Apoptosis - Knowledge

1191:, have been mutated to determine the new phenotype. In order to create a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) knockout, an exon containing the nucleotides 3704–5364 was removed from the gene. This exon encodes a portion of the mature TNF domain, as well as the leader sequence, which is a highly conserved region necessary for proper intracellular processing. TNF-/- mice develop normally and have no gross structural or morphological abnormalities. However, upon immunization with SRBC (sheep red blood cells), these mice demonstrated a deficiency in the maturation of an antibody response; they were able to generate normal levels of IgM, but could not develop specific IgG levels. Apaf-1 is the protein that turns on caspase 9 by cleavage to begin the caspase cascade that leads to apoptosis. Since a -/- mutation in the APAF-1 gene is embryonic lethal, a gene trap strategy was used in order to generate an APAF-1 -/- mouse. This assay is used to disrupt gene function by creating an intragenic gene fusion. When an APAF-1 gene trap is introduced into cells, many morphological changes occur, such as spina bifida, the persistence of interdigital webs, and open brain. In addition, after embryonic day 12.5, the brain of the embryos showed several structural changes. APAF-1 cells are protected from apoptosis stimuli such as irradiation. A BAX-1 knock-out mouse exhibits normal forebrain formation and a decreased programmed cell death in some neuronal populations and in the spinal cord, leading to an increase in motor neurons. 1393:

observation known as the "Inverse Warburg hypothesis"). Moreover, there is an inverse epidemiological comorbidity between neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. The progression of HIV is directly linked to excess, unregulated apoptosis. In a healthy individual, the number of CD4+ lymphocytes is in balance with the cells generated by the bone marrow; however, in HIV-positive patients, this balance is lost due to an inability of the bone marrow to regenerate CD4+ cells. In the case of HIV, CD4+ lymphocytes die at an accelerated rate through uncontrolled apoptosis, when stimulated. At the molecular level, hyperactive apoptosis can be caused by defects in signaling pathways that regulate the Bcl-2 family proteins. Increased expression of apoptotic proteins such as BIM, or their decreased proteolysis, leads to cell death and can cause a number of pathologies, depending on the cells where excessive activity of BIM occurs. Cancer cells can escape apoptosis through mechanisms that suppress BIM expression or by increased proteolysis of BIM.

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cre-lox technology, a caspase 8 knock-out has been created that exhibits an increase in peripheral T cells, an impaired T cell response, and a defect in neural tube closure . These mice were found to be resistant to apoptosis mediated by CD95, TNFR, etc. but not resistant to apoptosis caused by UV irradiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, and other stimuli. Finally, a caspase 3 knock-out was characterized by ectopic cell masses in the brain and abnormal apoptotic features such as membrane blebbing or nuclear fragmentation . A remarkable feature of these KO mice is that they have a very restricted phenotype: Casp3, 9, APAF-1 KO mice have deformations of neural tissue and FADD and Casp 8 KO showed defective heart development, however, in both types of KO other organs developed normally and some cell types were still sensitive to apoptotic stimuli suggesting that unknown proapoptotic pathways exist.

1305:, therefore overexpression leads to a decrease in the number of proapoptotic agonists. As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die. Defects in regulation of apoptosis in cancer cells occur often at the level of control of transcription factors. As a particular example, defects in molecules that control transcription factor NF-κB in cancer change the mode of transcriptional regulation and the response to apoptotic signals, to curtail dependence on the tissue that the cell belongs. This degree of independence from external survival signals, can enable cancer metastasis. 1236:). Supernatant screening for caspases, HMGB1, and cytokeratin 18 release can identify primary from secondary necrotic cells. However, no distinct surface or biochemical markers of necrotic cell death have been identified yet, and only negative markers are available. These include absence of apoptotic markers (caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation) and differential kinetics of cell death markers (phosphatidylserine exposure and cell membrane permeabilization). A selection of techniques that can be used to distinguish apoptosis from necroptotic cells could be found in these references. 504: 1375:

restore apoptosis to treat diseases with deficient cell death and to increase the apoptotic threshold to treat diseases involved with excessive cell death. To stimulate apoptosis, one can increase the number of death receptor ligands (such as TNF or TRAIL), antagonize the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 pathway, or introduce Smac mimetics to inhibit the inhibitor (IAPs). The addition of agents such as Herceptin, Iressa, or Gleevec works to stop cells from cycling and causes apoptosis activation by blocking growth and survival signaling further upstream. Finally, adding p53-

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effects, often in the form of disease or disorder. A discussion of every disease caused by modification of the various apoptotic pathways would be impractical, but the concept overlying each one is the same: The normal functioning of the pathway has been disrupted in such a way as to impair the ability of the cell to undergo normal apoptosis. This results in a cell that lives past its "use-by date" and is able to replicate and pass on any faulty machinery to its progeny, increasing the likelihood of the cell's becoming cancerous or diseased.

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to suppress viral budding. By suppressing viral budding, the researchers were able to trap the HIV virus in the cell and allow for the cell to undergo apoptosis (natural cell death). Associate Professor Mikako Fujita has stated that the approach is not yet available to HIV patients because the research team has to conduct further research on combining the drug therapy that currently exists with this "Lock-in and apoptosis" approach to lead to complete recovery from HIV.

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the human papillomavirus, HPV being responsible for the formation of the cervical tumor from which HeLa cells are derived. HPV E6 causes p53, which regulates the cell cycle, to become inactive. HPV E7 binds to retinoblastoma tumor suppressing proteins and limits its ability to control cell division. These two inhibitory proteins are partially responsible for HeLa cells' immortality by inhibiting apoptosis to occur.

323: 487:) is used in Greek to describe the "dropping off" or "falling off" of petals from flowers, or leaves from trees. To show the derivation clearly, we propose that the stress should be on the penultimate syllable, the second half of the word being pronounced like "ptosis" (with the "p" silent), which comes from the same root "to fall", and is already used to describe the drooping of the upper eyelid. 1265: 1204: 1604:

receptor and inducing a response. Furthermore, many viruses express p53 inhibitors that can bind p53 and inhibit its transcriptional transactivation activity. As a consequence, p53 cannot induce apoptosis, since it cannot induce the expression of proapoptotic proteins. The adenovirus E1B-55K protein and the

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E1B 19K protein. Some viruses express caspase inhibitors that inhibit caspase activity and an example is the CrmA protein of cowpox viruses. Whilst a number of viruses can block the effects of TNF and Fas. For example, the M-T2 protein of myxoma viruses can bind TNF preventing it from binding the TNF

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Researchers from Kumamoto University in Japan have developed a new method to eradicate HIV in viral reservoir cells, named "Lock-in and apoptosis." Using the synthesized compound Heptanoylphosphatidyl L-Inositol Pentakisphophate (or L-Hippo) to bind strongly to the HIV protein PR55Gag, they were able

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The many different types of apoptotic pathways contain a multitude of different biochemical components, many of them not yet understood. As a pathway is more or less sequential in nature, removing or modifying one component leads to an effect in another. In a living organism, this can have disastrous

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play the central role in the transduction of ER apoptotic signals. Caspases are proteins that are highly conserved, cysteine-dependent aspartate-specific proteases. There are two types of caspases: initiator caspases (caspases 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12) and effector caspases (caspases 3, 6, and 7). The

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involved in cell survival and inflammatory responses. However, signalling through TNFR1 might also induce apoptosis in a caspase-independent manner. The link between TNF-alpha and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF-alpha plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially in

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For many years, neither "apoptosis" nor "programmed cell death" was a highly cited term. Two discoveries brought cell death from obscurity to a major field of research: identification of the first component of the cell death control and effector mechanisms, and linkage of abnormalities in cell death

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cells is inhibited by proteins produced by the cell; these inhibitory proteins target retinoblastoma tumor-suppressing proteins. These tumor-suppressing proteins regulate the cell cycle, but are rendered inactive when bound to an inhibitory protein. HPV E6 and E7 are inhibitory proteins expressed by

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Inhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections. It was originally believed that the associated accumulation of cells was due to an increase in cellular proliferation, but it is now known that it is also due to a decrease in cell death. The most

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In order for apoptosis to occur within OROV, viral uncoating, viral internalization, along with the replication of cells is necessary. Apoptosis in some viruses is activated by extracellular stimuli. However, studies have demonstrated that the OROV infection causes apoptosis to be activated through

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Cells may also die as direct consequences of viral infections. HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis. The progression from HIV to AIDS is not immediate or even necessarily rapid; HIV's cytotoxic activity toward CD4+ lymphocytes is classified as AIDS once a given patient's

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and quickly dies. This fact forms the basis for some apoptotic pathways. Apoptotic proteins that target mitochondria affect them in different ways. They may cause mitochondrial swelling through the formation of membrane pores, or they may increase the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane and

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family members. As a result, the malignant cells experience an abnormal response to apoptosis induction: Cycle-regulating genes (such as p53, ras or c-myc) are mutated or inactivated in diseased cells, and further genes (such as bcl-2) also modify their expression in tumors. Some apoptotic factors

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The caspase proteins are integral parts of the apoptosis pathway, so it follows that knock-outs made have varying damaging results. A caspase 9 knock-out leads to a severe brain malformation . A caspase 8 knock-out leads to cardiac failure and thus embryonic lethality . However, with the use of

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On the other hand, loss of control of cell death (resulting in excess apoptosis) can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage. Neurons that rely on mitochondrial respiration undergo apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. (an

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The main method of treatment for potential death from signaling-related diseases involves either increasing or decreasing the susceptibility of apoptosis in diseased cells, depending on whether the disease is caused by either the inhibition of or excess apoptosis. For instance, treatments aim to

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serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis. In fact, iodine and thyroxine also stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibian's metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the

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that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The proapoptotic homodimers are required to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators such as cytochrome c and SMAC. Control of proapoptotic proteins under normal cell conditions of nonapoptotic cells is

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The characterization of the caspases allowed the development of caspase inhibitors, which can be used to determine whether a cellular process involves active caspases. Using these inhibitors it was discovered that cells can die while displaying a morphology similar to apoptosis without caspase

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Before the actual process of cell death is precipitated by enzymes, apoptotic signals must cause regulatory proteins to initiate the apoptosis pathway. This step allows those signals to cause cell death, or the process to be stopped, should the cell no longer need to die. Several proteins are

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that disrupt cellular function and eventually leads to the cells death. In normal cells, CDV activates caspase-8 first, which works as the initiator protein followed by the executioner protein caspase-3. However, apoptosis induced by CDV in HeLa cells does not involve the initiator protein

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scaffold, resulting in Bcl dissociation and thus cell survival. Akt also activates IKKα, which leads to NF-κB activation and cell survival. Active NF-κB induces the expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-2, resulting in inhibition of apoptosis. NF-κB has been found to play both an

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and mediate apoptosis. Apoptosis is known to be one of the primary mechanisms of targeted cancer therapy. Luminescent iridium complex-peptide hybrids (IPHs) have recently been designed, which mimic TRAIL and bind to death receptors on cancer cells, thereby inducing their apoptosis.

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Many viruses encode proteins that can inhibit apoptosis. Several viruses encode viral homologs of Bcl-2. These homologs can inhibit proapoptotic proteins such as BAX and BAK, which are essential for the activation of apoptosis. Examples of viral Bcl-2 proteins include the

3287:"The lysosome-associated apoptosis-inducing protein containing the pleckstrin homology (PH) and FYVE domains (LAPF), representative of a novel family of PH and FYVE domain-containing proteins, induces caspase-independent apoptosis via the lysosomal-mitochondrial pathway" 180:, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human 1646:

that ruptures as the cell dies. Additionally, plants do not contain phagocytic cells, which are essential in the process of breaking down and removing apoptotic bodies. Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name

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Apoptosis is a multi-step, multi-pathway cell-death programme that is inherent in every cell of the body. In cancer, the apoptosis cell-division ratio is altered. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy and irradiation kills target cells primarily by inducing apoptosis.

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Uğuz AC, Naziroğlu M, Espino J, Bejarano I, González D, Rodríguez AB, Pariente JA (December 2009). "Selenium modulates oxidative stress-induced cell apoptosis in human myeloid HL-60 cells through regulation of calcium release and caspase-3 and -9 activities".

839:(DISC), which contains the FADD, caspase-8 and caspase-10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis of the cell. In other types of cells (type II), the 7054:

Kimball's Biology Pages. Simple explanation of the mechanisms of apoptosis triggered by internal signals (bcl-2), along the caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March

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in a manner that is too rapid for the body's bone marrow to replenish the cells, leading to a compromised immune system. One of the mechanisms by which T-helper cells are depleted is apoptosis, which results from a series of biochemical pathways:

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Many pathways and signals lead to apoptosis, but these converge on a single mechanism that actually causes the death of the cell. After a cell receives stimulus, it undergoes organized degradation of cellular organelles by activated proteolytic

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The initiation of apoptosis is tightly regulated by activation mechanisms, because once apoptosis has begun, it inevitably leads to the death of the cell. The two best-understood activation mechanisms are the intrinsic pathway (also called the

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are vital during mitochondrial respiration e.g. cytochrome C. Pathological inactivation of apoptosis in cancer cells is correlated with frequent respiratory metabolic shifts toward glycolysis (an observation known as the "Warburg hypothesis".

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to the apoptotic mechanisms. An extrinsic pathway for initiation identified in several toxin studies is an increase in calcium concentration within a cell caused by drug activity, which also can cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease

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can be used to compare apoptotic and necrotic cells. There are also various biochemical techniques for analysis of cell surface markers (phosphatidylserine exposure versus cell permeability by flow cytometry), cellular markers such as

963:. The ratio between anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2) and pro-apoptotic (Bax) proteins determines whether a cell lives or dies. Many families of proteins act as negative regulators categorized into either antiapoptotic factors, such as 1401:

Treatments aiming to inhibit works to block specific caspases. Finally, the Akt protein kinase promotes cell survival through two pathways. Akt phosphorylates and inhibits Bad (a Bcl-2 family member), causing Bad to interact with the

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extended its meaning to "the dropping of the scabs". Cormack was no doubt aware of this usage when he suggested the name. Debate continues over the correct pronunciation, with opinion divided between a pronunciation with the second

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complexes displaces p53 and activates the p53 pathway, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Many different methods can be used either to stimulate or to inhibit apoptosis in various places along the death signaling pathway.

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In Greek, apoptosis translates to the "falling off" of leaves from a tree. Cormack, professor of Greek language, reintroduced the term for medical use as it had a medical meaning for the Greeks over two thousand years before.

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of mitochondria and therefore make it more permeable. Nitric oxide has been implicated in initiating and inhibiting apoptosis through its possible action as a signal molecule of subsequent pathways that activate apoptosis.

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Formation of membrane protrusions: Some cell types, under specific conditions, may develop different types of long, thin extensions of the cell membrane called membrane protrusions. Three types have been described:

1480:, leading to cell death. Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal development of cells and the cell cycle maturation. It is also important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of cells. 3397:

Masum AA, Yokoi K, Hisamatsu Y, Naito K, Shashni B, Aoki S (September 2018). "Design and synthesis of a luminescent iridium complex-peptide hybrid (IPH) that detects cancer cells and induces their apoptosis".

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Liu Y, McKalip A, Herman B (May 2000). "Human papillomavirus type 16 E6 and HPV-16 E6/E7 sensitize human keratinocytes to apoptosis induced by chemotherapeutic agents: roles of p53 and caspase activation".

1159:, on their cell surface. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the inner leaflet surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as 1456:

HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis, giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue.

215:, or enzymes that degrade proteins. The two pathways both activate initiator caspases, which then activate executioner caspases, which then kill the cell by degrading proteins indiscriminately. 256:

delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected. While studying tissues using electron microscopy,

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Musicco M, Adorni F, Di Santo S, Prinelli F, Pettenati C, Caltagirone C, et al. (July 2013). "Inverse occurrence of cancer and Alzheimer disease: a population-based incidence study".

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Liu HC, Chen GG, Vlantis AC, Tse GM, Chan AT, van Hasselt CA (March 2008). "Inhibition of apoptosis in human laryngeal cancer cells by E6 and E7 oncoproteins of human papillomavirus 16".

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Long-term live cell imaging (12h) of multinucleated mouse pre-Adipocyte trying to undergo mitosis. Due to the excess of genetic material the cell fails to replicate and dies by apoptosis.

655:(IAPs) thereby deactivating them, and preventing the IAPs from arresting the process and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed. IAP also normally suppresses the activity of a group of 5512:

Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne CM, Garewal H (June 2002). "DNA repair/pro-apoptotic dual-role proteins in five major DNA repair pathways: fail-safe protection against carcinogenesis".

755:. The binding of TNF-alpha to TNFR1 has been shown to initiate the pathway that leads to caspase activation via the intermediate membrane proteins TNF receptor-associated death domain ( 1615:

that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell, and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response. This favours the spread of the virus.

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to human disease, in particular cancer. This occurred in 1988 when it was shown that BCL2, the gene responsible for follicular lymphoma, encoded a protein that inhibited cell death.

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at the University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death. Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join

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the cell kills itself because of signals from other cells. Weak external signals may also activate the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Both pathways induce cell death by activating

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LaFerla FM, Tinkle BT, Bieberich CJ, Haudenschild CC, Jay G (January 1995). "The Alzheimer's A beta peptide induces neurodegeneration and apoptotic cell death in transgenic mice".

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Sebbagh M, Renvoizé C, Hamelin J, Riché N, Bertoglio J, Bréard J (April 2001). "Caspase-3-mediated cleavage of ROCK I induces MLC phosphorylation and apoptotic membrane blebbing".

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caspase-8. HeLa cell apoptosis caused by CDV follows a different mechanism than that in vero cell lines. This change in the caspase cascade suggests CDV induces apoptosis via the

608:. The mechanism of this release is enigmatic, but appears to stem from a multitude of Bax/Bak homo- and hetero-dimers of Bax/Bak inserted into the outer membrane. Once cytochrome 543:

concentration, for example, by damage to the membrane, can all trigger the release of intracellular apoptotic signals by a damaged cell. A number of cellular components, such as

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Tixeira R, Caruso S, Paone S, Baxter AA, Atkin-Smith GK, Hulett MD, Poon IK (March 2017). "Defining the morphologic features and products of cell disassembly during apoptosis".

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at G1, or interphase, to give the cell time to repair; however, it will induce apoptosis if damage is extensive and repair efforts fail. Any disruption to the regulation of the

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Krysko DV, Vanden Berghe T, Parthoens E, D'Herde K, Vandenabeele P (2008). "Chapter 16 Methods for Distinguishing Apoptotic from Necrotic Cells and Measuring Their Clearance".

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Darzynkiewicz Z, Juan G, Li X, Gorczyca W, Murakami T, Traganos F (January 1997). "Cytometry in cell necrobiology: analysis of apoptosis and accidental cell death (necrosis)".

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fragmentation in HeLa cells. It can be interpreted by counting, measuring, and analyzing the cells of the Sub/G1 cell population. When HeLA cells are infected with OROV, the

1096:. Initially these are smaller surface blebs. Later these can grow into larger so-called dynamic membrane blebs. An important regulator of apoptotic cell membrane blebbing is 2776:

Goldstein JC, Waterhouse NJ, Juin P, Evan GI, Green DR (March 2000). "The coordinate release of cytochrome c during apoptosis is rapid, complete and kinetically invariant".

1515:(CDV) is known to cause apoptosis in central nervous system and lymphoid tissue of infected dogs in vivo and in vitro. Apoptosis caused by CDV is typically induced via the 6661:

Wang XW, Gibson MK, Vermeulen W, Yeh H, Forrester K, Stürzbecher HW, et al. (December 1995). "Abrogation of p53-induced apoptosis by the hepatitis B virus X gene".

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Razaghi A, Heimann K, Schaeffer PM, Gibson SB (February 2018). "Negative regulators of cell death pathways in cancer: perspective on biomarkers and targeted therapies".

1436:. This does not directly cause cell death but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received. In parallel, these enzymes activate proapoptotic 1171:. During apoptosis cellular RNA and DNA are separated from each other and sorted to different apoptotic bodies; separation of RNA is initiated as nucleolar segregation. 7034: 1528:, excluding the need for the initiator caspase-8. The executioner protein is instead activated by the internal stimuli caused by viral infection not a caspase cascade. 7071: 4544:

Vandivier RW, Henson PM, Douglas IS (June 2006). "Burying the dead: the impact of failed apoptotic cell removal (efferocytosis) on chronic inflammatory lung disease".

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Gong J, Traganos F, Darzynkiewicz Z (May 1994). "A selective procedure for DNA extraction from apoptotic cells applicable for gel electrophoresis and flow cytometry".

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Gonzalez D, Bejarano I, Barriga C, Rodriguez AB, Pariente JA (2010). "Oxidative Stress-Induced Caspases are Regulated in Human Myeloid HL-60 Cells by Calcium Signal".

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is released from the membrane of the mitochondria, into the cytosol of the cells. This type of interaction shows that apoptosis is activated via an intrinsic pathway.

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In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes

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Susin SA, Lorenzo HK, Zamzami N, Marzo I, Snow BE, Brothers GM, et al. (February 1999). "Molecular characterization of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor".

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Apoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize on classical histology sections. During karyorrhexis,

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Nishi T, Tsukiyama-Kohara K, Togashi K, Kohriyama N, Kai C (November 2004). "Involvement of apoptosis in syncytial cell death induced by canine distemper virus".

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Mailhos C, Howard MK, Latchman DS (April 1994). "A common pathway mediates retinoic acid and PMA-dependent programmed cell death (apoptosis) of neuronal cells".

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Mailhos C, Howard MK, Latchman DS (April 1994). "A common pathway mediates retinoic acid and PMA-dependent programmed cell death (apoptosis) of neuronal cells".

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is activated by intracellular signals generated when cells are stressed and depends on the release of proteins from the intermembrane space of mitochondria. The

282:. Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the 1568:

The Oropouche virus also causes disruption in cultured cells – cells that are cultivated in distinct and specific conditions. An example of this can be seen in

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Coleman ML, Sahai EA, Yeo M, Bosch M, Dewar A, Olson MF (April 2001). "Membrane blebbing during apoptosis results from caspase-mediated activation of ROCK I".

663:, which carry out the degradation of the cell. Therefore, the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability. 1167:

by cells possessing the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an

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that removes the pieces of the dead cell. Instead of an immune response, the dying cell synthesizes substances to break itself down and places them in a

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Halicka HD, Bedner E, Darzynkiewicz Z (November 2000). "Segregation of RNA and separate packaging of DNA and RNA in apoptotic bodies during apoptosis".

6738: 6187: 843:-DISC starts a feedback loop that spirals into increasing release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria and the amplified activation of caspase-8. 1500:

Expression of viral proteins coupled to MHC proteins on the surface of the infected cell, allowing recognition by cells of the immune system (such as

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gene, resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 prevents the cell from replicating by stopping the

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Farhana L, Dawson MI, Fontana JA (June 2005). "Apoptosis induction by a novel retinoid-related molecule requires nuclear factor-kappaB activation".

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A cell initiates intracellular apoptotic signaling in response to a stress, which may bring about cell suicide. The binding of nuclear receptors by

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We are most grateful to Professor James Cormack of the Department of Greek, University of Aberdeen, for suggesting this term. The word "apoptosis" (

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Vaux DL, Cory S, Adams JM (September 1988). "Bcl-2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells".

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Because apoptosis cannot stop once it has begun, it is a highly regulated process. Apoptosis can be initiated through one of two pathways. In the

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cells each day due to apoptosis. For the average human child between 8 and 14 years old, each day the approximate loss is 20 to 30 billion cells.

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Kerr JF (October 1965). "A histochemical study of hypertrophy and ischaemic injury of rat liver with special reference to changes in lysosomes".

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Li MO, Sarkisian MR, Mehal WZ, Rakic P, Flavell RA (November 2003). "Phosphatidylserine receptor is required for clearance of apoptotic cells".

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in plants has a number of molecular similarities to that of animal apoptosis, but it also has differences, notable ones being the presence of a

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Before the apoptotic cell is disposed of, there is a process of disassembly. There are three recognized steps in apoptotic cell disassembly:

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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2008). "Chapter 18 Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death Eliminates Unwanted Cells".

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HeLa cells are an immortalized cancer cell line used frequently in research. The cell line was established by removing cells directly from

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Krysko DV, Vanden Berghe T, D'Herde K, Vandenabeele P (March 2008). "Apoptosis and necrosis: detection, discrimination and phagocytosis".

1672:). Inside the mitochondria, AIF is anchored to the inner membrane. In order to be released, the protein is cleaved by a calcium-dependent 1342:

common of these diseases is cancer, the disease of excessive cellular proliferation, which is often characterized by an overexpression of

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cleavage. The active effector caspases then proteolytically degrade a host of intracellular proteins to carry out the cell death program.

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Niu XY, Peng ZL, Duan WQ, Wang H, Wang P (2006). "Inhibition of HPV 16 E6 oncogene expression by RNA interference in vitro and in vivo".

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Vashistha H, Husain M, Kumar D, Yadav A, Arora S, Singhal PC (2008). "HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis".

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Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby "bystander" T helper cells.

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is rapidly and globally degraded by a mechanism that is not yet fully characterized. mRNA decay is triggered very early in apoptosis.

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Polster BM, Pevsner J, Hardwick JM (March 2004). "Viral Bcl-2 homologs and their role in virus replication and associated diseases".

547:, may also help regulate apoptosis. Single cell fluctuations have been observed in experimental studies of stress induced apoptosis. 49:. The optical thickness is color-coded. With increasing thickness, color changes from gray to yellow, red, purple and finally black. 2376: 1998: 5270:

Wlodkowic D, Telford W, Skommer J, Darzynkiewicz Z (2011). "Apoptosis and beyond: cytometry in studies of programmed cell death".

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Kihlmark M, Imreh G, Hallberg E (October 2001). "Sequential degradation of proteins from the nuclear envelope during apoptosis".

5559: 2821:"Real-Time dynamics of Ca2+, caspase-3/7, and morphological changes in retinal ganglion cell apoptosis under elevated pressure" 46: 278:. Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, the process of natural cell death was called 102: 4768: 4631: 2574: 2012: 1981: 1895: 298: 192:

are able to engulf and remove before the contents of the cell can spill out onto surrounding cells and cause damage to them.

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Negative regulation of apoptosis inhibits cell death signaling pathways, helping tumors to evade cell death and developing

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have been made in the apoptosis pathways to test the function of each of the proteins. Several caspases, in addition to

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Viruses can remain intact from apoptosis in particular in the latter stages of infection. They can be exported in the

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activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristic "laddered" appearance on

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incompletely understood, but in general, Bax or Bak are activated by the activation of BH3-only proteins, part of the

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occurs because cells between the digits undergo apoptosis. Unlike necrosis, apoptosis produces cell fragments called

4489:"A novel mechanism of generating extracellular vesicles during apoptosis via a beads-on-a-string membrane structure" 8284: 8279: 8127: 1516: 1224: 747:, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. Most cells in the human body have two receptors for TNF-alpha: 525: 524:

is activated by extracellular ligands binding to cell-surface death receptors, which leads to the formation of the

3499:"Bcl-2 inhibits Bax translocation from cytosol to mitochondria during drug-induced apoptosis of human tumor cells" 8209: 7001: 5930:

Mochizuki H, Goto K, Mori H, Mizuno Y (May 1996). "Histochemical detection of apoptosis in Parkinson's disease".

1131: 872: 8477: 5373: 5221: 3928:"Apoptosis Triggers Specific, Rapid, and Global mRNA Decay with 3' Uridylated Intermediates Degraded by DIS3L2" 3714:

Venturi, Sebastiano (2014). "Iodine, PUFAs and Iodolipids in Health and Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective".

2668: 1124:

is an important component of membrane channels involved in the formation of apoptopodia and beaded apoptopodia.

1011:

A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a series of characteristic morphological changes. Early alterations include:

964: 577: 7081: 5465:"Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signalling to p53 responses in tumour suppression and antiviral defence" 1281:

A recently described example of this concept in action can be seen in the development of a lung cancer called

313:

for their work identifying genes that control apoptosis. The genes were identified by studies in the nematode

185: 5220:

Vanden Berghe T, Grootjans S, Goossens V, Dondelinger Y, Krysko DV, Takahashi N, Vandenabeele P (June 2013).

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inhibits the activation of caspase-8. Binding of this receptor can also indirectly lead to the activation of

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van Doorn WG, Beers EP, Dangl JL, Franklin-Tong VE, Gallois P, Hara-Nishimura I, et al. (August 2011).

6191: 8462: 7900: 7644: 7134: 7101: 7007:

Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology

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Dickman M, Williams B, Li Y, de Figueiredo P, Wolpert T (October 2017). "Reassessing apoptosis in plants".

1416: 1317:

accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors. Part of this pathway includes alpha-

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The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as

8261: 7450: 2878:

Bejarano I, Espino J, González-Flores D, Casado JG, Redondo PC, Rosado JA, et al. (September 2009).

1717: 265: 162: 702:

Overview of TNF (left) and Fas (right) signalling in apoptosis, an example of direct signal transduction

8198: 7719: 7702: 7685: 7591: 7294: 7059: 7023: 6392:"Apoptosis induced by Oropouche virus infection in HeLa cells is dependent on virus protein expression" 3540:"Building blocks of the apoptotic pore: how Bax and Bak are activated and oligomerize during apoptosis" 1476:

Viral induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several cells of a living organism are infected with a

860: 601: 544: 7018: 6390:

Acrani GO, Gomes R, Proença-Módena JL, da Silva AF, Carminati PO, Silva ML, et al. (April 2010).

2733:

Chiarugi A, Moskowitz MA (July 2002). "Cell biology. PARP-1--a perpetrator of apoptotic cell death?".

8427: 7915: 7910: 7724: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7110: 4430:

Poon IK, Chiu YH, Armstrong AJ, Kinchen JM, Juncadella IJ, Bayliss DA, Ravichandran KS (March 2014).

1665: 929: 274: 6630: 5684:

Del Puerto HL, Martins AS, Milsted A, Souza-Fagundes EM, Braz GF, Hissa B, et al. (June 2011).

4632:"Cell corpse engulfment mediated by C. elegans phosphatidylserine receptor through CED-5 and CED-12" 8361: 8007: 7697: 5852:

Boehm I (June 2006). "Apoptosis in physiological and pathological skin: implications for therapy".

5073:

Lozano GM, Bejarano I, Espino J, González D, Ortiz A, García JF, Rodríguez AB, Pariente JA (2009).

4174:"An evaluation of renal tubular DNA laddering in response to oxygen deprivation and oxidant injury" 3975:

Böhm I (May 2003). "Disruption of the cytoskeleton after apoptosis induction with autoantibodies".

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and causes febrile illness, characterized by the onset of a sudden fever known as Oropouche fever.

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Hay S, Kannourakis G (July 2002). "A time to kill: viral manipulation of the cell death program".

2592:"Saturated fatty acid-induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. A role for cardiolipin" 2030:"A minimal model of signaling network elucidates cell-to-cell stochastic variability in apoptosis" 708:

Two theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the

477:

In the original Kerr, Wyllie & Currie paper, there is a footnote regarding the pronunciation:

8457: 8271: 8097: 7835: 7807: 7734: 7714: 7241: 6431:

Azevedo RS, Nunes MR, Chiang JO, Bensabath G, Vasconcelos HB, Pinto AY, et al. (June 2007).

1301:. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9 and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator 1160: 1155:. Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display phagocytotic molecules, such as 581:

cause apoptotic effectors to leak out. There is also a growing body of evidence indicating that

330: 257: 6480:

Santos RI, Rodrigues AH, Silva ML, Mortara RA, Rossi MA, Jamur MC, et al. (December 2008).

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antiapoptotic role and a proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli utilized and the cell type.

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Everett H, McFadden G (April 1999). "Apoptosis: an innate immune response to virus infection".

6104:"Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS" 5560:"Apoptosis: its origin, history, maintenance and the medical implications for cancer and aging" 1546: 1512: 1343: 651: 619: 315: 286:

on March 14, 2000, for his description of apoptosis. He shared the prize with Boston biologist

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Kim JH, Lee CH (September 2009). "Atromentin-induced apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells".

6482:"Oropouche virus entry into HeLa cells involves clathrin and requires endosomal acidification" 4487:

Atkin-Smith GK, Tixeira R, Paone S, Mathivanan S, Collins C, Liem M, et al. (June 2015).

4018:

Susin SA, Daugas E, Ravagnan L, Samejima K, Zamzami N, Loeffler M, et al. (August 2000).

1851:) die per day. That is, about 5 out of every 1,000 cells (0.5%) die each day due to apoptosis. 8253: 8079: 7973: 7935: 7815: 7761: 7739: 7692: 7573: 7324: 2880:"Role of Calcium Signals on Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Apoptosis in Human Myeloid HL-60 Cells" 1815: 1631: 1216: 1168: 828: 713: 126: 42: 6815:"BAX-induced cell death may not require interleukin 1 beta-converting enzyme-like proteases" 2212:"Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics" 1333:

or interferon genes will result in impaired apoptosis and the possible formation of tumors.

641:

Mitochondria also release proteins known as SMACs (second mitochondria-derived activator of

7944: 7940: 7892: 6826: 6225: 5639: 5574: 5521: 5476: 5372:

Yang L, Mashima T, Sato S, Mochizuki M, Sakamoto H, Yamori T, et al. (February 2003).

5330: 4892: 4643: 4588: 4500: 4443: 3596: 3191: 3140: 2832: 2311: 2051: 1554: 776: 142: 41:

exploding into a cascade of apoptotic bodies. The sub images were extracted from a 61-hour

5463:

Takaoka A, Hayakawa S, Yanai H, Stoiber D, Negishi H, Kikuchi H, et al. (July 2003).

5143: 4380:"A novel role for microtubules in apoptotic chromatin dynamics and cellular fragmentation" 8: 8467: 8062: 8002: 7985: 7671: 6995: 6985: 6975: 1795: 1735: 1576: 1525: 1501: 1093: 146: 120: 6953: 6830: 6229: 6212:

Tateishi H, Monde K, Anraku K, Koga R, Hayashi Y, Ciftci HI, et al. (August 2017).

5643: 5586: 5578: 5525: 5480: 5431: 5334: 4896: 4847: 4647: 4592: 4504: 4447: 3600: 3195: 3144: 3042:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

2836: 2368: 2315: 2272: 2055: 539:, increased intracellular concentration of free fatty acids and increased intracellular 8452: 7744: 7636: 7586: 7391: 6897: 6795: 6714: 6689: 6506: 6481: 6457: 6432: 6246: 6213: 6168: 6049: 6001: 5974: 5955: 5912: 5760: 5712: 5685: 5598: 5440: 5415: 5354: 5298: 5279: 5055: 5012: 4964: 4939: 4879:

Marino MW, Dunn A, Grail D, Inglese M, Noguchi Y, Richards E, et al. (July 1997).

4856: 4831: 4731: 4667: 4630:

Wang X, Wu YC, Fadok VA, Lee MC, Gengyo-Ando K, Cheng LC, et al. (November 2003).

4612: 4521: 4488: 4464: 4431: 4404: 4379: 4360: 4317: 4274: 4044: 4019: 4000: 3952: 3927: 3926:

Thomas MP, Liu X, Whangbo J, McCrossan G, Sanborn KB, Basar E, et al. (May 2015).

3908: 3860: 3835: 3811: 3786: 3664: 3639: 3620: 3564: 3539: 3464: 3423: 3338: 3330: 3256: 3215: 3164: 3110: 3062: 3037: 2904: 2879: 2855: 2820: 2801: 2758: 2715: 2660: 2534: 2335: 2284: 2236: 2211: 2123: 2098: 2074: 2041: 2029: 1596: 1257: 1156: 1142:. The plasma membrane protrusions may help bring apoptotic bodies closer to phagocytes. 781: 586: 6555: 6530: 6326: 5533: 5153: 1938: 7852: 7581: 6924: 6889: 6854: 6849: 6814: 6787: 6719: 6670: 6643: 6595: 6560: 6511: 6462: 6413: 6365: 6330: 6295: 6251: 6160: 6125: 6084: 6041: 6006: 5947: 5943: 5904: 5869: 5834: 5798: 5794: 5752: 5717: 5655: 5606: 5590: 5537: 5494: 5445: 5385: 5346: 5303: 5283: 5241: 5202: 5167: 5157: 5124: 5074: 5047: 5043: 5004: 5000: 4969: 4920: 4915: 4880: 4861: 4812: 4764: 4723: 4659: 4604: 4561: 4526: 4469: 4409: 4352: 4309: 4266: 4195: 4154: 4119: 4084: 4049: 3992: 3957: 3900: 3865: 3816: 3764: 3723: 3669: 3624: 3612: 3569: 3520: 3447: 3415: 3379: 3308: 3239: 3207: 3156: 3102: 3067: 3018: 2977: 2909: 2860: 2793: 2750: 2707: 2652: 2613: 2590:

Hardy S, El-Assaad W, Przybytkowski E, Joly E, Prentki M, Langelier Y (August 2003).

2570: 2538: 2526: 2518: 2327: 2276: 2241: 2163: 2128: 2079: 2008: 1977: 1942: 1891: 1605: 1483:

Viruses can trigger apoptosis of infected cells via a range of mechanisms including:

1229: 1212: 656: 536: 503: 451: 306: 287: 222:, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as 6901: 6546: 6172: 6053: 5959: 5916: 5358: 5321:

Thompson CB (March 1995). "Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease".

5059: 5016: 4735: 4671: 4616: 4364: 4278: 4004: 3743:"Apoptosis and differentiation of Xenopus tail-derived myoblasts by thyroid hormone" 3468: 3427: 3260: 3219: 3168: 3114: 2762: 2719: 2664: 2339: 2288: 1925:

Böhm I, Schild H (2003). "Apoptosis: the complex scenario for a silent cell death".

1668:) from the mitochondria and its translocation into the nucleus mediated by its NLS ( 1203: 649:

following the increase in permeability of the mitochondria membranes. SMAC binds to

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involved, but two main methods of regulation have been identified: the targeting of

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HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins that prompt Fas-mediated apoptosis.

1026: 984: 928:

There also exists a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway that is mediated by AIF (

793: 789: 405: 354: 253: 7368: 6080: 4675: 916:. Effector caspases are then activated by these active initiator caspases through 7857: 7105: 7088: 7066: 7051: 7013: 6591: 6290: 6273: 6037: 5651: 3943: 3085:

Fesik SW, Shi Y (November 2001). "Structural biology. Controlling the caspases".

2845: 2064: 2004: 1885: 1861: 1810: 1532: 1459:

The infected CD4+ cell may also receive the death signal from a cytotoxic T cell.

1294: 1061: 960: 261: 69: 6639: 6361: 6274:"Recent advances in apoptosis, mitochondria and drug resistance in cancer cells" 5237: 5198: 3988: 3640:"Optogenetic Control of Apoptosis in Targeted Tissues of Xenopus laevis Embryos" 7990: 7797: 7667: 6819:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6237: 5865: 5686:"Canine distemper virus induces apoptosis in cervical tumor derived cell lines" 4885:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4696:

Savill J, Gregory C, Haslett C (November 2003). "Cell biology. Eat me or die".

3700: 2940: 2514: 1693: 1220: 942: 671: 532: 302: 50: 28: 8028: 7039: 6991: 6981: 6971: 6783: 6214:"A clue to unprecedented strategy to HIV eradication: "Lock-in and apoptosis"" 6156: 4760: 4262: 3896: 3741:

Tamura K, Takayama S, Ishii T, Mawaribuchi S, Takamatsu N, Ito M (June 2015).

3411: 3323: 3252: 2703: 2501:

Nirmala, J. Grace; Lopus, Manu (2020). "Cell death mechanisms in eukaryotes".

2432: 2114: 1545:

was initiated in 1996, when it was observed that apoptosis was induced by the

1368:

Further information on a clinical pathology test that measures apoptosis:

1232:(flow cytometry), caspase activation, Bid cleavage, and cytochrome c release ( 8446: 7792: 7520: 6839: 5991: 4557: 3787:"Understanding Apoptosis and Apoptotic Pathways Targeted Cancer Therapeutics" 3727: 3472: 3264: 2522: 1639: 1608:

HBx protein are examples of viral proteins that can perform such a function.

1424: 1248:

A section of mouse liver showing several apoptotic cells, indicated by arrows

1244: 1180: 1152: 1080: 1065: 892: 835:(FasL). The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the 573: 552: 513: 455: 252:

was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885, anatomist

170: 8346: 7111:

DeathBase: a database of proteins involved in cell death, curated by experts

7006: 5975:"Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid hypothesis and the Inverse Warburg effect" 5702: 5342: 4905: 4709: 4655: 4600: 4231: 4214: 4080: 3460: 3374: 3357: 3203: 3152: 3098: 2895: 2746: 2403: 2159: 8184: 8163: 8105: 8017: 7782: 7778: 7542: 6893: 6791: 6723: 6647: 6599: 6515: 6466: 6448: 6417: 6369: 6334: 6299: 6255: 6164: 6129: 6088: 6045: 6010: 5873: 5838: 5831:

10.1002/(sici)1097-4644(20000801)78:2<334::aid-jcb15>3.3.co;2-6

5802: 5756: 5721: 5659: 5594: 5541: 5498: 5449: 5389: 5307: 5245: 5206: 5171: 4973: 4865: 4816: 4808: 4727: 4663: 4608: 4565: 4530: 4473: 4413: 4356: 4313: 4270: 4150: 4123: 4115: 4088: 4053: 3996: 3961: 3904: 3869: 3820: 3768: 3673: 3573: 3524: 3515: 3498: 3419: 3383: 3312: 3303: 3286: 3211: 3160: 3106: 3071: 3053: 3022: 3013: 2996: 2981: 2972: 2955: 2913: 2864: 2797: 2754: 2711: 2656: 2617: 2608: 2591: 2530: 2280: 2132: 2083: 1946: 1750: 1584: 1537: 1302: 1233: 1198: 1164: 1139: 1053: 1037: 1016: 968: 816: 594: 582: 462:), but articulated when used in combining forms preceded by a vowel, as in 326: 310: 231: 227: 154: 138: 6858: 6674: 6564: 6120: 6103: 5951: 5908: 5350: 5184: 5128: 5051: 5008: 4924: 4749:

Krysko DV, Vandenabeele P (2009-01-14). Krysko DV, Vandenabeele P (eds.).

4199: 4158: 4035: 3802: 3616: 3327:. If this is an intentional citation to a retracted paper, please replace 2331: 2245: 2167: 1552:

OROV is a disease that is transmitted between humans by the biting midge (

1151:

The removal of dead cells by neighboring phagocytic cells has been termed

82: 8405: 8012: 7825: 7563: 7532: 7002:

Apoptosis MiniCOPE Dictionary – list of apoptosis terms and acronyms

6885: 5222:"Determination of apoptotic and necrotic cell death in vitro and in vivo" 5219: 5145:

Programmed Cell Death, General Principles for Studying Cell Death, Part A

5121:

10.1002/(sici)1097-0320(19970101)27:1<1::aid-cyto2>3.0.co;2-l

3851: 3555: 2648: 1775: 1765: 1760: 1572:, whereby the cells begin to degenerate shortly after they are infected. 1549:

into the kidney cells of baby hamsters and into the brains of baby mice.

1105: 917: 912:

activation of initiator caspases requires binding to specific oligomeric

471: 339: 150: 6705: 5489: 5464: 4752:

Phagocytosis of dying cells: from molecular mechanisms to human diseases

4455: 4432:"Unexpected link between an antibiotic, pannexin channels and apoptosis" 4190: 4173: 3759: 3742: 3285:

Chen W, Li N, Chen T, Han Y, Li C, Wang Y, et al. (December 2005).

3182:

Chen G, Goeddel DV (May 2002). "TNF-R1 signaling: a beautiful pathway".

3131:

Wajant H (May 2002). "The Fas signaling pathway: more than a paradigm".

2227: 1664:

activation. Later studies linked this phenomenon to the release of AIF (

319:

and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate apoptosis.

8087: 7965: 7484: 7157: 5141: 4955: 4512: 3655: 2180: 1805: 1785: 1770: 1729: 1722: 1600: 1569: 1369: 1326: 1318: 1121: 891:

family are established. This balance is the proportion of proapoptotic

832: 744: 627: 463: 7126: 5900: 5748: 5683: 4395: 1022:

The cytoplasm appears dense, and the organelles appear tightly packed.

8351: 8319: 8314: 8173: 8168: 8151: 7995: 7557: 7547: 7230: 7226: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7198: 7194: 7184: 7180: 7120: 6347: 4348: 4305: 3836:"BCL-2 family proteins: changing partners in the dance towards death" 3492: 2789: 2323: 1745: 1740: 1635: 1562: 1440:, which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis. 1298: 736: 631: 576:

are essential to multicellular life. Without them, a cell ceases to

249: 189: 34: 5269: 5249: 4718: 2632: 1252: 634:, which in turn cleaves and activates pro-caspase into the effector 612:

is released it binds with Apoptotic protease activating factor – 1 (

8410: 7787: 7612: 7552: 7537: 7506: 7492: 7222: 7204: 7190: 7176: 6919:

Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2015).

2877: 1835:

Note that the average human adult has more than 13 trillion cells (

1780: 1726: 1687: 1559: 1520: 1282: 1092:

Membrane blebbing: The cell membrane shows irregular buds known as

1069: 1030: 740: 212: 177: 158: 8366: 5886: 3608: 2046: 1025:

Chromatin undergoes condensation into compact patches against the

988: 600:

is released from mitochondria through the actions of the proteins

572:

The intrinsic pathway is also known as the mitochondrial pathway.

7769: 7621: 7528: 7501: 7160: 6389: 4486: 1790: 1755: 1702: 1673: 1643: 1268:

Neonatal cardiomyocytes ultrastructure after anoxia-reoxygenation

1001: 908: 693: 684: 660: 646: 642: 561: 540: 459: 219: 208: 7098: 6739:"Programmed cell death in plants resembles apoptosis of animals" 6687: 2926: 1019:

and the breakdown of the proteinaceous cytoskeleton by caspases.

994: 630:. The apoptosome cleaves the pro-caspase to its active form of 8356: 8341: 8226: 7460: 7376: 7362: 7358: 7354: 7346: 7304: 7299: 7168: 5272:

Recent Advances in Cytometry, Part B - Advances in Applications

4213:

Smith A, Parkes MA, Atkin-Smith GK, Tixeira R, Poon IK (2017).

2589: 1890:. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. 1712: 1707: 1620: 1403: 1029:(also known as the perinuclear envelope) in a process known as 1015:

Cell shrinkage and rounding occur because of the retraction of

877: 719: 614: 322: 223: 181: 7094:

Robert Horvitz's Short Clip: Discovering Programmed Cell Death

6769: 5511: 3740: 947:

aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous

859:

activation in mammalian cells a balance between proapoptotic (

8420: 8415: 8331: 8302: 8221: 7435: 7430: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7026:

Apoptosis protocols, articles, news, and recent publications.

6580:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research

6023: 4212: 4172:

Iwata M, Myerson D, Torok-Storb B, Zager RA (December 1994).

3882: 1616: 1477: 1184: 1097: 976: 972: 913: 897: 883: 797: 772: 768: 764: 756: 752: 748: 482: 343: 134: 133:

and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as

38: 6350:

Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

5972: 5630:

Warburg O (February 1956). "On the origin of cancer cells".

5072: 4171: 1264: 496: 8400: 8336: 8309: 8146: 8139: 8134: 7464: 7455: 7425: 7404: 7342: 6479: 6430: 5462: 5106: 4334: 4017: 2775: 2688: 1420: 1376: 1356: 1290: 1188: 1057: 1005: 980: 948: 760: 426: 414: 408: 372: 363: 166: 113: 5274:. Methods in Cell Biology. Vol. 103. pp. 55–98. 4881:"Characterization of tumor necrosis factor-deficient mice" 4794: 1887:

Means to an End: Apoptosis and other Cell Death Mechanisms

1508:) that then induce the infected cell to undergo apoptosis. 535:, heat, radiation, nutrient deprivation, viral infection, 230:

and caspases promote apoptosis, while some members of the

7445: 7409: 7399: 7372: 7350: 6142: 5148:. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 442. pp. 307–41. 4136: 3925: 3687:

Venturi S (2011). "Evolutionary Significance of Iodine".

3038:"Pore formation by dimeric Bak and Bax: an unusual pore?" 2259:

O'Rourke MG, Ellem KA (2000). "John Kerr and apoptosis".

1800: 1580: 1447: 1314: 1100:(rho associated coiled-coil-containing protein kinase 1). 1004:. In addition to the destruction of cellular organelles, 467: 432: 378: 357: 7666: 7078:

magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer.

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Methods for distinguishing apoptotic from necrotic cells

923: 585:

is able to induce apoptosis by helping to dissipate the

16:

Type of programmed cell death in multicellular organisms

6211: 5929: 4378:

Moss DK, Betin VM, Malesinski SD, Lane JD (June 2006).

4377: 3637: 1996: 1321:

and beta-interferon, which induce transcription of the

272:. In 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the 6660: 6577: 4878: 4543: 4102:

Nagata S (April 2000). "Apoptotic DNA fragmentation".

3358:"Apoptosis in the development and treatment of cancer" 2994: 2375:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2020. 555:

functionality, or directly transducing the signal via

342:

used the term to mean "the falling off of the bones".

7115: 6272:

Indran IR, Tufo G, Pervaiz S, Brenner C (June 2011).

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intracellular stimuli and involves the mitochondria.

454:

is typically silent at the beginning of a word (e.g.

435: 429: 390: 381: 375: 6066: 4695: 4291: 4020:"Two distinct pathways leading to nuclear apoptosis" 3833: 1683: 1120:(the latter having a beads-on-a-string appearance). 423: 417: 411: 369: 360: 6736: 6690:"Morphological classification of plant cell deaths" 6278:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics

3713: 3537: 2482: 2470: 2458: 2446: 2369:"The American Heritage Dictionary entry: apoptosis" 2346: 954: 420: 366: 7082:Xiaodong Wang's lecture: Introduction to Apoptosis 6812: 5548: 4748: 4572: 3235:"Connection Map for Tumor Necrosis Factor Pathway" 2995:Brüne B, von Knethen A, Sandau KB (October 1999). 333:in 2002, for his pioneering research on apoptosis. 6433:"Reemergence of Oropouche fever, northern Brazil" 6101: 5973:Demetrius LA, Magistretti PJ, Pellerin L (2014). 5734: 3834:Kale J, Osterlund EJ, Andrews DW (January 2018). 2732: 2258: 1450:glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane. 8444: 6813:Xiang J, Chao DT, Korsmeyer SJ (December 1996). 6531:"Regulation of apoptosis by viral gene products" 5815: 5079:Anatolian Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 3538:Westphal D, Kluck RM, Dewson G (February 2014). 2209: 1658: 935: 8058: 6312: 5780: 4940:"Regulation of the Apaf-1-caspase-9 apoptosome" 4937: 4425: 4423: 4244: 4242: 4060: 3780: 3778: 2363: 2361: 1953: 6615: 6528: 4629: 2956:"Nitric oxide: NO apoptosis or turning it ON?" 2099:"Apoptosis: A Review of Programmed Cell Death" 1920: 1918: 169:decay. The average adult human loses 50 to 70 8044: 7652: 7142: 6060: 6017: 5783:International Journal of Gynecological Cancer 4178:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 3284: 3278: 3035: 2997:"Nitric oxide (NO): an effector of apoptosis" 2818: 2301: 2210:Kerr JF, Wyllie AH, Currie AR (August 1972). 2181:Agency for Science, Technology and Research. 1084:Different steps in apoptotic cell disassembly 1075: 995:Proteolytic caspase cascade: Killing the cell 788:also includes death receptors (DRs), such as 767:/2 can inhibit TNF-α signaling by binding to 8386: 6923:(6th ed.). Garland Science. p. 2. 6806: 6763: 6102:Alimonti JB, Ball TB, Fowke KR (July 2003). 5966: 5679: 5677: 5675: 5673: 5671: 5669: 5623: 5505: 5314: 4537: 4480: 4420: 4371: 4328: 4285: 4239: 4011: 3827: 3775: 2682: 2624: 2500: 2358: 2027: 1974:Apoptosis in Carcinogenesis and Chemotherapy 728:(TNFR) family coupled to extrinsic signals. 268:, who was Currie's graduate student, at the 141:events lead to characteristic cell changes ( 5923: 5880: 5809: 5557: 5413: 4095: 3784: 3638:Jewhurst K, Levin M, McLaughlin KA (2014). 3580: 3181: 3078: 2884:International Journal of Biomedical Science 2630: 2564: 2560: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2417: 2205: 2203: 1915: 1260:to show cells undergoing apoptosis (orange) 1040:. The nucleus breaks into several discrete 759:) and Fas-associated death domain protein ( 52:See the video at The Cell: An Image Library 8051: 8037: 7659: 7645: 7149: 7135: 7030:Database of proteins involved in apoptosis 6385: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6267: 6265: 3443:"Connection Map for Fas Signaling Pathway" 3341:|...|intentional=yes}} 3226: 2183:"Prof Andrew H. Wyllie – Lecture Abstract" 1924: 819:(First apoptosis signal) – (also known as 284:Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize 237: 7441:Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein 6874:Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 6848: 6838: 6713: 6629: 6554: 6505: 6456: 6407: 6289: 6245: 6119: 6000: 5990: 5711: 5701: 5666: 5488: 5439: 5297: 4963: 4914: 4904: 4855: 4829: 4717: 4520: 4463: 4403: 4230: 4189: 4043: 3951: 3859: 3810: 3758: 3663: 3563: 3514: 3493:Murphy KM, Ranganathan V, Farnsworth ML, 3434: 3373: 3302: 3232: 3061: 3036:Uren RT, Iyer S, Kluck RM (August 2017). 3012: 2971: 2903: 2854: 2844: 2819:Lee JK, Lu S, Madhukar A (October 2010). 2607: 2391: 2235: 2148:The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology 2122: 2073: 2063: 2045: 1239: 6571: 6522: 6424: 6306: 5320: 5213: 5178: 4938:Bratton SB, Salvesen GS (October 2010). 3355: 3084: 2545: 2200: 2174: 2000:Molecular Biology of the Cell (textbook) 1822: 1387: 1263: 1251: 1243: 1202: 1146: 1079: 675:Overview of signal transduction pathways 670: 626:to create a protein complex known as an 516:pathway) and the extrinsic pathway. The 502: 491: 321: 199:the cell kills itself because it senses 7156: 7072:"Finding Cancer's Self-Destruct Button" 6911: 6611: 6609: 6473: 6376: 6262: 5629: 5456: 5135: 4832:"The role of mitochondria in apoptosis" 4742: 3686: 1541:. The study of apoptosis brought on by 1308: 1287:X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein 724:model, both involving receptors of the 8445: 6871: 6737:Collazo C, Chacón O, Borrás O (2006). 6341: 6095: 5776: 5774: 4689: 4623: 4101: 3440: 3130: 3126: 3124: 2569:. Philadelphia: W.B Saunders Company. 2096: 1579:, it can be observed that OROV causes 1432:HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic 1130:: The cell breaks apart into multiple 796:. These receptors bind to the protein 47:quantitative phase-contrast microscopy 8032: 7640: 7130: 6654: 6529:Teodoro JG, Branton PE (March 1997). 6188:"AIDS Defining Criteria | Riley" 5851: 4165: 3175: 2953: 2726: 2631:Mattson MP, Chan SL (December 2003). 1971: 1883: 1843:), of which at most only 70 billion ( 1423:is due primarily to the depletion of 1272: 1174: 971:proteins or prosurvival factors like 924:Caspase-independent apoptotic pathway 6606: 5932:Journal of the Neurological Sciences 5365: 4024:The Journal of Experimental Medicine 3974: 3400:Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 2295: 2145: 1446:HIV proteins decrease the amount of 1163:. These molecules mark the cell for 846: 666: 567: 125:'falling off') is a form of 7906:Transcription preinitiation complex 7040:Apoptosis Video (WEHI on YouTube ) 6918: 5771: 5728: 5432:10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2017.0029 4848:10.1146/annurev-genet-102108-134850 4215:"Cell disassembly during apoptosis" 3486: 3291:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 3121: 2929:Current Signal Transduction Therapy 2596:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2567:Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease 2488: 2476: 2464: 2452: 2352: 2273:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2000.tb139362.x 1959: 507:Control of the apoptotic mechanisms 145:) and death. These changes include 13: 8205:Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer 7874:Signal transducing adaptor protein 5280:10.1016/B978-0-12-385493-3.00004-8 3747:Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 2947: 1471: 1410: 831:of the TNF family which binds the 495: 14: 8489: 6939: 3356:Gerl R, Vaux DL (February 2005). 2398:Apoptosis Interest Group (1999). 2379:from the original on 26 July 2021 1464:CD4+ cell count falls below 200. 8285:Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 8280:Tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 8128:Death-inducing signaling complex 7116:European Cell Death Organization 6946: 6865: 6730: 6681: 6205: 6179: 6136: 5819:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 5795:10.1111/j.1525-1438.2006.00384.x 5737:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 3791:Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin 3785:Jan R, Chaudhry GE (June 2019). 2633:"Calcium orchestrates apoptosis" 2261:The Medical Journal of Australia 1686: 1651:(as opposed to the more general 1225:transmission electron microscopy 955:Negative regulators of apoptosis 837:death-inducing signaling complex 692: 683: 526:death-inducing signaling complex 404: 353: 27: 8210:Bcl-2-associated death promoter 6618:The Journal of General Virology 6547:10.1128/jvi.71.3.1739-1746.1997 6108:The Journal of General Virology 5845: 5407: 5396:from the original on 2012-12-20 5263: 5100: 5089:from the original on 2022-04-30 5066: 5023: 4980: 4931: 4872: 4830:Wang C, Youle RJ (2009-12-01). 4823: 4788: 4777:from the original on 2022-04-30 4206: 4130: 3968: 3919: 3876: 3734: 3707: 3680: 3631: 3531: 3390: 3349: 3029: 2988: 2920: 2871: 2812: 2769: 2692:The Journal of Membrane Biology 2671:from the original on 2019-11-21 2583: 2494: 2252: 1904:from the original on 2020-07-26 1854: 1396: 652:proteins that inhibit apoptosis 234:of proteins inhibit apoptosis. 6694:Cell Death and Differentiation 6498:10.1016/j.virusres.2008.08.016 6409:10.1016/j.virusres.2009.12.013 5414:Vlahopoulos SA (August 2017). 3840:Cell Death and Differentiation 3544:Cell Death and Differentiation 3503:Cell Death and Differentiation 3001:Cell Death and Differentiation 2960:Cell Death and Differentiation 2139: 2090: 2028:Raychaudhuri S (August 2010). 2021: 1990: 1965: 1877: 1829: 1535:(OROV) is found in the family 1048:due to the degradation of DNA. 804: 786:TNF-alpha receptor superfamily 731: 1: 8244: 8070: 6921:Molecular Biology of the Cell 6327:10.1016/S0966-842X(99)01487-0 6081:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-4124 5587:10.1088/1478-3975/13/3/031001 5534:10.1016/S1383-5742(02)00009-1 5420:Cancer Biology & Medicine 5154:10.1016/S0076-6879(08)01416-X 1939:10.1016/S1536-1632(03)00024-6 1659:Caspase-independent apoptosis 1363: 1336: 1313:The tumor-suppressor protein 1068:differentiate apoptosis from 936:Apoptosis model in amphibians 811:Activation-induced cell death 743:produced mainly by activated 244:History of apoptosis research 6592:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2003.11.001 6437:Emerging Infectious Diseases 6291:10.1016/j.bbabio.2011.03.010 6038:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31829c5ec1 5944:10.1016/0022-510X(95)00336-Z 5652:10.1126/science.123.3191.309 5044:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90339-5 5001:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90339-5 3944:10.1016/j.celrep.2015.04.026 2846:10.1371/journal.pone.0013437 2065:10.1371/journal.pone.0011930 1871: 1417:human immunodeficiency virus 1350: 114: 7: 8262:Tumor necrosis factor alpha 7451:Maturation promoting factor 7121:Apoptosis signaling pathway 7045:The Mechanisms of Apoptosis 6640:10.1099/0022-1317-83-7-1547 6362:10.1016/j.cimid.2004.01.007 6190:. IU Health. Archived from 6186:Indiana University Health. 5238:10.1016/j.ymeth.2013.02.011 5199:10.1016/j.ymeth.2007.12.001 3989:10.1080/0891693031000105617 2565:Cotran RS, Kumar C (1998). 2503:Cell Biology and Toxicology 1725:induces apoptosis in human 1718:Apoptotic DNA fragmentation 1679: 1670:nuclear localization signal 903: 10: 8494: 7592:Postreplication checkpoint 6238:10.1038/s41598-017-09129-w 5866:10.2174/156652406777435390 5854:Current Molecular Medicine 5558:Kaczanowski S (May 2016). 4797:Experimental Cell Research 4104:Experimental Cell Research 3701:10.2174/187231311796765012 3497:, Lock RB (January 2000). 2941:10.2174/157436210791112172 2515:10.1007/s10565-019-09496-2 1558:). It is referred to as a 1367: 1076:Apoptotic cell disassembly 1033:, a hallmark of apoptosis. 808: 545:poly ADP ribose polymerase 483: 466:or the orders of insects: 241: 101: 39:DU145 prostate cancer cell 8428:Apoptosis-inducing factor 8379: 8293: 8270: 8252: 8243: 8182: 8123: 8114: 8096: 8078: 8069: 7958: 7928: 7891: 7866: 7843: 7834: 7806: 7760: 7753: 7678: 7600: 7572: 7519: 7483: 7474: 7418: 7390: 7333: 7240: 7167: 7019:Apoptosis Research Portal 6992:Apoptosis & Caspase 7 6982:Apoptosis & Caspase 8 6972:Apoptosis & Caspase 3 6784:10.1038/s41477-017-0020-x 6157:10.1080/08860220802134672 4836:Annual Review of Genetics 4761:10.1007/978-1-4020-9293-0 4263:10.1007/s10495-017-1345-7 3897:10.1007/s10495-018-1440-4 3412:10.1016/j.bmc.2018.08.016 3324:10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100764 3253:10.1126/stke.3822007tw132 2704:10.1007/s00232-009-9212-2 2425:"Definition of apoptosis" 2216:British Journal of Cancer 2115:10.1080/01926230701320337 1976:. Netherlands: Springer. 1666:apoptosis-inducing factor 1626: 1425:CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes 1256:A section of mouse liver 930:apoptosis-inducing factor 275:British Journal of Cancer 75: 63: 58: 26: 21: 8473:Medical aspects of death 7986:Neuroendocrine signaling 6840:10.1073/pnas.93.25.14559 5992:10.3389/fphys.2014.00522 4558:10.1378/chest.129.6.1673 3689:Current Chemical Biology 5979:Frontiers in Physiology 5703:10.1186/1743-422X-8-334 5343:10.1126/science.7878464 4944:Journal of Cell Science 4906:10.1073/pnas.94.15.8093 4710:10.1126/science.1092533 4656:10.1126/science.1087641 4601:10.1126/science.1087621 4384:Journal of Cell Science 4219:WikiJournal of Medicine 4139:Analytical Biochemistry 4081:10.1242/jcs.114.20.3643 4069:Journal of Cell Science 3461:10.1126/stke.3802007tr1 3204:10.1126/science.1071924 3153:10.1126/science.1071553 3099:10.1126/science.1062236 2954:Brüne B (August 2003). 2896:10.59566/IJBS.2009.5246 2747:10.1126/science.1074592 2160:10.1002/path.1700900210 1619:can cause apoptosis in 1415:The progression of the 331:Nobel Prize in Medicine 299:Nobel Prize in Medicine 238:Discovery and etymology 131:multicellular organisms 7848:cAMP-dependent pathway 7574:Cell cycle checkpoints 6752:: 1–10. Archived from 6746:Biotecnología Aplicada 6449:10.3201/eid1306.061114 6315:Trends in Microbiology 4809:10.1006/excr.2000.5027 4151:10.1006/abio.1994.1184 4116:10.1006/excr.2000.4834 3516:10.1038/sj.cdd.4400597 3304:10.1074/jbc.M502190200 3054:10.1098/rstb.2016.0218 3014:10.1038/sj.cdd.4400582 2973:10.1038/sj.cdd.4401261 2609:10.1074/jbc.m300190200 2097:Elmore S (June 2007). 1599:BHRF1 protein and the 1513:Canine distemper virus 1269: 1261: 1249: 1240:Implication in disease 1208: 1085: 875:) and anti-apoptotic ( 676: 508: 500: 489: 334: 270:University of Aberdeen 159:chromatin condensation 77:Anatomical terminology 8478:Programmed cell death 7974:Synaptic transmission 7970:Neurocrine signaling 7893:Transcription factors 7740:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway 7601:Other cellular phases 7325:CDK-activating kinase 6121:10.1099/vir.0.19110-0 4493:Nature Communications 4232:10.15347/wjm/2017.008 4036:10.1084/jem.192.4.571 3803:10.15171/apb.2019.024 3644:Journal of Cell Death 3375:10.1093/carcin/bgh283 3333:|...}} 3318:(Retracted, see 2103:Toxicologic Pathology 1823:Explanatory footnotes 1816:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway 1653:programmed cell death 1632:Programmed cell death 1388:Hyperactive apoptosis 1297:in cells of the H460 1267: 1255: 1247: 1217:time-lapse microscopy 1206: 1169:inflammatory response 1147:Removal of dead cells 1083: 1072:or toxic cell death. 829:transmembrane protein 777:transcription factors 714:tumor necrosis factor 674: 622:, which then bind to 506: 499: 492:Activation mechanisms 479: 325: 155:nuclear fragmentation 127:programmed cell death 45:video, created using 43:time-lapse microscopy 6912:General bibliography 6886:10.4014/jmb.0811.617 4950:(Pt 19): 3209–3214. 4390:(Pt 11): 2362–2374. 4075:(Pt 20): 3643–3653. 3852:10.1038/cdd.2017.186 3556:10.1038/cdd.2013.139 3233:Goeddel, DV (2007). 2649:10.1038/ncb1203-1041 1555:Culicoides paraensis 1497:Interaction with p53 1309:Dysregulation of p53 1221:flow fluorocytometry 226:. Some factors like 8463:Cellular senescence 8003:Mechanotransduction 7991:Exocrine signalling 7798:Signaling molecules 7672:Signal transduction 6996:The Proteolysis Map 6986:The Proteolysis Map 6976:The Proteolysis Map 6831:1996PNAS...9314559X 6825:(25): 14559–14563. 6706:10.1038/cdd.2011.36 6624:(Pt 7): 1547–1564. 6535:Journal of Virology 6230:2017NatSR...7.8957T 6114:(Pt 7): 1649–1661. 5644:1956Sci...123..309W 5579:2016PhBio..13c1001K 5526:2002MRRMR.511..145B 5490:10.1038/nature01850 5481:2003Natur.424..516T 5335:1995Sci...267.1456T 5329:(5203): 1456–1462. 4897:1997PNAS...94.8093M 4704:(5650): 1516–1517. 4648:2003Sci...302.1563W 4642:(5650): 1563–1566. 4593:2003Sci...302.1560O 4587:(5650): 1560–1563. 4505:2015NatCo...6.7439A 4456:10.1038/nature13147 4448:2014Natur.507..329P 4337:Nature Cell Biology 4294:Nature Cell Biology 4191:10.1681/ASN.V561307 3760:10.1530/JME-14-0327 3601:1999Natur.397..441S 3297:(49): 40985–40995. 3196:2002Sci...296.1634C 3190:(5573): 1634–1635. 3145:2002Sci...296.1635W 3139:(5573): 1635–1636. 3093:(5546): 1477–1478. 2837:2010PLoSO...513437L 2778:Nature Cell Biology 2637:Nature Cell Biology 2602:(34): 31861–31870. 2406:on 28 December 2006 2316:1988Natur.335..440V 2228:10.1038/bjc.1972.33 2056:2010PLoSO...511930R 1864:, a cancer patient. 1796:Mitotic catastrophe 1638:and the lack of an 1577:gel electrophoresis 782:autoimmune diseases 578:respire aerobically 443:). In English, the 8013:Ion channel gating 7745:Integrin receptors 7679:Signaling pathways 7587:Spindle checkpoint 7392:P53 p63 p73 family 7123:created by Cusabio 7104:2013-10-23 at the 7099:The Bcl-2 Database 7087:2013-10-29 at the 7065:2008-09-16 at the 7050:2018-03-09 at the 7012:2021-04-25 at the 6956:has a profile for 6218:Scientific Reports 4956:10.1242/jcs.073643 4513:10.1038/ncomms8439 3656:10.4137/JCD.S18368 3048:(1726): 20160218. 2267:(11–12): 616–617. 1597:Epstein-Barr virus 1519:, which activates 1273:Defective pathways 1270: 1262: 1250: 1209: 1175:Pathway knock-outs 1157:phosphatidylserine 1118:beaded apoptopodia 1086: 677: 657:cysteine proteases 645:) into the cell's 593:During apoptosis, 587:membrane potential 509: 501: 335: 8440: 8439: 8436: 8435: 8375: 8374: 8239: 8238: 8235: 8234: 8063:signaling pathway 8026: 8025: 8008:Phototransduction 7966:Intracrine action 7924: 7923: 7887: 7886: 7775:Neurotransmitters 7634: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7582:Restriction point 7060:Apoptosis pathway 6998: – animation 6988: – animation 6978: – animation 6962: 6669:(24): 6012–6016. 6075:(11): 4909–4917. 5901:10.1038/ng0195-21 5749:10.1002/jcb.21490 5638:(3191): 309–314. 5514:Mutation Research 5475:(6948): 516–523. 4891:(15): 8093–8098. 4770:978-1-4020-9292-3 4442:(7492): 329–334. 4396:10.1242/jcs.02959 3595:(6718): 441–446. 3441:Wajant H (2007). 3406:(17): 4804–4816. 2741:(5579): 200–201. 2643:(12): 1041–1043. 2576:978-0-7216-7335-6 2400:"About apoptosis" 2014:978-0-8153-4105-5 1983:978-1-4020-9597-9 1972:Karam JA (2009). 1897:978-0-87969-888-1 1606:hepatitis B virus 1526:intrinsic pathway 1517:extrinsic pathway 1506:cytotoxic T cells 1230:DNA fragmentation 1213:live cell imaging 1046:nucleosomal units 914:activator protein 887:) members of the 847:Common components 716:) model and the 667:Extrinsic pathway 568:Intrinsic pathway 522:extrinsic pathway 518:intrinsic pathway 452:consonant cluster 398:) and the second 307:H. Robert Horvitz 288:H. Robert Horvitz 248:German scientist 205:extrinsic pathway 197:intrinsic pathway 163:DNA fragmentation 124: 112: 91: 90: 86: 8485: 8384: 8383: 8250: 8249: 8121: 8120: 8076: 8075: 8053: 8046: 8039: 8030: 8029: 7979:Chemical synapse 7879:Scaffold protein 7841: 7840: 7836:Second messenger 7762:Receptor ligands 7758: 7757: 7661: 7654: 7647: 7638: 7637: 7481: 7480: 7151: 7144: 7137: 7128: 7127: 6960: 6950: 6949: 6934: 6906: 6905: 6869: 6863: 6862: 6852: 6842: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6767: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6743: 6734: 6728: 6727: 6717: 6700:(8): 1241–1246. 6685: 6679: 6678: 6658: 6652: 6651: 6633: 6613: 6604: 6603: 6586:(2–3): 211–227. 6575: 6569: 6568: 6558: 6541:(3): 1739–1746. 6526: 6520: 6519: 6509: 6492:(1–2): 139–143. 6477: 6471: 6470: 6460: 6428: 6422: 6421: 6411: 6387: 6374: 6373: 6345: 6339: 6338: 6310: 6304: 6303: 6293: 6269: 6260: 6259: 6249: 6209: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6199: 6183: 6177: 6176: 6140: 6134: 6133: 6123: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6064: 6058: 6057: 6021: 6015: 6014: 6004: 5994: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5884: 5878: 5877: 5849: 5843: 5842: 5813: 5807: 5806: 5778: 5769: 5768: 5743:(4): 1125–1143. 5732: 5726: 5725: 5715: 5705: 5690:Virology Journal 5681: 5664: 5663: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5611: 5605:. Archived from 5567:Physical Biology 5564: 5555: 5546: 5545: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5492: 5460: 5454: 5453: 5443: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5318: 5312: 5311: 5301: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5257: 5248:. Archived from 5217: 5211: 5210: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5094: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5027: 5021: 5020: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4967: 4935: 4929: 4928: 4918: 4908: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4859: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4782: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4721: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4683: 4674:. Archived from 4627: 4621: 4620: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4552:(6): 1673–1682. 4541: 4535: 4534: 4524: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4467: 4427: 4418: 4417: 4407: 4375: 4369: 4368: 4349:10.1038/35070019 4332: 4326: 4325: 4306:10.1038/35070009 4289: 4283: 4282: 4246: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4193: 4184:(6): 1307–1313. 4169: 4163: 4162: 4134: 4128: 4127: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4047: 4015: 4009: 4008: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3955: 3938:(7): 1079–1089. 3923: 3917: 3916: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3863: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3814: 3782: 3773: 3772: 3762: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3722:(1–3): 185–205. 3711: 3705: 3704: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3667: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3567: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3518: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3481: 3480: 3471:. Archived from 3438: 3432: 3431: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3377: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3334: 3316: 3306: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3273: 3272: 3263:. Archived from 3230: 3224: 3223: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3128: 3119: 3118: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3065: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3016: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2975: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2907: 2875: 2869: 2868: 2858: 2848: 2816: 2810: 2809: 2790:10.1038/35004029 2773: 2767: 2766: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2686: 2680: 2679: 2677: 2676: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2611: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2562: 2543: 2542: 2498: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2441: 2440: 2431:. Archived from 2421: 2415: 2414: 2412: 2411: 2402:. Archived from 2395: 2389: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2373:ahdictionary.com 2365: 2356: 2350: 2344: 2343: 2324:10.1038/335440a0 2299: 2293: 2292: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2239: 2207: 2198: 2197: 2195: 2194: 2185:. Archived from 2178: 2172: 2171: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2126: 2094: 2088: 2087: 2077: 2067: 2049: 2025: 2019: 2018: 2007:. p. 1115. 2003:(5th ed.). 1994: 1988: 1987: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1950: 1927:Mol Imaging Biol 1922: 1913: 1912: 1910: 1909: 1884:Green D (2011). 1881: 1865: 1858: 1852: 1850: 1848: 1842: 1840: 1833: 1696: 1691: 1690: 1674:calpain protease 1613:apoptotic bodies 1575:With the use of 1492:protein kinase R 1487:Receptor binding 1234:Western blotting 1138:, which undergo 1136:apoptotic bodies 1042:chromatin bodies 1027:nuclear envelope 696: 687: 557:adaptor proteins 486: 485: 442: 441: 438: 437: 434: 431: 428: 425: 422: 419: 416: 413: 410: 394: 388: 387: 384: 383: 380: 377: 374: 371: 368: 365: 362: 359: 254:Walther Flemming 186:apoptotic bodies 119: 117: 107: 105: 83:edit on Wikidata 80: 31: 19: 18: 8493: 8492: 8488: 8487: 8486: 8484: 8483: 8482: 8443: 8442: 8441: 8432: 8371: 8289: 8266: 8231: 8217:Anti-apoptotic: 8178: 8110: 8092: 8065: 8057: 8027: 8022: 7954: 7920: 7883: 7862: 7858:Lipid signaling 7830: 7802: 7749: 7674: 7665: 7635: 7626: 7616: 7596: 7568: 7515: 7510: 7496: 7476: 7470: 7414: 7386: 7329: 7236: 7163: 7155: 7106:Wayback Machine 7089:Wayback Machine 7067:Wayback Machine 7058:WikiPathways – 7052:Wayback Machine 7035:Apoptosis Video 7014:Wayback Machine 6968: 6967: 6966: 6951: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6931: 6914: 6909: 6870: 6866: 6811: 6807: 6778:(10): 773–779. 6768: 6764: 6756: 6741: 6735: 6731: 6686: 6682: 6663:Cancer Research 6659: 6655: 6631:10.1.1.322.6923 6614: 6607: 6576: 6572: 6527: 6523: 6478: 6474: 6429: 6425: 6388: 6377: 6346: 6342: 6311: 6307: 6270: 6263: 6210: 6206: 6197: 6195: 6184: 6180: 6141: 6137: 6100: 6096: 6069:Cancer Research 6065: 6061: 6022: 6018: 5971: 5967: 5928: 5924: 5889:Nature Genetics 5885: 5881: 5850: 5846: 5814: 5810: 5779: 5772: 5733: 5729: 5682: 5667: 5628: 5624: 5615: 5613: 5609: 5562: 5556: 5549: 5510: 5506: 5461: 5457: 5412: 5408: 5399: 5397: 5378:Cancer Research 5370: 5366: 5319: 5315: 5290: 5268: 5264: 5255: 5253: 5218: 5214: 5183: 5179: 5164: 5140: 5136: 5105: 5101: 5092: 5090: 5071: 5067: 5028: 5024: 4985: 4981: 4936: 4932: 4877: 4873: 4828: 4824: 4793: 4789: 4780: 4778: 4771: 4747: 4743: 4694: 4690: 4681: 4679: 4628: 4624: 4577: 4573: 4542: 4538: 4485: 4481: 4428: 4421: 4376: 4372: 4333: 4329: 4290: 4286: 4247: 4240: 4211: 4207: 4170: 4166: 4135: 4131: 4100: 4096: 4065: 4061: 4016: 4012: 3973: 3969: 3924: 3920: 3881: 3877: 3832: 3828: 3783: 3776: 3739: 3735: 3716:Human Evolution 3712: 3708: 3685: 3681: 3636: 3632: 3585: 3581: 3536: 3532: 3491: 3487: 3478: 3476: 3439: 3435: 3395: 3391: 3354: 3350: 3336: 3328: 3326: 3317: 3283: 3279: 3270: 3268: 3231: 3227: 3180: 3176: 3129: 3122: 3083: 3079: 3034: 3030: 3007:(10): 969–975. 2993: 2989: 2952: 2948: 2925: 2921: 2876: 2872: 2817: 2813: 2774: 2770: 2731: 2727: 2687: 2683: 2674: 2672: 2629: 2625: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2563: 2546: 2499: 2495: 2491:, p. 1024. 2487: 2483: 2479:, p. 1032. 2475: 2471: 2467:, p. 1023. 2463: 2459: 2455:, p. 1029. 2451: 2447: 2438: 2436: 2429:www.webster.com 2423: 2422: 2418: 2409: 2407: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2367: 2366: 2359: 2355:, p. 1021. 2351: 2347: 2310:(6189): 440–2. 2300: 2296: 2257: 2253: 2208: 2201: 2192: 2190: 2179: 2175: 2144: 2140: 2095: 2091: 2026: 2022: 2015: 2005:Garland Science 1995: 1991: 1984: 1970: 1966: 1958: 1954: 1923: 1916: 1907: 1905: 1898: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1868: 1862:Henrietta Lacks 1859: 1855: 1846: 1844: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1811:Pseudoapoptosis 1692: 1685: 1682: 1661: 1629: 1547:La Crosse virus 1533:Oropouche virus 1474: 1472:Viral infection 1419:infection into 1413: 1411:HIV progression 1399: 1390: 1372: 1366: 1353: 1339: 1311: 1275: 1242: 1201: 1177: 1149: 1078: 1062:electrophoresis 997: 961:drug resistance 957: 938: 926: 906: 849: 813: 807: 734: 706: 705: 704: 703: 699: 698: 697: 689: 688: 669: 570: 533:glucocorticoids 494: 407: 403: 392: 356: 352: 301:was awarded to 262:Alastair Currie 246: 240: 203:, while in the 176:In contrast to 129:that occurs in 87: 54: 51: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8491: 8481: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8458:Cell signaling 8455: 8438: 8437: 8434: 8433: 8431: 8430: 8424: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8392: 8390: 8381: 8377: 8376: 8373: 8372: 8370: 8369: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8328: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8306: 8305: 8299: 8297: 8291: 8290: 8288: 8287: 8282: 8276: 8274: 8268: 8267: 8265: 8264: 8258: 8256: 8247: 8241: 8240: 8237: 8236: 8233: 8232: 8230: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8213: 8212: 8207: 8201: 8196: 8194:Pro-apoptotic: 8190: 8188: 8180: 8179: 8177: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8160: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8143: 8142: 8137: 8131: 8130: 8124: 8118: 8112: 8111: 8109: 8108: 8102: 8100: 8094: 8093: 8091: 8090: 8084: 8082: 8073: 8067: 8066: 8056: 8055: 8048: 8041: 8033: 8024: 8023: 8021: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7999: 7998: 7988: 7983: 7982: 7981: 7976: 7968: 7962: 7960: 7959:Other concepts 7956: 7955: 7953: 7952: 7947: 7938: 7932: 7930: 7926: 7925: 7922: 7921: 7919: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7897: 7895: 7889: 7888: 7885: 7884: 7882: 7881: 7876: 7870: 7868: 7864: 7863: 7861: 7860: 7855: 7850: 7844: 7838: 7832: 7831: 7829: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7812: 7810: 7804: 7803: 7801: 7800: 7795: 7793:Growth factors 7790: 7785: 7772: 7766: 7764: 7755: 7751: 7750: 7748: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7711: 7710: 7705: 7695: 7690: 7688: 7682: 7680: 7676: 7675: 7668:Cell signaling 7664: 7663: 7656: 7649: 7641: 7632: 7631: 7628: 7627: 7625: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7610: 7604: 7602: 7598: 7597: 7595: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7578: 7576: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7566: 7561: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7525: 7523: 7517: 7516: 7514: 7513: 7508: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7487: 7478: 7472: 7471: 7469: 7468: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7422: 7420: 7416: 7415: 7413: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7396: 7394: 7388: 7387: 7385: 7384: 7366: 7339: 7337: 7331: 7330: 7328: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7246: 7244: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7234: 7220: 7202: 7188: 7173: 7171: 7165: 7164: 7154: 7153: 7146: 7139: 7131: 7125: 7124: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7096: 7091: 7079: 7069: 7056: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7024:Apoptosis Info 7021: 7016: 7004: 6999: 6989: 6979: 6952: 6945: 6944: 6943: 6941: 6940:External links 6938: 6936: 6935: 6930:978-0815344322 6929: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6907: 6880:(9): 946–950. 6864: 6805: 6762: 6759:on 2009-03-03. 6729: 6680: 6653: 6605: 6570: 6521: 6486:Virus Research 6472: 6443:(6): 912–915. 6423: 6396:Virus Research 6375: 6356:(6): 445–455. 6340: 6321:(4): 160–165. 6305: 6284:(6): 735–745. 6261: 6204: 6178: 6151:(6): 655–664. 6135: 6094: 6059: 6032:(4): 322–328. 6016: 5965: 5938:(2): 120–123. 5922: 5879: 5860:(4): 375–394. 5844: 5825:(2): 334–349. 5808: 5789:(2): 743–751. 5770: 5727: 5665: 5622: 5547: 5520:(2): 145–178. 5504: 5455: 5426:(3): 254–270. 5406: 5384:(4): 831–837. 5364: 5313: 5288: 5262: 5232:(2): 117–129. 5212: 5193:(3): 205–221. 5177: 5162: 5134: 5099: 5065: 5032:Brain Research 5022: 4989:Brain Research 4979: 4930: 4871: 4822: 4803:(2): 248–256. 4787: 4769: 4741: 4688: 4622: 4571: 4536: 4479: 4419: 4370: 4343:(4): 346–352. 4327: 4300:(4): 339–345. 4284: 4257:(3): 475–477. 4238: 4205: 4164: 4145:(2): 314–319. 4129: 4094: 4059: 4030:(4): 571–580. 4010: 3983:(3): 183–189. 3967: 3918: 3875: 3826: 3797:(2): 205–218. 3774: 3753:(3): 185–192. 3733: 3706: 3679: 3630: 3579: 3550:(2): 196–205. 3530: 3509:(1): 102–111. 3485: 3448:Science's STKE 3433: 3389: 3368:(2): 263–270. 3362:Carcinogenesis 3348: 3277: 3247:(382): tw132. 3240:Science's STKE 3225: 3174: 3120: 3077: 3028: 2987: 2966:(8): 864–869. 2946: 2935:(2): 181–186. 2919: 2890:(3): 246–256. 2870: 2831:(10): e13437. 2811: 2784:(3): 156–162. 2768: 2725: 2698:(1–3): 15–23. 2681: 2623: 2582: 2575: 2544: 2509:(2): 145–164. 2493: 2481: 2469: 2457: 2445: 2416: 2390: 2357: 2345: 2294: 2251: 2222:(4): 239–257. 2199: 2173: 2154:(2): 419–435. 2138: 2109:(4): 495–516. 2089: 2020: 2013: 1989: 1982: 1964: 1952: 1914: 1896: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1866: 1853: 1827: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1699: 1698: 1697: 1694:Biology portal 1681: 1678: 1660: 1657: 1655:) is unclear. 1628: 1625: 1510: 1509: 1502:natural killer 1498: 1495: 1490:Activation of 1488: 1473: 1470: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1444: 1441: 1412: 1409: 1398: 1395: 1389: 1386: 1365: 1362: 1352: 1349: 1338: 1335: 1310: 1307: 1274: 1271: 1241: 1238: 1200: 1197: 1176: 1173: 1148: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1125: 1101: 1077: 1074: 1050: 1049: 1034: 1023: 1020: 996: 993: 956: 953: 943:Xenopus laevis 937: 934: 925: 922: 905: 902: 848: 845: 809:Main article: 806: 803: 733: 730: 701: 700: 691: 690: 682: 681: 680: 679: 678: 668: 665: 569: 566: 493: 490: 303:Sydney Brenner 242:Main article: 239: 236: 151:cell shrinkage 89: 88: 79: 73: 72: 67: 61: 60: 56: 55: 32: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8490: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8450: 8448: 8429: 8426: 8425: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8393: 8391: 8389: 8388:Intracellular 8385: 8382: 8378: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8329: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8307: 8304: 8301: 8300: 8298: 8296: 8295:Intracellular 8292: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8277: 8275: 8273: 8269: 8263: 8260: 8259: 8257: 8255: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8242: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8214: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8191: 8189: 8187: 8186: 8181: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8161: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8132: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8116:Intracellular 8113: 8107: 8104: 8103: 8101: 8099: 8095: 8089: 8086: 8085: 8083: 8081: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8061: 8054: 8049: 8047: 8042: 8040: 8035: 8034: 8031: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7997: 7994: 7993: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7969: 7967: 7964: 7963: 7961: 7957: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7933: 7931: 7927: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7898: 7896: 7894: 7890: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7869: 7865: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7833: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7821:Intracellular 7819: 7817: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7809: 7805: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7783:Neurohormones 7780: 7779:Neuropeptides 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7767: 7765: 7763: 7759: 7756: 7752: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7730:Fas apoptosis 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7700: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7662: 7657: 7655: 7650: 7648: 7643: 7642: 7639: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7605: 7603: 7599: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7579: 7577: 7575: 7571: 7565: 7562: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7522: 7518: 7512: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7491: 7490: 7488: 7486: 7482: 7479: 7473: 7466: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7423: 7421: 7417: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7397: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7367: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7341: 7340: 7338: 7336: 7335:CDK inhibitor 7332: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7245: 7243: 7239: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7221: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7203: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7189: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7175: 7174: 7172: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7159: 7152: 7147: 7145: 7140: 7138: 7133: 7132: 7129: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7103: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7086: 7083: 7080: 7077: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7064: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6997: 6993: 6990: 6987: 6983: 6980: 6977: 6973: 6970: 6969: 6964: 6963: 6955: 6932: 6926: 6922: 6917: 6916: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6868: 6860: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6809: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6777: 6773: 6772:Nature Plants 6766: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6740: 6733: 6725: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6684: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6657: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6612: 6610: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6574: 6566: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6525: 6517: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6476: 6468: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6427: 6419: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6380: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6344: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6309: 6301: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6268: 6266: 6257: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6208: 6194:on 2013-05-26 6193: 6189: 6182: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6145:Renal Failure 6139: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6063: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6020: 6012: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5969: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5926: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5883: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5848: 5840: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5812: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5777: 5775: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5731: 5723: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5680: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5672: 5670: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5626: 5612:on 2019-04-28 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5573:(3): 031001. 5572: 5568: 5561: 5554: 5552: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5508: 5500: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5459: 5451: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5410: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5317: 5309: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5291: 5289:9780123854933 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5266: 5252:on 2019-11-05 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5216: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5163:9780123743121 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5146: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5069: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5026: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4983: 4975: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4934: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4842:(1): 95–118. 4841: 4837: 4833: 4826: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4791: 4776: 4772: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4753: 4745: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4678:on 2021-04-14 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4575: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4540: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4475: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4426: 4424: 4415: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4374: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4243: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4201: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4014: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3891:(2): 93–112. 3890: 3886: 3879: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3830: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3781: 3779: 3770: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3702: 3698: 3695:(3): 155–62. 3694: 3690: 3683: 3675: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3609:10.1038/17135 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3534: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3489: 3475:on 2009-05-03 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3449: 3444: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3340: 3332: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3267:on 2009-07-10 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3241: 3236: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3125: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3032: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2923: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2874: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2772: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2685: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2578: 2572: 2568: 2561: 2559: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2497: 2490: 2485: 2478: 2473: 2466: 2461: 2454: 2449: 2435:on 2007-07-03 2434: 2430: 2426: 2420: 2405: 2401: 2394: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2364: 2362: 2354: 2349: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2298: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2255: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2206: 2204: 2189:on 2007-11-13 2188: 2184: 2177: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2142: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2093: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2040:(8): e11930. 2039: 2035: 2031: 2024: 2016: 2010: 2006: 2002: 2001: 1993: 1985: 1979: 1975: 1968: 1961: 1956: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1921: 1919: 1903: 1899: 1893: 1889: 1888: 1880: 1876: 1863: 1857: 1832: 1828: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1695: 1689: 1684: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1640:immune system 1637: 1633: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1592: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1556: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1496: 1493: 1489: 1486: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1469: 1465: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1408: 1405: 1394: 1385: 1381: 1378: 1371: 1361: 1358: 1355:Apoptosis in 1348: 1345: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1295:overexpressed 1292: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1266: 1259: 1254: 1246: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1205: 1196: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1153:efferocytosis 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1128:Fragmentation 1126: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1114:feet of death 1111: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1082: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1066:DNA laddering 1063: 1059: 1055: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1003: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 952: 950: 945: 944: 933: 931: 921: 919: 915: 910: 901: 899: 894: 890: 886: 885: 880: 879: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 844: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 812: 802: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 729: 727: 723: 721: 715: 711: 695: 686: 673: 664: 662: 658: 654: 653: 648: 644: 639: 637: 633: 629: 625: 624:pro-caspase-9 621: 617: 616: 611: 607: 603: 599: 598: 591: 588: 584: 579: 575: 565: 563: 558: 554: 548: 546: 542: 538: 534: 529: 527: 523: 519: 515: 514:mitochondrial 505: 498: 488: 478: 475: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 450: 447:of the Greek 446: 440: 401: 397: 396: 386: 350: 345: 341: 332: 328: 324: 320: 318: 317: 312: 308: 304: 300: 295: 291: 289: 285: 281: 277: 276: 271: 267: 266:Andrew Wyllie 264:, as well as 263: 259: 255: 251: 245: 235: 233: 229: 228:Fas receptors 225: 221: 216: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 174: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 122: 116: 110: 104: 99: 98:Ancient Greek 95: 84: 78: 74: 71: 68: 66: 62: 57: 53: 48: 44: 40: 36: 30: 25: 20: 8216: 8193: 8185:Bcl-2 family 8183: 8164:Cytochrome c 8106:Fas receptor 8059: 8018:Gap junction 7853:Ca signaling 7816:Cell surface 7729: 7607: 7543:Prometaphase 7075: 6958: 6920: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6822: 6818: 6808: 6775: 6771: 6765: 6754:the original 6749: 6745: 6732: 6697: 6693: 6683: 6666: 6662: 6656: 6621: 6617: 6583: 6579: 6573: 6538: 6534: 6524: 6489: 6485: 6475: 6440: 6436: 6426: 6402:(1): 56–63. 6399: 6395: 6353: 6349: 6343: 6318: 6314: 6308: 6281: 6277: 6221: 6217: 6207: 6196:. Retrieved 6192:the original 6181: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6111: 6107: 6097: 6072: 6068: 6062: 6029: 6025: 6019: 5982: 5978: 5968: 5935: 5931: 5925: 5895:(1): 21–30. 5892: 5888: 5882: 5857: 5853: 5847: 5822: 5818: 5811: 5786: 5782: 5740: 5736: 5730: 5693: 5689: 5635: 5631: 5625: 5614:. Retrieved 5607:the original 5570: 5566: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5423: 5419: 5409: 5398:. Retrieved 5381: 5377: 5367: 5326: 5322: 5316: 5271: 5265: 5254:. Retrieved 5250:the original 5229: 5225: 5215: 5190: 5186: 5180: 5144: 5137: 5112: 5108: 5102: 5091:. Retrieved 5082: 5078: 5068: 5035: 5031: 5025: 4992: 4988: 4982: 4947: 4943: 4933: 4888: 4884: 4874: 4839: 4835: 4825: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4779:. Retrieved 4755:. Springer. 4751: 4744: 4701: 4697: 4691: 4680:. Retrieved 4676:the original 4639: 4635: 4625: 4584: 4580: 4574: 4549: 4545: 4539: 4496: 4492: 4482: 4439: 4435: 4387: 4383: 4373: 4340: 4336: 4330: 4297: 4293: 4287: 4254: 4250: 4222: 4218: 4208: 4181: 4177: 4167: 4142: 4138: 4132: 4110:(1): 12–18. 4107: 4103: 4097: 4072: 4068: 4062: 4027: 4023: 4013: 3980: 3977:Autoimmunity 3976: 3970: 3935: 3932:Cell Reports 3931: 3921: 3888: 3884: 3878: 3846:(1): 65–80. 3843: 3839: 3829: 3794: 3790: 3750: 3746: 3736: 3719: 3715: 3709: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3647: 3643: 3633: 3592: 3588: 3582: 3547: 3543: 3533: 3506: 3502: 3495:Kavallaris M 3488: 3477:. Retrieved 3473:the original 3455:(380): tr1. 3452: 3446: 3436: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3365: 3361: 3351: 3337:{{ 3329:{{ 3294: 3290: 3280: 3269:. Retrieved 3265:the original 3244: 3238: 3228: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3136: 3132: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3045: 3041: 3031: 3004: 3000: 2990: 2963: 2959: 2949: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2828: 2824: 2814: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2673:. Retrieved 2640: 2636: 2626: 2599: 2595: 2585: 2566: 2506: 2502: 2496: 2484: 2472: 2460: 2448: 2437:. Retrieved 2433:the original 2428: 2419: 2408:. Retrieved 2404:the original 2393: 2381:. Retrieved 2372: 2348: 2307: 2303: 2297: 2264: 2260: 2254: 2219: 2215: 2191:. Retrieved 2187:the original 2176: 2151: 2147: 2141: 2106: 2102: 2092: 2037: 2033: 2023: 1999: 1992: 1973: 1967: 1962:, p. 2. 1955: 1930: 1926: 1906:. Retrieved 1886: 1879: 1856: 1831: 1751:Cytotoxicity 1662: 1652: 1648: 1630: 1612: 1610: 1593: 1589: 1585:cytochrome C 1574: 1567: 1553: 1551: 1543:Bunyaviridae 1542: 1538:Bunyaviridae 1536: 1530: 1511: 1482: 1475: 1466: 1462: 1438:procaspase-8 1437: 1433: 1414: 1400: 1391: 1382: 1373: 1354: 1340: 1330: 1322: 1312: 1303:cytochrome c 1286: 1280: 1276: 1210: 1193: 1178: 1165:phagocytosis 1150: 1140:phagocytosis 1135: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1087: 1064:. Tests for 1054:endonuclease 1051: 1045: 1041: 1038:karyorrhexis 1017:lamellipodia 1010: 998: 958: 941: 939: 927: 907: 888: 882: 876: 856: 852: 850: 840: 836: 824: 820: 817:fas receptor 814: 735: 726:TNF receptor 725: 717: 709: 707: 650: 640: 635: 623: 613: 609: 596: 592: 583:nitric oxide 574:Mitochondria 571: 553:mitochondria 549: 530: 521: 517: 510: 480: 476: 448: 444: 402:pronounced ( 399: 348: 336: 327:John Sulston 314: 311:John Sulston 296: 292: 279: 273: 247: 232:Bcl-2 family 217: 211:, which are 204: 196: 194: 175: 93: 92: 7929:By distance 7867:Assistants: 7826:Co-receptor 7564:Cytokinesis 7533:Preprophase 7477:checkpoints 6961:(Q29892216) 6224:(1): 8957. 5115:(1): 1–20. 5038:(1): 7–12. 4995:(1): 7–12. 1933:(1): 2–14. 1776:Necrobiosis 1766:Homeostasis 1761:Ferroptosis 1211:Label-free 1110:apoptopodia 1106:microtubule 918:proteolytic 805:Fas pathway 745:macrophages 732:TNF pathway 710:TNF-induced 595:cytochrome 472:lepidoptera 456:pterodactyl 340:Hippocrates 201:cell stress 139:Biochemical 59:Identifiers 8468:Immunology 8447:Categories 8088:Fas ligand 7996:Pheromones 7936:Juxtacrine 7485:Interphase 7475:Phases and 7158:Cell cycle 6959:Apoptosis 6198:2013-01-20 5696:(1): 334. 5616:2019-12-26 5400:2008-09-04 5256:2019-11-05 5093:2016-03-08 5085:(1): 1–7. 4781:2017-08-28 4682:2017-02-26 3479:2004-01-01 3271:2004-01-01 2675:2018-05-18 2439:2007-08-11 2410:2006-12-15 2193:2007-03-30 1908:2020-05-25 1806:Paraptosis 1786:Necrotaxis 1771:Immunology 1730:U937 cells 1723:Atromentin 1601:adenovirus 1570:HeLa cells 1397:Treatments 1370:MiCK assay 1364:Treatments 1337:Inhibition 1327:cell cycle 1319:interferon 1181:knock-outs 1161:scramblase 1122:Pannexin 1 1060:gel after 893:homodimers 851:Following 833:Fas ligand 628:apoptosome 464:helicopter 316:C. elegans 190:phagocytes 143:morphology 8453:Apoptosis 8320:Caspase 3 8315:Caspase 8 8174:Caspase 3 8169:Caspase 9 8152:Caspase 8 8060:Apoptosis 7950:Endocrine 7945:Paracrine 7941:Autocrine 7808:Receptors 7788:Cytokines 7608:Apoptosis 7558:Telophase 7548:Metaphase 7343:INK4a/ARF 6626:CiteSeerX 6026:Neurology 5109:Cytometry 4251:Apoptosis 3885:Apoptosis 3728:0393-9375 3650:: 25–31. 3625:204991081 3339:retracted 3331:retracted 2539:208869679 2523:1573-6822 2047:1009.2294 1872:Citations 1746:Cisplatin 1741:Autophagy 1736:Autolysis 1649:apoptosis 1636:cell wall 1563:arbovirus 1351:HeLa cell 1299:cell line 940:The frog 737:TNF-alpha 722:-mediated 636:caspase-3 632:caspase-9 484:ἀπόπτωσις 297:The 2002 280:apoptosis 258:John Kerr 250:Carl Vogt 213:proteases 115:apóptōsis 109:romanized 103:ἀπόπτωσις 94:Apoptosis 37:-treated 35:etoposide 22:Apoptosis 8411:Survivin 8272:Receptor 8245:TNF path 8098:Receptor 8071:Fas path 7770:Hormones 7720:JAK-STAT 7708:MAPK/ERK 7703:TGF beta 7553:Anaphase 7538:Prophase 7161:proteins 7102:Archived 7085:Archived 7063:Archived 7048:Archived 7010:Archived 6902:11552839 6894:19809251 6792:28947814 6724:21494263 6648:12075073 6600:14996505 6516:18840482 6467:17553235 6418:20080135 6370:15325517 6335:10217831 6300:21453675 6256:28827668 6173:25787186 6165:18661417 6130:12810858 6089:15930313 6054:22792702 6046:23843468 6011:25642192 5960:44329454 5917:20016461 5874:16900661 5839:10842327 5803:16681755 5757:17668439 5722:21718481 5660:13298683 5595:27172135 5542:12052432 5499:12872134 5450:28884042 5394:Archived 5390:12591734 5359:12991980 5308:21722800 5246:23473780 5207:18314051 5172:18662577 5087:Archived 5060:22542598 5017:22542598 4974:20844150 4866:19659442 4817:11035919 4775:Archived 4736:13402617 4728:14645835 4719:1842/448 4672:25672278 4664:14645848 4617:36252352 4609:14645847 4566:16778289 4531:26074490 4499:: 7439. 4474:24646995 4414:16723742 4365:36187702 4357:11283607 4314:11283606 4279:34648758 4271:28102458 4124:10739646 4089:11707516 4054:10952727 4005:37887253 3997:12911286 3962:25959823 3905:29322476 3870:29149100 3821:31380246 3769:25791374 3674:25374461 3574:24162660 3525:10713725 3469:84909531 3428:52149418 3420:30177492 3384:15375012 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