria by human neutrophils takes on average nine minutes. Once inside this phagocyte, the bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a 720:, where there are millions of lymphocytes. This enhances immunity because the lymphocytes respond to the antigens presented by the dendritic cells just as they would at the site of the original infection. But dendritic cells can also destroy or pacify lymphocytes if they recognize components of the host body; this is necessary to prevent autoimmune reactions. This process is called tolerance. 1607: 421:, produces reactive oxygen-containing molecules that are anti-microbial. The oxygen compounds are toxic to both the invader and the cell itself, so they are kept in compartments inside the cell. This method of killing invading microbes by using the reactive oxygen-containing molecules is referred to as oxygen-dependent intracellular killing, of which there are two types. 377:. "Complement" is the name given to a complex series of protein molecules found in the blood that destroy cells or mark them for destruction. Scavenger receptors bind to a large range of molecules on the surface of bacterial cells, and Toll-like receptors—so called because of their similarity to well-studied receptors in fruit flies that are encoded by the 1512:; without this response to infection phagocytes cannot respond adequately. Third, some species of bacteria can inhibit the ability of phagocytes to travel to the site of infection by interfering with chemotaxis. Fourth, some bacteria can avoid contact with phagocytes by tricking the immune system into "thinking" that the bacteria are "self". 1809:. Here, activated neutrophils release the contents of their toxic granules into the lung environment. Experiments have shown that a reduction in the number of neutrophils lessens the effects of acute lung injury, but treatment by inhibiting neutrophils is not clinically realistic, as it would leave the host vulnerable to infection. In the 591:

components of the innate immune system can, to a limited extent, control viruses, once a virus is inside a cell the adaptive immune responses, particularly the lymphocytes, are more important for defense. At the sites of viral infections, lymphocytes often vastly outnumber all the other cells of the immune system; this is common in viral

1170:. The activated helper T cells interact with macrophages and B cells to activate them in turn. In addition, dendritic cells can influence the type of immune response produced; when they travel to the lymphoid areas where T cells are held they can activate T cells, which then differentiate into cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells. 1929:

that are resistant to environmental dangers. Before the formation of fruiting bodies, the cells will migrate as a slug-like organism for several days. During this time, exposure to toxins or bacterial pathogens has the potential to compromise survival of the species by limiting spore production. Some

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Dendritic cells are specialized antigen-presenting cells that have long outgrowths called dendrites, that help to engulf microbes and other invaders. Dendritic cells are present in the tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the skin, the inner lining of the nose, the lungs,

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The intra-cellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein-destroying and bactericidal properties. Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages. Neutrophil secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds

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to other cells of the immune system. Monocytes form two groups: a circulating group and a marginal group that remain in other tissues (approximately 70% are in the marginal group). Most monocytes leave the blood stream after 20–40 hours to travel to tissues and organs and in doing so transform into

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can reproduce only inside cells, and they can gain entry by using many of the receptors involved in immunity. Once inside the cell, viruses use the cell's biological machinery to their own advantage, forcing the cell to make hundreds of identical copies of themselves. Although phagocytes and other

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Macrophages and neutrophils, in particular, play a central role in the inflammatory process by releasing proteins and small-molecule inflammatory mediators that control infection but can damage host tissue. In general, phagocytes aim to destroy pathogens by engulfing them and subjecting them to a

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All phagocytes, and especially macrophages, exist in degrees of readiness. Macrophages are usually relatively dormant in the tissues and proliferate slowly. In this semi-resting state, they clear away dead host cells and other non-infectious debris and rarely take part in antigen presentation.

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and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, constituting 50% to 60% of the total circulating white blood cells. One litre of human blood contains about five billion neutrophils, which are about 10 micrometers in diameter and live for only about five days. Once they have received the appropriate

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Antigen presentation is a process in which some phagocytes move parts of engulfed materials back to the surface of their cells and "present" them to other cells of the immune system. There are two "professional" antigen-presenting cells: macrophages and dendritic cells. After engulfment, foreign

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and mesenchymal cells. They are called non-professional phagocytes, to emphasize that, in contrast to professional phagocytes, phagocytosis is not their principal function. Fibroblasts, for example, which can phagocytose collagen in the process of remolding scars, will also make some attempt to

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on the surface of bacteria, which are involved in adhesion to tissues. In addition to these functions, mast cells produce cytokines that induce an inflammatory response. This is a vital part of the destruction of microbes because the cytokines attract more phagocytes to the site of infection.

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molecules and which prepares them for presenting antigens. In this state, macrophages are good antigen presenters and killers. If they receive a signal directly from an invader, they become "hyperactivated", stop proliferating, and concentrate on killing. Their size and rate of phagocytosis

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In the blood, neutrophils are inactive but are swept along at high speed. When they receive signals from macrophages at the sites of inflammation, they slow down and leave the blood. In the tissues, they are activated by cytokines and arrive at the battle scene ready to kill.

1798:) intensify the damage. This release of substances promotes chemotaxis of more neutrophils to the site of infection, and glomerular cells can be damaged further by the adhesion molecules during the migration of neutrophils. The injury done to the glomerular cells can cause 922:

Mature macrophages do not travel far but stand guard over those areas of the body that are exposed to the outside world. There they act as garbage collectors, antigen presenting cells, or ferocious killers, depending on the signals they receive. They derive from monocytes,

248:, a tiny transparent animal that can be examined directly under a microscope. He discovered that fungal spores that attacked the animal were destroyed by phagocytes. He went on to extend his observations to the white blood cells of mammals and discovered that the bacterium 872:

cell-lined organs to sites of infection, and although this is an important component of fighting infection, the migration itself can result in disease-like symptoms. During an infection, millions of neutrophils are recruited from the blood, but they die after a few days.

1775:. If a phagocyte fails to engulf its target, these toxic agents can be released into the environment (an action referred to as "frustrated phagocytosis"). As these agents are also toxic to host cells, they can cause extensive damage to healthy cells and tissues. 1498:

A pathogen is only successful in infecting an organism if it can get past its defenses. Pathogenic bacteria and protozoa have developed a variety of methods to resist attacks by phagocytes, and many actually survive and replicate within phagocytic cells.

5556:"Cytolysin-dependent escape of the bacterium from the phagosome is required but not sufficient for induction of the Th1 immune response against Listeria monocytogenes infection: distinct role of Listeriolysin O determined by cytolysin gene replacement" 1726: 1844:

is an important chemical that is released by macrophages that causes the blood in small vessels to clot to prevent an infection from spreading. If a bacterial infection spreads to the blood, TNF-α is released into vital organs, which can cause

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of jawed vertebrates—the basis of acquired immunity—is highly specialized and can protect against almost any type of invader. The adaptive immune system is not dependent on phagocytes but lymphocytes, which produce protective proteins called

575:, the efficiency of phagocytes is impaired, and recurrent bacterial infections are a problem. In this disease there is an abnormality affecting different elements of oxygen-dependent killing. Other rare congenital abnormalities, such as 1913:, for example, is an amoeba that lives in the soil and feeds on bacteria. Like animal phagocytes, it engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis mainly through Toll-like receptors, and it has other biological functions in common with macrophages. 290:

Although the importance of these discoveries slowly gained acceptance during the early twentieth century, the intricate relationships between phagocytes and all the other components of the immune system were not known until the 1980s.

155:. When phagocytes come into contact with bacteria, the receptors on the phagocyte's surface will bind to them. This binding will lead to the engulfing of the bacteria by the phagocyte. Some phagocytes kill the ingested pathogen with 716:(MHC) glycoproteins, which carry the peptides back to the phagocyte's surface where they can be "presented" to lymphocytes. Mature macrophages do not travel far from the site of infection, but dendritic cells can reach the body's 150:

During an infection, chemical signals attract phagocytes to places where the pathogen has invaded the body. These chemicals may come from bacteria or from other phagocytes already present. The phagocytes move by a method called

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Phagocytes can also kill microbes by oxygen-independent methods, but these are not as effective as the oxygen-dependent ones. There are four main types. The first uses electrically charged proteins that damage the bacterium's

1621:. When inside the cell they remain in the cytoplasm and avoid toxic chemicals contained in the phagolysosomes. Some bacteria prevent the fusion of a phagosome and lysosome, to form the phagolysosome. Other pathogens, such as 5657:

Datta V, Myskowski SM, Kwinn LA, Chiem DN, Varki N, Kansal RG, Kotb M, Nizet V (May 2005). "Mutational analysis of the group A streptococcal operon encoding streptolysin S and its virulence role in invasive infection".

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There are several ways bacteria avoid contact with phagocytes. First, they can grow in sites that phagocytes are not capable of traveling to (e.g., the surface of unbroken skin). Second, bacteria can suppress the

677:, which tag invaders for destruction and prevent viruses from infecting cells. Phagocytes, in particular dendritic cells and macrophages, stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies by an important process called 766:

Phagocytes of humans and other jawed vertebrates are divided into "professional" and "non-professional" groups based on the efficiency with which they participate in phagocytosis. The professional phagocytes are

560:, monocytes, other macrophages, or dendritic cells. Nitric oxide is then released from the macrophage and, because of its toxicity, kills microbes near the macrophage. Activated macrophages produce and secrete 309:

Phagocytosis in three steps: 1. Unbound phagocyte surface receptors do not trigger phagocytosis. 2. Binding of receptors causes them to cluster. 3. Phagocytosis is triggered and the particle is taken up by the

640:. These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells that possess the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an 1390:—which are antibodies and complement attached to invaders by the immune system. Additionally, most non-professional phagocytes do not produce reactive oxygen-containing molecules in response to phagocytosis. 167:, a process in which a phagocyte moves parts of the ingested material back to its surface. This material is then displayed to other cells of the immune system. Some phagocytes then travel to the body's 143:

on their surfaces that can detect harmful objects, such as bacteria, that are not normally found in the body. Non-professional phagocytes do not have efficient phagocytic receptors, such as those for

1717:, needed for phagocytosis. After a bacterium is ingested, it may kill the phagocyte by releasing toxins that travel through the phagosome or phagolysosome membrane to target other parts of the cell. 668:, which animals, including humans, are born with. Innate immunity is very effective but non-specific in that it does not discriminate between different sorts of invaders. On the other hand, the 1386:

Non-professional phagocytes are more limited than professional phagocytes in the type of particles they can take up. This is due to their lack of efficient phagocytic receptors, in particular

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Segal G, Lee W, Arora PD, McKee M, Downey G, McCulloch CA (January 2001). "Involvement of actin filaments and integrins in the binding step in collagen phagocytosis by human fibroblasts".

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alter the infected macrophage's signalling, repress the production of cytokines and microbicidal molecules—nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species—and compromise antigen presentation.

381:—bind to more specific molecules including foreign DNA and RNA. Binding to Toll-like receptors increases phagocytosis and causes the phagocyte to release a group of hormones that cause 837:

When an infection occurs, a chemical "SOS" signal is given off to attract phagocytes to the site. These chemical signals may include proteins from invading bacteria, clotting system

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that bind (via their T cell receptor) to self antigen (presented by dendritic cells on MHC molecules) too strongly are induced to die. The second type of immunological tolerance is

985:. Macrophages are usually only found in tissue and are rarely seen in blood circulation. The life-span of tissue macrophages has been estimated to range from four to fifteen days. 5117:

Valenick LV, Hsia HC, Schwarzbauer JE (September 2005). "Fibronectin fragmentation promotes alpha4beta1 integrin-mediated contraction of a fibrin-fibronectin provisional matrix".

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but move through the body interacting with the other phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells of the immune system. They can communicate with other cells by producing chemicals called

1643:, which break down chemicals—such as hydrogen peroxide—produced by phagocytes to kill bacteria. Bacteria may escape from the phagosome before the formation of the phagolysosome: 1131:(NETs). Composed mainly of DNA, NETs cause death by a process called netosis – after the pathogens are trapped in NETs they are killed by oxidative and non-oxidative mechanisms. 1857:. During septic shock, TNF-α release causes a blockage of the small vessels that supply blood to the vital organs, and the organs may fail. Septic shock can lead to death. 1617:

Bacteria have developed ways to survive inside phagocytes, where they continue to evade the immune system. To get safely inside the phagocyte they express proteins called

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molecules and can participate in antigen presentation; however, the mast cell's role in antigen presentation is not very well understood. Mast cells can consume and kill

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Schmalstieg, FC; AS Goldman (2008). "Ilya Ilich Metchnikoff (1845–1915) and Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915): the centennial of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine".

147:. Phagocytes are crucial in fighting infections, as well as in maintaining healthy tissues by removing dead and dying cells that have reached the end of their lifespan. 1083:

signals, it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood and reach the site of an infection. They are ferocious eaters and rapidly engulf invaders coated with

621:—is a normal healthy function of cells. The body has to rid itself of millions of dead or dying cells every day, and phagocytes play a crucial role in this process. 6521: 1103:

filaments—neutrophils can have 2–5 segments. Neutrophils do not normally exit the bone marrow until maturity but during an infection neutrophil precursors called

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from neutrophil granules. When granules fuse with a phagosome, myeloperoxidase is released into the phagolysosome, and this enzyme uses hydrogen peroxide and

973:), where they silently lie in wait. A macrophage's location can determine its size and appearance. Macrophages cause inflammation through the production of 3769:

Takahashi K, Naito M, Takeya M (July 1996). "Development and heterogeneity of macrophages and their related cells through their differentiation pathways".

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products, and cytokines that have been given off by macrophages located in the tissue near the infection site. Another group of chemical attractants are

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Li MO, Sarkisian MR, Mehal WZ, Rakic P, Flavell RA (November 2003). "Phosphatidylserine receptor is required for clearance of apoptotic cells".

568:—a class of signaling molecule—kills cancer cells and cells infected by viruses, and helps to activate the other cells of the immune system. 6514: 4241: 2117: 7028: 6641: 2551: 1127:-antibody-coated bacteria. When encountering bacteria, fungi or activated platelets they produce web-like chromatin structures known as 908:

macrophages or dendritic cells depending on the signals they receive. There are about 500 million monocytes in one litre of human blood.

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Guermonprez P, Valladeau J, Zitvogel L, Théry C, Amigorena S (2002). "Antigen presentation and T cell stimulation by dendritic cells".

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Lange C, Dürr M, Doster H, Melms A, Bischof F (2007). "Dendritic cell-regulatory T-cell interactions control self-directed immunity".

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To reach the site of infection, phagocytes leave the bloodstream and enter the affected tissues. Signals from the infection cause the

139:). The main difference between professional and non-professional phagocytes is that the professional phagocytes have molecules called 6283:

Hanington PC, Tam J, Katzenback BA, Hitchen SJ, Barreda DR, Belosevic M (April 2009). "Development of macrophages of cyprinid fish".

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Monocytes develop in the bone marrow and reach maturity in the blood. Mature monocytes have large, smooth, lobed nuclei and abundant

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When a phagocyte ingests bacteria (or any material), its oxygen consumption increases. The increase in oxygen consumption, called a

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Antoine JC, Prina E, Lang T, Courret N (October 1998). "The biogenesis and properties of the parasitophorous vacuoles that harbour

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Iwatsuki K, Yamasaki O, Morizane S, Oono T (June 2006). "Staphylococcal cutaneous infections: invasion, evasion and aggression".

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Schroder K, Hertzog PJ, Ravasi T, Hume DA (February 2004). "Interferon-gamma: an overview of signals, mechanisms and functions".

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Dendritic cells also promote immunological tolerance, which stops the body from attacking itself. The first type of tolerance is

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inside the phagocyte, which helps them persist and replicate. Some bacteria are capable of living inside of the phagolysosome.

1595: 195:(1845–1916) first recognized that specialized cells were involved in defense against microbial infections. In 1882, he studied 111:

Phagocytes of humans and other animals are called "professional" or "non-professional" depending on how effective they are at

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tree into the larvae. After a few hours, he noticed that the motile cells had surrounded the thorns. Mechnikov traveled to

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Denkers EY, Butcher BA (January 2005). "Sabotage and exploitation in macrophages parasitized by intracellular protozoans".

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made of proteins or sugars that coat their cells and interfere with phagocytosis. Some examples are the K5 capsule and O75

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the stomach, and the intestines. Once activated, they mature and migrate to the lymphoid tissues where they interact with

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1 cells can recruit other phagocytes to the site of the infection in several ways. They secrete cytokines that act on the

175:. This process is important in building immunity, and many pathogens have evolved methods to evade attacks by phagocytes. 636:

surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as

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and cell death keeps the number of cells relatively constant in adults. There are two different ways a cell can die: by

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Dying cells and foreign organisms are consumed by cells other than the "professional" phagocytes. These cells include

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and interact with dendritic cells, B cells, and T cells to help mediate adaptive immune functions. Mast cells express

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Meyer KC (September 2004). "Neutrophils, myeloperoxidase, and bronchiectasis in cystic fibrosis: green is not good".

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Moraes TJ, Zurawska JH, Downey GP (January 2006). "Neutrophil granule contents in the pathogenesis of lung injury".

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capsular serotype 19F is more resistant to C3 deposition and less sensitive to opsonophagocytosis than serotype 6B"

3585: 713: 207:, believing they were important to the animals' immune defenses. To test his idea, he inserted small thorns from a 1590:

to block antibody receptors, which decreases the effectiveness of opsonins. Enteropathogenic species of the genus

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shortly after the divergence of plants, and they share many specific functions with mammalian phagocytic cells.

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is the process by which phagocytes follow the cytokine "scent" to the infected spot. Neutrophils travel across

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The killing of microbes is a critical function of phagocytes that is performed either within the phagocyte (

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behave like macrophage phagocytes, which suggests that phagocytes appeared early in the evolution of life.

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Fang FC (October 2004). "Antimicrobial reactive oxygen and nitrogen species: concepts and controversies".

938: 85:. Phagocytes are important throughout the animal kingdom and are highly developed within vertebrates. One 2044: 1841: 982: 887: 517:, which are present in neutrophil granules and remove essential iron from bacteria. The fourth type uses 5380:

Sansonetti P (December 2001). "Phagocytosis of bacterial pathogens: implications in the host response".

7266: 5037: 1865: 1658: 1558: 17: 5511:: correlating production of catalase and superoxide dismutase with levels of inflammatory cytokines". 3996:"Passive deformability of mature, immature, and active neutrophils in healthy and septicemic neonates" 5421:

invasin protein enhances integrin-mediated uptake into mammalian cells and promotes self-association"

4585:"Mast cells process bacterial Ags through a phagocytic route for class I MHC presentation to T cells" 1573: 864:

loosen the junctions connecting endothelial cells, allowing the phagocytes to pass through the wall.

595:. Virus-infected cells that have been killed by lymphocytes are cleared from the body by phagocytes. 7088: 6474: 5154:"Loss of resistance to ingestion and phagocytic killing by O(-) and K(-) mutants of a uropathogenic 4584: 2587: 353:

A phagocyte has many types of receptors on its surface that are used to bind material. They include

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or by apoptosis. In contrast to necrosis, which often results from disease or trauma, apoptosis—or

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to receptors of phagocytes from which they influence the cells capability to exert phagocytosis.

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Malaviya R, Abraham SN (February 2001). "Mast cell modulation of immune responses to bacteria".

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Lipu HN, Ahmed TA, Ali S, Ahmed D, Waqar MA (September 2008). "Chronic granulomatous disease".

1875: 1813:, damage by neutrophils can contribute to dysfunction and injury in response to the release of 1714: 1645: 1577: 1201: 1193: 1091:, and damaged cells or cellular debris. Neutrophils do not return to the blood; they turn into 669: 561: 331: 40: 1613:

are small bacteria—here stained red—that grow in the cytoplasm of non-professional phagocytes.

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Rabinovitch M (March 1995). "Professional and non-professional phagocytes: an introduction".

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Papayannopoulos V (February 2018). "Neutrophil extracellular traps in immunity and disease".

4049:"Neutrophil secretion products regulate anti-bacterial activity in monocytes and macrophages" 2552:"A single assay for measuring the rates of phagocytosis and bacterial killing by neutrophils" 1582: 1509: 1024:

that are responsible for the migration of monocytes and neutrophils out of the bloodstream. T

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Heinzelmann M, Mercer-Jones MA, Passmore JC (August 1999). "Neutrophils and renal failure".

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Gregory DJ, Olivier M (2005). "Subversion of host cell signalling by the protozoan parasite

7432: 7365: 7276: 7200: 7070: 6227: 6057: 6002: 4537: 3265: 2191: 1783: 1640: 1569: 1420: 1120: 743: 690: 665: 632:, on their cell surface to attract phagocytes. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the 437: 164: 77:, "to eat" or "devour", and "-cyte", the suffix in biology denoting "cell", from the Greek 1790:

cells, affecting their ability to filter blood and causing changes in shape. In addition,

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to initiate and orchestrate the adaptive immune response. Mature dendritic cells activate

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Fällman M, Deleuil F, McGee K (February 2002). "Resistance to phagocytosis by Yersinia".

1822: 1009: 362: 6231: 6061: 6046:"Porcine innate and adaptative immune responses to influenza and coronavirus infections" 6006: 4541: 3269: 2195: 1040:

destruction by producing TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen compounds,

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cells), a sub-group of lymphocytes, are responsible for the activation of macrophages. T

258:. Mechnikov proposed that phagocytes were a primary defense against invading organisms. 90: 7312: 7004: 6403: 6248: 6215: 6196: 6161:

Bozzaro S, Bucci C, Steinert M (2008). "Phagocytosis and host-pathogen interactions in

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Dahlgren, C; A Karlsson (December 17, 1999). "Respiratory burst in human neutrophils".

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to stimulate the production of monocytes and neutrophils, and they secrete some of the

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pigment, which accounts for the green color of secretions rich in neutrophils, such as

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bacteria: the large, stringy capsules protect the organisms from attack by phagocytes.

536:—which was once called macrophage activating factor—stimulates macrophages to produce 428:, which is an oxygen-rich bacteria-killing substance. The superoxide is converted to 89:

of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes. They were discovered in 1882 by

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that contains granules. Monocytes ingest foreign or dangerous substances and present

842: 735: 441: 429: 418: 374: 365:. Opsonin receptors increase the phagocytosis of bacteria that have been coated with 6030: 5936: 5890: 5803: 5687: 5540: 5173: 4506: 4174: 3812:

Krombach F, Münzing S, Allmeling AM, Gerlach JT, Behr J, Dörger M (September 1997).

3636: 3566: 3363:"Phagosome maturation during the removal of apoptotic cells: receptors lead the way" 3347: 3293: 3192: 3091: 3074: 3047: 2950: 2583: 2402: 2282: 2219: 2100: 1782:, the contents of the granule (reactive oxygen compounds and proteases) degrade the 957:. Macrophages are found throughout the body in almost all tissues and organs (e.g., 712:

inside dendritic cells and macrophages. These peptides are then bound to the cell's

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produces several types of capsule that provide different levels of protection, and

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A schematic diagram of the presentation of foreign peptides by MHC 1 molecules

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Some survival strategies often involve disrupting cytokines and other methods of

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infect macrophages, and each has a unique way of taming them. Some species of

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to prevent the phagocyte's responding to invasion. The protozoan parasites

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Macrophages have special receptors that enhance phagocytosis (not to scale)

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Bacteria have developed several ways of killing phagocytes. These include

463:. Hypochlorite is extremely toxic to bacteria. Myeloperoxidase contains a 397:

Simplified diagram of the phagocytosis and destruction of a bacterial cell

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Neutrophils also play a key role in the development of most forms of

1710: 1698: 1673: 1587: 1580:

to block engulfment. Some proteins hinder opsonin-related ingestion;

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could be engulfed and killed by phagocytes, a process that he called

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de Almeida SM, Nogueira MB, Raboni SM, Vidal LR (October 2007).

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This type of phagocyte does not have granules but contains many

804:

But, during an infection, they receive chemical signals—usually

758: 393: 342:

and then used a small magnet to separate them from other cells.

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Chemicals released by macrophages can also damage host tissue.

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that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles,

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931:

of pre-existing macrophages. Human macrophages are about 21

609:

In an animal, cells are constantly dying. A balance between

4095: 1649:

can make a hole in the phagosome wall using enzymes called

856:

cells that line the blood vessels to make a protein called

464: 5553: 4955:"Cell-in-Cell Structures in the Liver: A Tale of Four E's" 4582: 1917:

is social; it aggregates when starved to form a migrating

1308:

free and fixed macrophages and monocytes, dendritic cells

1032:

of CD4 T cells once they have responded to antigen in the

345: 104:

for his discovery. Phagocytes occur in many species; some

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Stvrtinová, Viera; Ján Jakubovský and Ivan Hulín (1995).

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Freund I, Eigenbrod T, Helm M, Dalpke AH (January 2019).

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who suggested the name "phagocyte" (from the Greek words

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Hampton MB, Vissers MC, Winterbourn CC (February 1994).

1921:. This multicellular organism eventually will produce a 1333:

free and fixed macrophages, monocytes, sinusoidal cells

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Neutrophils move from the blood to the site of infection

265:

discovered that phagocytosis was reinforced by specific

6381: 5467: 5036:

Alexander J, Satoskar AR, Russell DG (September 1999).

4953:

Davies SP, Terry LV, Wilkinson AL, Stamataki Z (2020).

4740:"Innate apoptotic immunity: the calming touch of death" 4725: 4034: 1778:

When neutrophils release their granule contents in the

1119:

involved in intracellular killing. Secretions from the

849:

that recruit neutrophils and monocytes from the blood.

424:

The first type is the oxygen-dependent production of a

326:. Within one minute the phagosome merges with either a 6382:

Paoletti, R.; Notario, A.; Ricevuti, G., eds. (1997).

6321: 6270: 4096:

Soehnlein O, Kai-Larsen Y, Frithiof R (October 2008).

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Phagocytosis is common and probably appeared early in

1701:, which form pores in the phagocyte's cell membranes, 949:

caused by bacteria—pus contains millions of phagocytes

813:

increases—some become large enough to engulf invading

795:

of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes.

6547: 6216:"Immune-like phagocyte activity in the social amoeba" 3254:

phosphatidylserine receptor through CED-5 and CED-12"

3162: 3017: 2070: 171:

and display the material to white blood cells called

6343:

Phagocytosis of Bacteria and Bacterial Pathogenicity

6160: 5906: 5204: 4313: 3768: 3536: 3307: 3206: 1099:

with several sections; each section is connected by

762:

Phagocytes derive from stem cells in the bone marrow

115:. The professional phagocytes include many types of 6362: 6326:(11th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. 6044:Charley B, Riffault S, Van Reeth K (October 2006). 5344: 5245: 4301: 3732: 2896: 2028: 1948: 1522:—hides from phagocytes by coating its surface with 652:Phagocytes are usually not bound to any particular 500:

bacteria inside phagocytes and their relative sizes

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"NADPH oxidase". 2791: 2051:, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967. 1601: 647: 444:, which assist in killing the invading microbe. 27:Cells that ingest harmful matter within the body 6400: 4476: 4376: 4144: 2449: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2248: 2246: 2177: 2175: 2147: 1720: 1036:. Activated macrophages play a potent role in 1000:1 cells activate macrophages by signaling with 447:The second type involves the use of the enzyme 6401:Robinson, J. P.; Babcock, G. F., eds. (1998). 6386:. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences. 5773: 5738: 5506: 4636: 3298:(Free registration required for online access) 3197:(Free registration required for online access) 2969: 2707: 2545: 2543: 2409: 1732:amastigotes (arrows) in a macrophage from skin 1361: 238:A year later, Mechnikov studied a fresh water 7104: 6515: 6340: 6276: 6207: 6154: 6125: 6116: 6037: 5943: 5897: 5854: 5819: 5767: 5729: 5694: 5650: 5596: 5547: 5500: 5408: 5373: 5347:International Journal of Medical Microbiology 5338: 5292: 5239: 5198: 5145: 5110: 5075: 4946: 4895: 4860: 4772: 4731: 3889: 3530: 2485: 2473: 2461: 2166: 2151: 2132: 2112: 2110: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2018: 1895:, evolving first in unicellular eukaryotes. 1123:of neutrophils stimulate the phagocytosis of 624:Dying cells that undergo the final stages of 287:for his work on phagocytes and phagocytosis. 6214:Chen G, Zhuchenko O, Kuspa A (August 2007). 5986: 5414: 4721: 4719: 4665: 4630: 4418: 4370: 4244:. The Rockefeller University. Archived from 4187: 4138: 4089: 4040: 3679: 3584:. The Rockefeller University. Archived from 3354: 3200: 3156: 3066: 3011: 2984: 2914: 2855: 2820: 2701: 2650: 2504:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 2498:Feldman MB, Vyas JM, Mansour MK (May 2019). 2491: 2304: 2243: 2172: 2162: 2160: 1765: 644:and is an important function of phagocytes. 6367:(4th ed.). London: Blackwell Science. 5081: 5008: 5006: 5004: 5002: 5000: 4866: 4671: 4576: 4513: 3987: 3762: 3469: 2710:"The phagocytes: neutrophils and monocytes" 2540: 2360: 1993: 1991: 1423:and LGL cells (large granular lymphocytes) 7111: 7097: 6522: 6508: 5379: 4737: 2708:Dale DC, Boxer L, Liles WC (August 2008). 2128: 2126: 2107: 2015: 1594:bind with the use of the virulence factor 1279:, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells 753: 723: 6487:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 6423: 6341:Ernst, J. D.; Stendahl, O., eds. (2006). 6247: 6110: 6087: 6069: 5860: 5633: 5623: 5579: 5444: 5275: 5222: 5181: 5151: 4980: 4970: 4929: 4919: 4808: 4755: 4716: 4699: 4689: 4559: 4549: 4450: 4425:Kalesnikoff J, Galli SJ (November 2008). 4394: 4364: 4341: 4331: 4213: 4121: 4072: 4011: 3981: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3845: 3756: 3720: 3685: 3661: 3649: 3606: 3512: 3433: 3421: 3409: 3386: 3329: 3224: 3125: 3113: 3090: 3060: 2978: 2826: 2725: 2684: 2674: 2644: 2632: 2620: 2523: 2467: 2384: 2343: 2333: 2157: 1853:volume; these in turn can be followed by 1343:free and fixed macrophages and monocytes 6345:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5992: 4997: 4281:10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.100301.064828 4181: 3977: 3975: 3579: 2827:Klebanoff SJ (1999). "Myeloperoxidase". 2315: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2181: 1988: 1903:that separated from the tree leading to 1864: 1724: 1713:that reduce the supply of a phagocyte's 1605: 1485: 1144: 1057: 937: 886: 828: 757: 694: 540:. The source of interferon-gamma can be 482: 392: 344: 304: 182: 31: 7029:Megakaryocyte–erythroid progenitor cell 5949: 4901: 4472: 4470: 4427:"New developments in mast cell biology" 4260: 4235: 4233: 2366: 2123: 2043:, retrieved on November 28, 2008. From 1949:Little C, Fowler HW, Coulson J (1983). 1860: 684: 187:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in his laboratory 14: 7534: 5301: 3862: 3582:"Dendritic Cells and Immune Tolerance" 3360: 3301: 3241: 2294: 2292: 2239:Induced innate responses to infection. 2143: 2141: 2118:Evolution of the innate immune system. 2066: 2064: 1786:of host cells and can cause damage to 1533: 1078:Neutrophils are normally found in the 1008:. Other signals include TNF-alpha and 405:killing) or outside of the phagocyte ( 7092: 6503: 4726:Paoletti, Notario & Ricevuti 1997 4522:"Type 1 fimbrial expression enhances 4035:Paoletti, Notario & Ricevuti 1997 3972: 3919: 3573: 3463: 2861: 2226: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1951:The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 808:—which increases their production of 388: 285:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 102:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 4467: 4239: 4230: 3250:"Cell corpse engulfment mediated by 3247: 2252: 1944: 1942: 1771:battery of toxic chemicals inside a 1635:, for example, produces the enzymes 992:(also known as effector T cells or T 598: 6495:White blood cell engulfing bacteria 6169:. Vol. 271. pp. 253–300. 4377:Novak N, Bieber T, Peng WM (2010). 4314:Sallusto F, Lanzavecchia A (2002). 2289: 2138: 2061: 2034: 1671:and thereby infect latter as well. 1502: 24: 6015:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb46269.x 5964:10.1097/01.CCM.0000057843.47705.E8 5921:10.1097/01.moh.0000190113.31027.d5 5415:Dersch P, Isberg RR (March 1999). 3783:10.1111/j.1440-1827.1996.tb03641.x 1957: 1134: 1044:proteins, and hydrolytic enzymes. 227:, meaning "to eat or devour", and 25: 7563: 6444: 5152:Burns SM, Hull SI (August 1999). 5012: 4491:10.1034/j.1600-065X.2001.790102.x 4302:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 3733:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 3143:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary 2897:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 2369:"Medals, memoirs—and Metchnikoff" 2029:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005 1939: 571:In some diseases, e.g., the rare 100:. Mechnikov was awarded the 1908 66:cells. Their name comes from the 6264: 6104: 5875:10.1097/00075198-200102000-00001 5810: 5672:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04583.x 5461: 5029: 4825: 4801:10.1128/IAI.68.12.6939-6945.2000 4738:Birge RB, Ucker DS (July 2008). 4526:virulence for the urinary tract" 4065:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03532.x 4013:10.1203/00006450-199812000-00021 3472:"Antigen Presenting Cells (APC)" 2759:Journal of Immunological Methods 2049:Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921 714:major histocompatibility complex 528: 479:Oxygen-independent intracellular 6314: 5174:10.1128/IAI.67.8.3757-3762.1999 4358: 4307: 4295: 4028: 3960: 3907: 3895: 3883: 3805: 3750: 3738: 3726: 3714: 3667: 3655: 3643: 3609:Internal and Emergency Medicine 3600: 3518: 3506: 3494: 3451: 3439: 3427: 3415: 3403: 3131: 3119: 3107: 3092:10.1590/s1413-86702007000500010 3054: 2957: 2902: 2890: 2785: 2750: 2638: 2626: 2614: 2602: 2479: 2443: 2431: 1482:Pathogen evasion and resistance 664:. Phagocytes form part of the 459:, a substance used in domestic 294: 7438:Immunoglobulin class switching 5715:10.1016/j.jdermsci.2006.03.011 4785:by nonprofessional phagocytes" 2003: 1129:neutrophil extracellular traps 1047: 911: 413:Oxygen-dependent intracellular 13: 1: 6175:10.1016/S1937-6448(08)01206-9 6165:with a look at macrophages". 5840:10.1016/S0272-6386(99)70375-6 5486:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01324-9 5096:10.1016/S0966-842X(02)02343-0 4881:10.1016/S0962-8924(00)88955-2 4188:Steinman RM, Cohn ZA (1973). 3700:10.1016/S0955-0674(03)00103-0 3361:Zhou Z, Yu X (October 2008). 3213:Current Opinion in Immunology 2806:10.1016/S1357-2725(96)00084-2 2771:10.1016/S0022-1759(99)00146-5 1933: 1667:that are in turn ingested by 1602:Survival inside the phagocyte 1417:Blood, lymph and lymph nodes 1409:Blood, lymph and lymph nodes 1173: 798: 738:, that occurs in the thymus. 648:Interactions with other cells 573:chronic granulomatous disease 199:(freely moving) cells in the 6720:Extramedullary hematopoiesis 6475:Resources in other libraries 6324:Roitt's Essential Immunology 4691:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002619 4530:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 3032:10.1097/MOH.0b013e3282f2bcce 2727:10.1182/blood-2007-12-077917 2516:10.1016/j.semcdb.2018.04.008 2318:"Immunology's Coming of Age" 2073:Journal of Medical Biography 1871:scanning electron microscope 1721:Disruption of cell signaling 876: 824: 230: 222: 72: 37:Scanning electron micrograph 7: 6426:How the Immune System Works 5419:Yersinia pseudotuberculosis 5131:10.1016/j.yexcr.2005.05.024 4672:Urb M, Sheppard DC (2012). 4601:10.4049/jimmunol.156.4.1490 3580:Steinman, Ralph M. (2004). 2829:Proc. Assoc. Am. Physicians 2450:Robinson & Babcock 1998 2367:Aterman K (April 1, 1998). 2148:Robinson & Babcock 1998 2120:retrieved on March 20, 2009 1627:, create a highly modified 1518:—the bacterium that causes 1395:Non-professional phagocytes 1362:Non-professional phagocytes 1004:and displaying the protein 628:display molecules, such as 10: 7568: 7267:Polyclonal B cell response 5119:Experimental Cell Research 4651:10.2500/108854101778148764 4147:Nature Reviews. Immunology 3470:Lee T, McGibbon A (2004). 2841:10.1111/paa.1999.111.5.383 1692: 1559:Staphylococcus epidermidis 1383:ingest foreign particles. 1177: 1138: 1051: 1034:secondary lymphoid tissues 915: 880: 727: 688: 602: 582: 298: 215:and shared his ideas with 178: 7501: 7459: 7401: 7302: 7232: 7140: 7133: 7053: 7013: 6987: 6959: 6926: 6886:Antigen-presenting cells 6879: 6814: 6805: 6741: 6732: 6712: 6674: 6649: 6640: 6611: 6571: 6562: 6538: 6470:Resources in your library 6297:10.1016/j.dci.2008.11.004 6140:10.1016/j.mib.2008.05.005 5788:10.1017/S0031182005008139 5625:10.3389/fimmu.2021.782495 5525:10.1007/s00011-007-7206-z 3890:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 3379:10.1016/j.tcb.2008.08.002 3226:10.1016/j.coi.2019.11.009 2876:10.1016/j.lab.2004.05.014 2486:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2474:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2462:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2167:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2152:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 2133:Ernst & Stendahl 2006 1766:Host damage by phagocytes 1572:produce proteins such as 6974:Nucleated red blood cell 6530:Myeloid blood cells and 6489:Medical Subject Headings 6409:. New York: Wiley–Liss. 5753:10.1016/j.pt.2004.10.004 5472:in murine macrophages". 5250:Streptococcus pneumoniae 4972:10.3389/fimmu.2020.00650 4921:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01781 4783:Encephalitozoon cuniculi 3818:Environ. Health Perspect 2335:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00684 2055:August 22, 2008, at the 1919:pseudoplasmodium or slug 1915:Dictyostelium discoideum 1910:Dictyostelium discoideum 1565:Streptococcus pneumoniae 1546:found on the surface of 1238:macrophages, monocytes, 577:Chédiak–Higashi syndrome 7076:Hematopoietic stem cell 6995:Leukocyte extravasation 6864:Foreign-body giant cell 6240:10.1126/science.1143991 6071:10.1196/annals.1373.014 5612:Frontiers in Immunology 5437:10.1093/emboj/18.5.1199 5359:10.1078/1438-4221-00159 5054:10.1242/jcs.112.18.2993 4959:Frontiers in Immunology 4908:Frontiers in Immunology 4834:Journal of Cell Science 4551:10.1073/pnas.93.18.9827 3322:10.1126/science.1092533 3278:10.1126/science.1087641 3177:10.1126/science.1087621 2322:Frontiers in Immunology 2204:10.1126/science.7878464 2085:10.1258/jmb.2008.008006 1538:Bacteria often produce 1230:neutrophils, monocytes 1210:Professional Phagocytes 754:Professional phagocytes 730:Immunological tolerance 724:Immunological tolerance 708:) are broken down into 7381:Tolerance in pregnancy 7123:adaptive immune system 6424:Sompayrac, L. (2019). 5394:10.1006/smim.2001.0335 5224:10.1074/jbc.M411374200 4902:Lin A, Loré K (2017). 4781:"Phagocytic uptake of 4206:10.1084/jem.137.5.1142 3551:10.1038/sj.icb.7100088 2419:. The Nobel Foundation 1888: 1876:Streptococcus pyogenes 1817:produced by bacteria, 1733: 1646:Listeria monocytogenes 1614: 1495: 1404:Variety of phenotypes 1194:gram-negative bacteria 1150: 1075: 1028:1 cells come from the 950: 896: 834: 763: 700: 670:adaptive immune system 558:natural killer T cells 513:. The third type uses 501: 398: 350: 311: 191:The Russian zoologist 188: 93:while he was studying 48: 7416:Somatic hypermutation 7250:Polyclonal antibodies 7245:Monoclonal antibodies 6365:Essential Haematology 6128:Curr. Opin. Microbiol 5782:. 130 Suppl: S27–35. 5509:Staphylococcus aureus 4846:10.1242/jcs.114.1.119 3688:Curr. Opin. Cell Biol 2676:10.3390/genes10020092 1868: 1833:resulting from acute 1728: 1633:Staphylococcus aureus 1609: 1583:Staphylococcus aureus 1510:inflammatory response 1492:Staphylococcus aureus 1489: 1148: 1061: 941: 890: 832: 761: 698: 642:inflammatory response 619:programmed cell death 562:tumor necrosis factor 497:Neisseria gonorrhoeae 486: 396: 348: 308: 193:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov 186: 91:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov 35: 7433:Junctional diversity 7201:Antigen presentation 7071:Hematopoietic system 6859:Langhans giant cells 6050:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci 5995:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci 5958:(4 Suppl): S195–99. 5572:10.1128/IAI.01779-06 5268:10.1128/IAI.01186-08 4326:(Suppl 3): S127–32. 4159:10.1038/nri.2017.105 3948:on December 31, 2010 3824:(Suppl 5): 1261–63. 3476:Dalhousie University 2590:on December 28, 2012 2568:10.1002/jlb.55.2.147 2386:10.1002/jlb.63.4.515 2316:Kaufmann SH (2019). 1861:Evolutionary origins 1784:extracellular matrix 1641:superoxide dismutase 1570:group A streptococci 891:Monocytes in blood ( 744:peripheral tolerance 691:Antigen presentation 685:Antigen presentation 666:innate immune system 550:natural killer cells 438:superoxide dismutase 436:by an enzyme called 217:Carl Friedrich Claus 165:antigen presentation 7428:V(D)J recombination 7411:Affinity maturation 7163:Antigenic variation 6834:Alveolar macrophage 6232:2007Sci...317..678C 6062:2006NYASA1081..130C 6007:1997NYASA.832..426R 5909:Curr. Opin. Hematol 5863:Curr Opin Crit Care 5816:Paoletti pp. 426–30 5316:10.1038/nrmicro1289 5304:Nat. Rev. Microbiol 4757:10.1038/cdd.2008.58 4639:Allergy Asthma Proc 4542:1996PNAS...93.9827C 3482:on January 12, 2008 3270:2003Sci...302.1563W 3264:(5650): 1563–1566. 3020:Curr. Opin. Hematol 2935:10.1189/jlb.0603252 2267:10.1038/nrmicro1004 2255:Nat. Rev. Microbiol 2196:1995Sci...267.1456T 1823:alcoholic hepatitis 1534:Avoiding engulfment 1397: 1260:Gut and intestinal 1212: 1186:Toll-like receptors 1010:lipopolysaccharides 969:macrophages in the 927:stem cells, or the 748:autoimmune diseases 363:Toll-like receptors 359:scavenger receptors 7005:Intrinsic immunity 6869:Touton giant cells 6285:Dev. Comp. Immunol 6273:, pp. 251–252 6271:Delves et al. 2006 4269:Annu. Rev. Immunol 4053:Clin. Exp. Immunol 3967:Delves et al. 2006 3914:Delves et al. 2006 3902:Delves et al. 2006 3878:Delves et al. 2006 3745:Delves et al. 2006 3674:Delves et al. 2006 3621:10.1007/BF02934736 3539:Immunol. Cell Biol 3527:, pp. 237–242 3525:Delves et al. 2006 3501:Delves et al. 2006 3458:Delves et al. 2006 3448:, pp. 171–184 3446:Delves et al. 2006 2964:Delves et al. 2006 2909:Delves et al. 2006 2609:Delves et al. 2006 2438:Delves et al. 2006 2299:Delves et al. 2006 2237:Janeway, Chapter: 2150:, p. 187 and 2116:Janeway, Chapter: 2010:Delves et al. 2006 1998:Delves et al. 2006 1983:Delves et al. 2006 1889: 1849:and a decrease in 1734: 1730:Leishmania tropica 1615: 1515:Treponema pallidum 1496: 1472:Connective tissue 1393: 1208: 1151: 1076: 951: 897: 835: 764: 701: 630:phosphatidylserine 523:hydrolytic enzymes 502: 399: 389:Methods of killing 351: 312: 251:Bacillus anthracis 189: 49: 7527: 7526: 7455: 7454: 7205:professional APCs 7086: 7085: 7049: 7048: 6922: 6921: 6849:Epithelioid cells 6728: 6727: 6708: 6707: 6704: 6703: 6636: 6635: 6451:Library resources 6435:978-1-119-54212-4 6416:978-0-471-12364-4 6393:978-1-57331-102-1 6374:978-0-632-05153-3 6352:978-0-521-84569-4 6333:978-1-4051-3603-7 6184:978-0-12-374728-0 5828:Am. J. Kidney Dis 5417:"A region of the 5048:(18): 2993–3002. 4840:(Pt 1): 119–129. 4744:Cell Death Differ 4431:Nature Immunology 4396:10.1159/000232565 4242:"Dendritic Cells" 4240:Steinman, Ralph. 3941:978-80-967366-1-4 3588:on March 11, 2009 3316:(5650): 1516–17. 3171:(5650): 1560–63. 3079:Braz J Infect Dis 2864:J. Lab. Clin. Med 2301:, pp. 172–84 2190:(5203): 1456–62. 1831:hypovolemic shock 1807:acute lung injury 1749:Trypanosoma cruzi 1743:Toxoplasma gondii 1578:fimbrial proteins 1554:exopolysaccharide 1479: 1478: 1466:Endothelial cells 1372:endothelial cells 1359: 1358: 1272:Connective tissue 1202:fimbrial proteins 1168:cytotoxic T cells 771:, which includes 736:central tolerance 599:Role in apoptosis 442:hydroxyl radicals 430:hydrogen peroxide 419:respiratory burst 273:, from the Greek 117:white blood cells 16:(Redirected from 7559: 7421:Clonal selection 7393:Immune privilege 7388:Immunodeficiency 7343:Cross-reactivity 7333:Hypersensitivity 7138: 7137: 7113: 7106: 7099: 7090: 7089: 7020:Precursor cells 6946:Promegakaryocyte 6812: 6811: 6739: 6738: 6664:Promegakaryocyte 6647: 6646: 6569: 6568: 6560: 6559: 6545: 6544: 6524: 6517: 6510: 6501: 6500: 6439: 6420: 6408: 6397: 6378: 6356: 6337: 6309: 6308: 6280: 6274: 6268: 6262: 6261: 6251: 6226:(5838): 678–81. 6211: 6205: 6204: 6158: 6152: 6151: 6123: 6114: 6108: 6102: 6101: 6091: 6073: 6041: 6035: 6034: 5990: 5984: 5983: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5904: 5895: 5894: 5858: 5852: 5851: 5823: 5817: 5814: 5808: 5807: 5771: 5765: 5764: 5741:Trends Parasitol 5736: 5727: 5726: 5703:J. Dermatol. Sci 5698: 5692: 5691: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5637: 5627: 5603: 5594: 5593: 5583: 5566:(8): 3791–3801. 5551: 5545: 5544: 5504: 5498: 5497: 5474:Trends Microbiol 5465: 5459: 5458: 5448: 5431:(5): 1199–1213. 5412: 5406: 5405: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5299: 5290: 5289: 5279: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5226: 5217:(52): 54881–86. 5202: 5196: 5195: 5185: 5156:Escherichia coli 5149: 5143: 5142: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5084:Trends Microbiol 5079: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5022: 5013:Todar, Kenneth. 5010: 4995: 4994: 4984: 4974: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4933: 4923: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4869:Trends Cell Biol 4864: 4858: 4857: 4829: 4823: 4822: 4812: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4759: 4750:(7): 1096–1102. 4735: 4729: 4723: 4714: 4713: 4703: 4693: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4563: 4553: 4524:Escherichia coli 4517: 4511: 4510: 4474: 4465: 4464: 4454: 4443:10.1038/ni.f.216 4422: 4416: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4398: 4374: 4368: 4367:, pp. 45–46 4362: 4356: 4355: 4345: 4335: 4311: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4248:on June 27, 2009 4237: 4228: 4227: 4217: 4185: 4179: 4178: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4125: 4114:10.1172/JCI35740 4108:(10): 3491–502. 4093: 4087: 4086: 4076: 4044: 4038: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4015: 3991: 3985: 3979: 3970: 3964: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3944:. Archived from 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3880:, pp. 31–36 3875: 3860: 3859: 3849: 3809: 3803: 3802: 3766: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3736: 3730: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3683: 3677: 3671: 3665: 3664:, pp. 18–19 3659: 3653: 3652:, pp. 16–17 3647: 3641: 3640: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3478:. Archived from 3467: 3461: 3455: 3449: 3443: 3437: 3436:, pp. 27–35 3431: 3425: 3419: 3413: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3390: 3367:Trends Cell Biol 3358: 3352: 3351: 3333: 3305: 3299: 3297: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3228: 3204: 3198: 3196: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3094: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3052: 3051: 3015: 3009: 3008: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2918: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2859: 2853: 2852: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2754: 2748: 2747: 2729: 2705: 2699: 2698: 2688: 2678: 2654: 2648: 2647:, pp. 13–16 2642: 2636: 2630: 2624: 2618: 2612: 2606: 2600: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2586:. Archived from 2547: 2538: 2537: 2527: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2417:"Ilya Mechnikov" 2413: 2407: 2406: 2388: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2347: 2337: 2313: 2302: 2296: 2287: 2286: 2250: 2241: 2235: 2224: 2223: 2179: 2170: 2164: 2155: 2145: 2136: 2130: 2121: 2114: 2105: 2104: 2068: 2059: 2038: 2032: 2026: 2013: 2007: 2001: 1995: 1986: 1980: 1955: 1954: 1946: 1899:are unicellular 1879:(orange) during 1794:products (e.g., 1549:Escherichia coli 1503:Avoiding contact 1446:Epithelial cells 1398: 1392: 1368:epithelial cells 1353:Langerhans cells 1317:microglial cells 1240:sinusoidal cells 1213: 1207: 1184:Mast cells have 1149:A dendritic cell 1121:primary granules 1012:from bacteria. T 959:microglial cells 806:interferon gamma 534:Interferon-gamma 367:immunoglobulin G 233: 225: 75: 21: 7567: 7566: 7562: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7556: 7532: 7531: 7528: 7523: 7497: 7451: 7397: 7376:Clonal deletion 7304: 7298: 7228: 7129: 7117: 7087: 7082: 7045: 7009: 6988:Immune response 6983: 6961:Red blood cells 6955: 6918: 6895:Langerhans cell 6890:Dendritic cells 6875: 6801: 6724: 6700: 6684:Proerythroblast 6670: 6632: 6616:Monocytopoiesis 6607: 6551: 6534: 6528: 6481: 6480: 6479: 6459: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6442: 6436: 6417: 6394: 6375: 6353: 6334: 6317: 6312: 6281: 6277: 6269: 6265: 6212: 6208: 6185: 6159: 6155: 6124: 6117: 6109: 6105: 6042: 6038: 5991: 5987: 5948: 5944: 5905: 5898: 5859: 5855: 5824: 5820: 5815: 5811: 5772: 5768: 5737: 5730: 5699: 5695: 5655: 5651: 5604: 5597: 5552: 5548: 5505: 5501: 5480:(10): 392–401. 5466: 5462: 5413: 5409: 5378: 5374: 5343: 5339: 5300: 5293: 5244: 5240: 5203: 5199: 5150: 5146: 5115: 5111: 5080: 5076: 5066: 5064: 5034: 5030: 5020: 5018: 5011: 4998: 4951: 4947: 4900: 4896: 4865: 4861: 4830: 4826: 4795:(12): 6939–45. 4777: 4773: 4736: 4732: 4724: 4717: 4684:(4): e1002619. 4670: 4666: 4635: 4631: 4621: 4619: 4581: 4577: 4536:(18): 9827–32. 4518: 4514: 4475: 4468: 4437:(11): 1215–23. 4423: 4419: 4409: 4407: 4375: 4371: 4363: 4359: 4312: 4308: 4300: 4296: 4265: 4261: 4251: 4249: 4238: 4231: 4186: 4182: 4143: 4139: 4102:J. Clin. Invest 4094: 4090: 4045: 4041: 4033: 4029: 3992: 3988: 3980: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3951: 3949: 3942: 3924: 3920: 3912: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3876: 3863: 3830:10.2307/3433544 3810: 3806: 3767: 3763: 3755: 3751: 3743: 3739: 3731: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3684: 3680: 3672: 3668: 3660: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3605: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3578: 3574: 3535: 3531: 3523: 3519: 3511: 3507: 3499: 3495: 3485: 3483: 3468: 3464: 3456: 3452: 3444: 3440: 3432: 3428: 3420: 3416: 3408: 3404: 3359: 3355: 3306: 3302: 3248:Wang X (2003). 3246: 3242: 3205: 3201: 3161: 3157: 3147: 3145: 3137: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3071: 3067: 3059: 3055: 3016: 3012: 2993:J Pak Med Assoc 2989: 2985: 2977: 2970: 2962: 2958: 2923:J. Leukoc. Biol 2919: 2915: 2911:, pp. 6–10 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2860: 2856: 2825: 2821: 2800:(11): 1191–95. 2790: 2786: 2755: 2751: 2706: 2702: 2655: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2631: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2607: 2603: 2593: 2591: 2556:J. Leukoc. Biol 2548: 2541: 2496: 2492: 2484: 2480: 2472: 2468: 2460: 2456: 2448: 2444: 2436: 2432: 2422: 2420: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2373:J. Leukoc. Biol 2365: 2361: 2314: 2305: 2297: 2290: 2251: 2244: 2236: 2227: 2180: 2173: 2165: 2158: 2154:, pp. 7–10 2146: 2139: 2131: 2124: 2115: 2108: 2069: 2062: 2057:Wayback Machine 2039: 2035: 2027: 2016: 2008: 2004: 1996: 1989: 1985:, pp. 2–10 1981: 1958: 1947: 1940: 1936: 1863: 1768: 1723: 1695: 1660:M. tuberculosis 1655:phospholipase C 1651:listeriolysin O 1604: 1536: 1505: 1484: 1364: 1313:Nervous tissue 1304:Lymphoid tissue 1262:Peyer's patches 1182: 1176: 1143: 1137: 1135:Dendritic cells 1056: 1050: 1030:differentiation 1027: 1015: 999: 995: 945:oozing from an 920: 914: 885: 879: 827: 801: 785:dendritic cells 756: 732: 726: 693: 687: 650: 607: 601: 585: 531: 481: 449:myeloperoxidase 415: 391: 320:dead host cells 303: 297: 269:that he called 181: 137:dendritic cells 45:anthrax bacilli 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7565: 7555: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7525: 7524: 7522: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7505: 7503: 7499: 7498: 7496: 7495: 7490: 7489: 7488: 7478: 7477: 7476: 7465: 7463: 7457: 7456: 7453: 7452: 7450: 7449: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7424: 7423: 7418: 7407: 7405: 7403:Immunogenetics 7399: 7398: 7396: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7384: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7351: 7350: 7348:Co-stimulation 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7308: 7306: 7300: 7299: 7297: 7296: 7291: 7289:Immune complex 7285: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7263: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7209:Dendritic cell 7197: 7196: 7191: 7190: 7189: 7187:Conformational 7184: 7173: 7172: 7167: 7166: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7144: 7142: 7135: 7131: 7130: 7116: 7115: 7108: 7101: 7093: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7068: 7063: 7057: 7055: 7051: 7050: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7043: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6965: 6963: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6941:Megakaryoblast 6938: 6932: 6930: 6924: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6917: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6904: 6903: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6820: 6818: 6809: 6803: 6802: 6800: 6799: 6798: 6797: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6775: 6774: 6773: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6747: 6745: 6736: 6734:Myeloid tissue 6730: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6723: 6722: 6716: 6714: 6710: 6709: 6706: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6679:Erythropoiesis 6675: 6672: 6671: 6669: 6668: 6667: 6666: 6661: 6659:Megakaryoblast 6654:Thrombopoiesis 6650: 6644: 6638: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6631: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6606: 6605: 6604: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6576:Granulopoiesis 6572: 6566: 6557: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6527: 6526: 6519: 6512: 6504: 6498: 6497: 6492: 6478: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6461: 6460: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6445:External links 6443: 6441: 6440: 6434: 6421: 6415: 6398: 6392: 6379: 6373: 6360: 6351: 6338: 6332: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6310: 6275: 6263: 6206: 6183: 6153: 6115: 6111:Sompayrac 2019 6103: 6080:1854/LU-369324 6036: 5985: 5952:Crit. Care Med 5942: 5896: 5853: 5818: 5809: 5766: 5728: 5693: 5660:Mol. Microbiol 5649: 5595: 5546: 5499: 5460: 5407: 5382:Semin. Immunol 5372: 5353:(6–7): 501–9. 5337: 5310:(12): 948–58. 5291: 5238: 5197: 5168:(8): 3757–62. 5158:O75:K5 strain" 5144: 5109: 5074: 5028: 4996: 4945: 4894: 4859: 4824: 4771: 4730: 4715: 4678:PLOS Pathogens 4664: 4629: 4595:(4): 1490–96. 4575: 4512: 4466: 4417: 4369: 4365:Sompayrac 2019 4357: 4306: 4294: 4259: 4229: 4200:(5): 1142–62. 4180: 4153:(2): 134–147. 4137: 4088: 4039: 4027: 3986: 3982:Sompayrac 2019 3971: 3959: 3940: 3918: 3906: 3894: 3882: 3861: 3804: 3761: 3757:Sompayrac 2019 3749: 3747:, pp. 1–6 3737: 3725: 3721:Sompayrac 2019 3713: 3678: 3666: 3662:Sompayrac 2019 3654: 3650:Sompayrac 2019 3642: 3599: 3572: 3529: 3517: 3513:Sompayrac 2019 3505: 3493: 3462: 3460:, pp. 456 3450: 3438: 3434:Sompayrac 2019 3426: 3422:Sompayrac 2019 3414: 3410:Sompayrac 2019 3402: 3373:(10): 474–85. 3353: 3300: 3240: 3199: 3155: 3130: 3126:Sompayrac 2019 3118: 3114:Sompayrac 2019 3106: 3065: 3061:Sompayrac 2019 3053: 3010: 2983: 2979:Sompayrac 2019 2968: 2956: 2913: 2901: 2889: 2854: 2819: 2784: 2749: 2700: 2649: 2645:Sompayrac 2019 2637: 2633:Sompayrac 2019 2625: 2621:Sompayrac 2019 2613: 2611:, pp. 6–7 2601: 2539: 2490: 2478: 2466: 2454: 2442: 2430: 2408: 2359: 2303: 2288: 2261:(10): 820–32. 2242: 2225: 2171: 2156: 2137: 2122: 2106: 2060: 2045:Nobel Lectures 2041:Ilya Mechnikov 2033: 2014: 2002: 1987: 1956: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1862: 1859: 1800:kidney failure 1767: 1764: 1738:cell signaling 1722: 1719: 1694: 1691: 1603: 1600: 1535: 1532: 1504: 1501: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1462:Blood vessels 1459: 1458: 1453: 1449: 1448: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1429: 1425: 1424: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1405: 1402: 1401:Main location 1363: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1349: 1345: 1344: 1341: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1314: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1300: 1299: 1296: 1292: 1291: 1285: 1281: 1280: 1274: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1257: 1256: 1251: 1247: 1246: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1224: 1223: 1217: 1216:Main location 1178:Main article: 1175: 1172: 1164:T helper cells 1141:Dendritic cell 1139:Main article: 1136: 1133: 1115:are released. 1105:metamyelocytes 1072:Giemsa stained 1052:Main article: 1049: 1046: 1025: 1013: 997: 993: 990:T helper cells 916:Main article: 913: 910: 881:Main article: 878: 875: 826: 823: 800: 797: 755: 752: 728:Main article: 725: 722: 704:proteins (the 689:Main article: 686: 683: 681:presentation. 649: 646: 603:Main article: 600: 597: 584: 581: 530: 527: 487:Micrograph of 480: 477: 434:singlet oxygen 414: 411: 390: 387: 299:Main article: 296: 293: 263:Almroth Wright 180: 177: 62:, and dead or 43:phagocytosing 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7564: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7547:Immune system 7545: 7543: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7530: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7504: 7500: 7494: 7491: 7487: 7484: 7483: 7482: 7479: 7475: 7472: 7471: 7470: 7467: 7466: 7464: 7462: 7458: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7413: 7412: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7404: 7400: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7371:Clonal anergy 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7357: 7353: 7352: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7310: 7309: 7307: 7301: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7261: 7260:Microantibody 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7231: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7199: 7198: 7195: 7192: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7179: 7178: 7175: 7174: 7171: 7168: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7146: 7145: 7143: 7139: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7121: 7114: 7109: 7107: 7102: 7100: 7095: 7094: 7091: 7077: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7052: 7042: 7041:Myelomonocyte 7039: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7012: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6986: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6966: 6964: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6951:Megakaryocyte 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6933: 6931: 6929: 6925: 6913: 6910: 6909: 6908: 6905: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6887: 6885: 6884: 6882: 6878: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6829:Kupffer cells 6827: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6804: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6791: 6788: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6779: 6776: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6731: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6715: 6711: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6673: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6656: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6639: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6610: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6596:Metamyelocyte 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6578: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6561: 6558: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6540:Hematopoiesis 6537: 6533: 6525: 6520: 6518: 6513: 6511: 6506: 6505: 6502: 6496: 6493: 6490: 6486: 6483: 6482: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6437: 6431: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6412: 6407: 6406: 6399: 6395: 6389: 6385: 6380: 6376: 6370: 6366: 6361: 6359: 6354: 6348: 6344: 6339: 6335: 6329: 6325: 6320: 6319: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6291:(4): 411–29. 6290: 6286: 6279: 6272: 6267: 6259: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6210: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6163:Dictyostelium 6157: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6134:(3): 271–76. 6133: 6129: 6122: 6120: 6112: 6107: 6099: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6056:(1): 130–36. 6055: 6051: 6047: 6040: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6001:(1): 426–48. 6000: 5996: 5989: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5946: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5903: 5901: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5857: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5834:(2): 384–99. 5833: 5829: 5822: 5813: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5770: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5735: 5733: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5709:(3): 203–14. 5708: 5704: 5697: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5666:(3): 681–95. 5665: 5661: 5653: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5602: 5600: 5591: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5560:Infect. Immun 5557: 5550: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5519:(7): 340–49. 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5464: 5456: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5420: 5411: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5388:(6): 381–90. 5387: 5383: 5376: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5341: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5298: 5296: 5287: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5262:(2): 676–84. 5261: 5257: 5256:Infect. Immun 5253: 5251: 5242: 5234: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5211:J. Biol. Chem 5208: 5201: 5193: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5162:Infect. Immun 5159: 5157: 5148: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5090:(5): 232–37. 5089: 5085: 5078: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5032: 5016: 5009: 5007: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4992: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4949: 4941: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4828: 4820: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4789:Infect. Immun 4786: 4784: 4775: 4767: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4734: 4728:, p. 427 4727: 4722: 4720: 4711: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4645:(3): 115–19. 4644: 4640: 4633: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4579: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4525: 4516: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4473: 4471: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4421: 4406: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4373: 4366: 4361: 4353: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4333:10.1186/ar567 4329: 4325: 4321: 4320:Arthritis Res 4317: 4310: 4304:, p. 134 4303: 4298: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4263: 4247: 4243: 4236: 4234: 4225: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4184: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4059:(1): 139–45. 4058: 4054: 4050: 4043: 4036: 4031: 4023: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4006:(6): 946–50. 4005: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3978: 3976: 3968: 3963: 3947: 3943: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3916:, p. 187 3915: 3910: 3904:, p. 156 3903: 3898: 3891: 3886: 3879: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3808: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3777:(7): 473–85. 3776: 3772: 3765: 3759:, p. 136 3758: 3753: 3746: 3741: 3735:, p. 117 3734: 3729: 3722: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3694:(5): 557–64. 3693: 3689: 3682: 3675: 3670: 3663: 3658: 3651: 3646: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3615:(3): 187–96. 3614: 3610: 3603: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3545:(8): 575–81. 3544: 3540: 3533: 3526: 3521: 3514: 3509: 3503:, p. 161 3502: 3497: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3459: 3454: 3447: 3442: 3435: 3430: 3423: 3418: 3411: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3357: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3304: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3253: 3244: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3203: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3159: 3144: 3140: 3134: 3127: 3122: 3115: 3110: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3085:(5): 489–95. 3084: 3080: 3076: 3069: 3062: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2999:(9): 516–18. 2998: 2994: 2987: 2981:, p. 136 2980: 2975: 2973: 2966:, p. 188 2965: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2929:(2): 163–89. 2928: 2924: 2917: 2910: 2905: 2899:, p. 118 2898: 2893: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2870:(3): 124–26. 2869: 2865: 2858: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2835:(5): 383–89. 2834: 2830: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2765:(1–2): 3–14. 2764: 2760: 2753: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2720:(4): 935–45. 2719: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2696: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2646: 2641: 2634: 2629: 2622: 2617: 2610: 2605: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2562:(2): 147–52. 2561: 2557: 2553: 2546: 2544: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2494: 2487: 2482: 2475: 2470: 2463: 2458: 2452:, p. vii 2451: 2446: 2440:, p. 263 2439: 2434: 2418: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2379:(4): 515–17. 2378: 2374: 2370: 2363: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2300: 2295: 2293: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2247: 2240: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2178: 2176: 2168: 2163: 2161: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2142: 2135:, p. 186 2134: 2129: 2127: 2119: 2113: 2111: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2079:(2): 96–103. 2078: 2074: 2067: 2065: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2031:, p. 331 2030: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2012:, p. 251 2011: 2006: 2000:, p. 250 1999: 1994: 1992: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1952: 1945: 1943: 1938: 1931: 1928: 1924: 1923:fruiting body 1920: 1916: 1912: 1911: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1886: 1883:with a human 1882: 1878: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1858: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792:phospholipase 1789: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1774: 1773:phagolysosome 1763: 1761: 1757: 1756: 1751: 1750: 1745: 1744: 1739: 1731: 1727: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1703:streptolysins 1700: 1690: 1688: 1684: 1683:schwann cells 1680: 1676: 1675: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1661: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1647: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1625: 1620: 1612: 1608: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1566: 1561: 1560: 1555: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1531: 1529: 1528:wound healing 1525: 1521: 1517: 1516: 1511: 1500: 1493: 1488: 1474: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1391: 1389: 1384: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1354: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1336: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1289: 1288:Kupffer cells 1286: 1283: 1282: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1265: 1263: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1225: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1206: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1181: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1147: 1142: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1116: 1114: 1113:promyelocytes 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1081: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1023: 1019: 1011: 1007: 1003: 991: 986: 984: 980: 979:interleukin-6 976: 975:interleukin-1 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 948: 944: 940: 936: 935:in diameter. 934: 930: 929:cell division 926: 919: 909: 906: 902: 894: 889: 884: 874: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 850: 848: 844: 840: 831: 822: 818: 816: 811: 807: 796: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 769:myeloid cells 760: 751: 749: 745: 741: 737: 731: 721: 719: 715: 711: 707: 697: 692: 682: 680: 676: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 645: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 622: 620: 616: 612: 611:cell division 606: 596: 594: 589: 580: 578: 574: 569: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 529:Extracellular 526: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 499: 498: 493: 490: 485: 476: 474: 471:and infected 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 445: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 422: 420: 410: 408: 407:extracellular 404: 403:intracellular 395: 386: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 347: 343: 341: 337: 336:phagolysosome 333: 329: 325: 321: 318:, parasites, 317: 307: 302: 292: 288: 286: 282: 278: 277: 272: 268: 264: 259: 257: 253: 252: 247: 246: 241: 236: 234: 232: 226: 224: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 185: 176: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 148: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 109: 107: 103: 99: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 74: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 46: 42: 38: 34: 30: 19: 7529: 7338:Inflammation 7323:Alloimmunity 7318:Autoimmunity 7303:Immunity vs. 7255:Autoantibody 7153:Superantigen 7060: 7000:Phagocytosis 6969:Reticulocyte 6743:Granulocytes 6694:Reticulocyte 6586:Promyelocyte 6549:Myelopoiesis 6465:Online books 6455: 6425: 6404: 6383: 6364: 6342: 6323: 6315:Bibliography 6288: 6284: 6278: 6266: 6223: 6219: 6209: 6166: 6162: 6156: 6131: 6127: 6106: 6053: 6049: 6039: 5998: 5994: 5988: 5955: 5951: 5945: 5915:(1): 21–27. 5912: 5908: 5866: 5862: 5856: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5812: 5780:Parasitology 5779: 5775: 5769: 5747:(1): 35–41. 5744: 5740: 5706: 5702: 5696: 5663: 5659: 5652: 5615: 5611: 5563: 5559: 5549: 5516: 5513:Inflamm. Res 5512: 5508: 5502: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5463: 5428: 5424: 5418: 5410: 5385: 5381: 5375: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5307: 5303: 5259: 5255: 5249: 5241: 5214: 5210: 5200: 5165: 5161: 5155: 5147: 5125:(1): 48–55. 5122: 5118: 5112: 5087: 5083: 5077: 5067:December 19, 5065:. Retrieved 5045: 5041: 5031: 5021:December 19, 5019:. Retrieved 4962: 4958: 4948: 4911: 4907: 4897: 4875:(3): 85–87. 4872: 4868: 4862: 4837: 4833: 4827: 4792: 4788: 4782: 4774: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4681: 4677: 4667: 4642: 4638: 4632: 4622:December 19, 4620:. Retrieved 4592: 4588: 4578: 4533: 4529: 4523: 4515: 4482: 4479:Immunol. Rev 4478: 4434: 4430: 4420: 4410:December 19, 4408:. Retrieved 4386: 4382: 4372: 4360: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4297: 4272: 4268: 4262: 4252:December 19, 4250:. Retrieved 4246:the original 4197: 4193: 4183: 4150: 4146: 4140: 4105: 4101: 4091: 4056: 4052: 4042: 4037:, p. 62 4030: 4003: 4000:Pediatr. Res 3999: 3989: 3984:, p. 18 3962: 3952:December 19, 3950:. 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